28 points total

Laboratory 10: What As these fluids move the large molecules

tangle and resist flow. As a result, these
Controls Magma Viscosity? fluids are more viscous than water. Heat
tends to break hydrocarbon molecules into
Before Attending Lab This Week... smaller pieces, which reduces the viscosity.
...read this introductory material. Think of hot tar versus cool tar or hot motor
oil versus cool motor oil.
Purpose of This Lab
An estimated 500 million people live What is magma?
within site of potentially active volcanoes. Magma is molten rock composed of
The level of risk these people face depends varying amounts silicon and oxygen,
mainly on the way in which their together with many different kinds of metal
neighborhood volcano tends to erupt. Some ions, such as iron, magnesium, and
volcanoes produce colorful and relatively aluminum. Silicon tends to bond with four
peaceful lava flows that threaten buildings at oxygen atoms to form a tetrahedral-shaped
the foot of the volcano, but seldom result in molecule (silica). The oxygen atoms within
the loss of human life. Other volcanoes the tetrahedra tend to bond with other
tend to erupt explosively, blasting super-hot atoms, forming larger molecules.
gas, ash and boulders across the
surrounding countryside, and in the process If metal ions are present, the oxygen
kill virtually everyone within the affected atoms form relatively weak bonds with them
region. The difference between these two and the tetrahedra are still able to slide
eruptive styles is controlled primarily by the easily past each other as the magma flows.
viscosity of the magma erupted by the These magmas, with relative high
volcanoes. Low-viscosity magmas tend to percentages of metal ions (> 50%), have
erupt peacefully. High-viscosity magmas relatively low viscosities.
tend to erupt explosively. These different
eruptive styles also produce distinctive If too few metal ions are present, the
volcano shapes. We will study factors that oxygen atoms are forced to bond to each
control magma viscosity in this lab. other, forming long chains and sheets of
connected silica tetrahedra. These chains
What is Viscosity? and sheets tangle as the magma flows,
Viscosity is a physical property of resulting in higher viscosities.
fluids that characterizes how easily a fluid
flows. The metric units of viscosity are Silica molecules can also form
Pascal – seconds. relatively weak bonds with water, effectively
Low-viscosity fluids flow easily and cutting the tetrahedral chains. Hence, the
are called "runny". introduction of water into a magma also
High-viscosity fluids resist flow and reduces its viscosity.
are called "thick".
The size and shape of the molecules How can we Study Viscosity?
that make up a fluid control its viscosity. Studying the properties of magma in
Water, for example, is a relatively low- the laboratory is made inconvenient by the
viscosity fluid, because the H2O molecule is fact that rocks melt at temperatures on the
relatively small and compact. Hence, water order of 1000°C. Fortunately, there are
molecules slide easily past each other as more practical alternative materials that
water flows. In contrast, natural occurring display many of the properties of magma at
hydrocarbon fluids, such as tar and crude room temperature - corn syrup and special
oil, are composed of large molecules of waxes.
hydrogen, carbon and oxygen that form long
chains and rings.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-1
 In this lab, we will use corn syrup
and molten wax as analogs to magma to To measure the viscosity accurately,
study how the introduction of heat, water, for this lab, it is necessary to pour fluid and
and gas bubbles influences viscosity. time the drainage process in the same way
each time. Use the following procedure:
Measuring Viscosity
Viscosity in magmas varies in
response to several changing variables of
state, composition, and environment. This
lab is a series of explorations of viscosity, (1) One person should pour the fluid and
using common corn syrup as a physical another person should man the
analog for silicate magma. We know stopwatch.
intuitively that runny (low-viscosity) fluids (2) The timer should start the watch at the
pour rapidly and thick (high-viscosity) fluids instant the pourer begins to pour the
pour slowly. It turns out we can use this fluid.
difference to our advantage. We will (3) The pourer should measure out
measure viscosity simply pouring the fluid precisely 100 ml of the fluid.
into a funnel and measuring the time it (4) The pourer should aim the pour so that
takes for the fluid to drain out of the funnel. the fluid hits a “bull’s eye” target
The more time it takes the fluid to drain, the drawn inside the funnel (Figure 10-2).
greater the viscosity (Figure 10-1). (5) The pourer should watch the fluid
drain and say “stop” when the fluid
level reaches the bottom of the funnel
cone (Figure 10-3).
(6) The timer should stop the stopwatch
at the instant the pourer says “stop”.
(7) Convert the elapsed time into a
quantitative measure of viscosity by
looking it up on the graph of viscosity
versus drain time (Figure 10-5, 10-6).
If the recorded drain time exceeds the
50 s limit of Figure 10-6, look the time
up on the extended chart available at
each station.

Figure 10-1. The viscosity of a fluid can be

measured by determining the length of time Figure 10-2. Cut-away drawing of the
it takes the fluid to drain out of a funnel. calibrated funnel. The “bull’s eye” is marked
inside the funnel.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-2
 Figure 10-4. Stop the stopwatch at the
instant the fluid reaches the bottom of the
funnel cone.

Figure 10-3. Aim to pour the fluid so that it

hits the bull’s eye. Start the stopwatch at
the instant the fluid pour begins. Figure 10-5. Converting drainage time to
viscosity using graph. Find the drain time
you measured on the x-axis, follow that time
up until you reach the curve, and then follow
that horizontal line over to the Viscosity axis.
Read the viscosity value related to the
measured drain time.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

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Figure 10-6. Viscosity versus drain time graph for calibrated funnels

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-4
 Group Project 10-1: Does Temperature Affect Magma Viscosity?
We know from experience as heat is added to a solid, like rocks, there comes a point at
which the solid melts and turns into a liquid. What is happening is that the vibration of the atoms
has become so violent, that the bonds that hold the atoms in the fixed arrangement within the
solid are broken and the atoms become free to move.

As the temperature of a melt goes up, the increased molecular vibration breaks the chains
of silica and makes them shorter. The shorter the chains, the less they tangle as the melt flows
and the lower the viscosity becomes. This process is reversible. As the temperature decreases,
the chains reform and the viscosity goes back up.

It would be difficult and somewhat dangerous to experiment with the affect temperature has
on real silicate melts in our lab. Silicates typically melt at about 1000 ºC. Instead, we will use
corn syrup, which is a solution of sugar and water. In this project we will measure how changes
in temperature change the viscosity of corn syrup as an analogy to how changes in temperature
change the viscosity of magma.

Step 1: Measure the viscosity of corn syrup at room temperature.

To measure the viscosity of corn syrup at room temperature, follow the instructions in the
introduction. Using corn syrup in the project area that is at room temperature, carefully pour a
100 ml volume into the measuring cup provided.

Identify one person in your group to be the timer and another person to pour the syrup

Rapidly tip the measuring cup so that its volume is very quickly poured into the top of the
funnel, aiming for the “bull’s eye” drawn on the inside wall of the funnel.

The timer’s responsibility is to start the stopwatch as the pour is started and to stop the
stopwatch as upper surface of the syrup is even with the base of the funnel cone.

Make sure you place a receiver cup under the funnel to catch the syrup after it passes
through the funnel. Convert the drain time to viscosity by looking it up on the graph of Viscosity
versus Drain Time, which is Figure 10-6 in the introduction or the extended chart at this station.
Record these measurements on your answer sheet.

Next, use the digital thermometer to measure the temperature of the syrup in the receiver
cup, and record the temperature on your answer sheet. Plot the viscosity you measured as a
point on the viscosity versus the temperature graph space on the answer sheet.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-5
Step 2: Measure the viscosity of corn syrup at a higher temperature.
Re-using the room-temperature corn syrup from the previous experiment (supplementing it
with new syrup as needed), carefully pour a 100 ml volume of corn syrup into the measuring cup
provided. Note and record the actual volume of syrup in the measuring cup. Place the
measuring cup in the microwave oven located at the side of the room, and zap it for 10 seconds.
Carefully remove the cup from the microwave oven. Place a receiver cup under the funnel to
catch the syrup after it passes through the funnel. When all is ready, pour the hot syrup into the
funnel and measure the time needed for it to fall to the bottom of the funnel cone as in Step 1.
Then immediately use the digital thermometer to measure the temperature of the syrup in the
receiver cup. Use the graph in Figure 10-6 or the extended chart at this station to determine the
viscosity of the hot corn syrup from its drain time. Record your measurements on the answer
sheet. Plot the viscosity you measured versus the temperature of the hot corn syrup in the graph
space provided on the answer sheet. So that the materials used in this lab project can be
used in later labs, pour the hot syrup into the container provided at this station marked
USED HOT SYRUP.

Step 3: Measure the viscosity of corn syrup at a lower temperature.

Near this project area you will find an ice chest with a container of corn syrup kept below
room temperature. Carefully pour a 100 ml volume of corn syrup into the measuring cup
provided. Note and record the actual volume of syrup in the measuring cup. Measure the drain
time of the cold syrup using the same procedure used in Steps 1 and 2. Use the digital
thermometer to measure the temperature of the syrup in the receiver cup. Use the graph
provided (Figure 10-6 or the extended chart at this station) to determine the viscosity of the cool
corn syrup. Record your measurements on the answer sheet. Plot the viscosity you measured
versus the temperature of the corn syrup in the graph space provided on the answer sheet and
connect the dots from Steps 1, 2 and 3 to form a continuous curve.

So that the materials used in this lab project will be ready for the next group to use,
pour the cold syrup back into the COLD SYRUP container and return it to the ice chest.
Rinse and dry the funnel and the various cups used in these experiments.

DO NOT WASH/SUBMERGE THE ELECTRONIC DIGITAL

THERMOMETER!

If the drain time of the cold syrup exceeds 2 minutes, use 2 minutes as the
drain time and read the viscosity from the extended scale.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

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 6 points on this page

Name: ___________________________ Group No: _______Section: ______________

Answer Sheet 10-1: Does Temperature Affect Magma Viscosity?

Step 1: Room temperature syrup: 1 point per line (not fluid volume)

Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) Temperature (ºC) Viscosity (dPa-s)

Step 2: Hot syrup:

Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) Temperature (ºC) Viscosity (dPa-s)

Step 3: Cold syrup:

Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) Temperature (ºC) Viscosity (dPa-s)

3 points for
graph

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-7
 4 points on this page

Name: ___________________________ Group No: _______Section: ______________

Answer Sheet 10-1 continued: Does Temperature Affect Magma Viscosity?

Questions about viscosity versus temperature: (1 point each)

1. Given the results of this project, what would the viscosity of the syrup be for syrup heated to
50ºC?

____________________________________________________________________________

2. Assuming that corn syrup is a reasonable analog for magma, how does changing temperature
affect the viscosity of magma?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Sometimes during the lab week, the cold corn syrup will warm up slightly if not put back in the ice
chest or if it hasn't had sufficient time to cool. If your group measures a short drain time for the cold
syrup (low viscosity), would you consider your results to be reasonable? Why/why not? ________

______________________________________________________________________________

4. Other than the situation described in question 3, discuss any other sources of error in this activity
and how they can be minimized. _____________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

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 Group Project 10-2: Does the Water Content Affect the Viscosity of Magma?
In the introduction to this lab the case is made that the viscosity of magma is controlled by
the number and length of chains of silica tetrahedra in the melt. Individually, the silica tetrahedra
are composed of one silica atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. If no metal ion is available,
the oxygen atoms in the tetrahedral bound to the oxygen atoms of other tetrahedra to form the
chains. The chains tangle and the tangles resist the flow of the melt.

Anything that acts to change the length of the chains influences the viscosity of the melt.

The oxygen atoms in the tetrahedral are not particular. If a water molecule (which also
contains oxygen atoms) is available, it can interject itself into the chain of silica atoms.

The more water that is present in the melt, the more the silica chains are cut and the lower
the viscosity of the melt becomes. This process is reversible. If the water evaporates from the
melt, the silica chains reform and the viscosity goes back up.

In this project we will measure how changes in water content change the viscosity of corn
syrup as an analogy to how changes in water content change the viscosity of magma.

Step 1: Measure the viscosity of normal corn syrup

In this project area you will find three containers of corn syrup. One container, marked 0%
water content change, is simply corn syrup right out of the bottle. Another container, marked
+5% water content, is normal corn syrup to which water equal to 5% of its volume has been
added (dyed green). The remaining container, marked –5% water content, is normal corn syrup
that has been boiled until 5% of its original volume was lost (dyed red). For step 1, use the 0%
water content change corn syrup. Carefully pour a 100 ml volume of the syrup into the
measuring cup provided.

Measure the viscosity of the fluid using the method described in the introduction.

Identify one person in your group to be the timer and another person to pour the syrup.

Rapidly tip the measuring cup so that its volume is very quickly poured into the top of the
funnel, aiming for the “bull’s eye” drawn on the inside wall of the funnel.

The timer’s responsibility is to start the stopwatch as the pour is started and to stop the
stopwatch as upper surface of the syrup is even with the base of the funnel cone.

Make sure you place a receiver cup under the funnel to catch the syrup after it passes
through the funnel. Convert the drain time to viscosity by looking it up on the graph of Viscosity
versus Drain Time, which is Figure 10-6 in the introduction or the extended chart at this station.
Record these measurements on your answer sheet. Record your measurements, and plot the
viscosity versus water content on the graph space provided on the answer sheet.

Pour the normal syrup back into the container mark as 0% WATER CHANGE for the next
group and go on to Step 2. DO NOT MIX SYRUPS OF DIFFERENT WATER CONTENT!

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-9
Step 2: Measure the viscosity of corn syrup plus 5% added water by volume
Repeat Step 1, except this time use 100 ml from the container marked +5% water content
(dyed green). Place a receiver cup under the funnel to catch the syrup after it passes through
the funnel. Record your measurements, and plot the viscosity of the syrup-water mixture in the
graph space provided on the answer sheet.
Pour the syrup-water mixture back into the container marked +5% WATER CHANGE and
go onto Step 3. DO NOT MIX SYRUPS OF DIFFERENT WATER CONTENT!

Step 3: Measure the viscosity of corn syrup with 5% water removed by volume
Repeat Step 1, except this time use 100 ml from the container marked -5% water content
(dyed red). Place a receiver cup under the funnel to catch the syrup after it passes through the
funnel. Record your measurements, and plot the viscosity of the syrup-water mixture in the
graph space provided on the answer sheet.
Pour the syrup-water mixture back into the container marked -5% WATER CHANGE.
Rinse and dry the funnel and the various cups used in these experiments.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-10
 6 points on this page

Name: ___________________________ Group No: _______Section: ______________

Answer Sheet 10-2: Does the Water Content Affect the Viscosity of Magma?

Step 1: Viscosity of normal syrup: 1 point per line (not fluid volume)
Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) % Water Change Viscosity (dPa-s)

Step 2: Viscosity of syrup +5% water:

Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) % Water Change Viscosity (dPa-s)

+5

Steps 3: Viscosity of syrup –5% water:

Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) % Water Change Viscosity (dPa-s)

-5

3 points for
graph

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-11
 4 points on this page

Name: ___________________________ Group No: _______Section: ______________

Answer Sheet 10-2 continued: Does the Water Content Affect the Viscosity of
Magma?
Questions: (1 point each)

1. Given the results of this project, what would the viscosity of the syrup be for syrup plus 10%
added water?

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Assuming that corn syrup is a reasonable analog for magma, how does changing water
content affect the viscosity of magma?

_____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

3. Sometimes students accidentally mix the +5% (green) and -5% (red) syrups. Discuss your
confidence of any data resulting from that situation. __________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

4. Other than the situation mentioned in question 3, discuss any other sources of error in this
activity and how they could be minimized. ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-12
 Group Project 10-3: Do Gas Bubbles Affect the Viscosity of Magma?
In other projects in this lab we consider the affect that temperature and water content have
on magma viscosity. Both of these variables change viscosity by changing the number and
length of silica chains in the melt. Magmas also differ in terms of the number and size of the gas
bubbles they contain.
Gas bubbles influence the viscosity of liquid in an entirely different way than temperature
and water content. The introduction of bubbles into a liquid increases its resistance to flow by
introducing surface tension forces into the interior of the liquid.
As magma rises in a volcano, the pressure decreases. The gases (CO2 and SO2) that
were dissolved in the magma at higher pressures come out of solution and form bubbles.
This is similar to what happens when you take the lid off of a soft drink. The reduction in
pressure causes the CO2 dissolved in the drink to come out of solution and to form gas bubbles.
In soft drinks the initial viscosity is so low that the bubbles simply float to the top and escape into
the air. They do not change the viscosity of the drink.
In magma the initial viscosity is high enough that the bubbles become trapped in the liquid
and the viscosity goes up.

In this project we will measure how the introduction of bubbles into corn syrup changes its
viscosity as an analogy to how bubbles change the viscosity of magma.

Step 1: Measure the viscosity of corn syrup without bubbles.

To measure the viscosity of corn syrup without bubbles follow the instructions in the
introduction. Using corn syrup for the container in this project area, carefully pour a 100 ml
volume into the measuring cup provided.
Identify one person in your group to be the timer and another person to pour the syrup.

Rapidly tip the measuring cup so that its volume is very quickly poured into the top of the
funnel, aiming for the “bull’s eye” drawn on the inside wall of the funnel.

The timer’s responsibility is to start the stopwatch as the pour is started and to stop the
stopwatch as upper surface of the syrup is even with the base of the funnel cone.

Make sure you place a receiver cup under the funnel to catch the syrup after it passes
through the funnel. Convert the drain time to viscosity by looking it up on the graph of Viscosity
versus Drain Time, which is Figure 10-6 in the introduction or the extended chart at this station.
Record these measurements on your answer sheet.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

10-13
Step 2: Measure the viscosity of corn syrup with bubbles.
Re-using the corn syrup from the previous experiment (supplementing it with new syrup as
needed), pour approximately 100 ml of corn syrup into the small mixing bowl provided. Use the
small hand mixer to beat the syrup so that air bubbles are introduced into the syrup. Beat the
syrup at a setting of “4" continuously for 2-3 minutes. Move the beaters around in the bowl so
that all of the syrup is mixed. Don’t be a knucklehead -- turn the mixer off before taking it out
of the bowl!
Use the same method that was used in Step 1 to measure the viscosity of the syrup with
bubbles. Carefully pour 100 ml of the syrup with bubbles into the measuring cup.
Place a receiver cup under the funnel to catch the syrup after it passes through the funnel.
When all are ready, pour the syrup into the funnel and measure the time needed for it to flow from
its starting point to the bottom of the funnel cone. Then use the graph of Viscosity Versus Drain
Time (Figure 10-6) to determine the viscosity of corn syrup with bubbles added. Record your
measurements on the answer sheet and answer the related questions. So that the materials
used in this lab project will be ready for the next group to use, pour the syrup mixture into
the container marked USED BUBBLY SYRUP at this station. Rinse and dry the funnel and
the various cups used in these experiments.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

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 4 points on this page

Name: ___________________________ Group No: _______Section: ______________

Answer Sheet 10-3: Do Gas Bubbles Affect the Viscosity of Magma?

Step 1: Viscosity of syrup with no bubbles:

Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) Viscosity (dPa-s) 1 point per line(not
fluid volume)

Step 2: Viscosity of syrup with bubbles:

Fluid Volume (ml) Drain Time (s) Viscosity (dPa-s)

Questions the affect of bubbles on viscosity: (1 point each)

1. Assuming that corn syrup is a reasonable analog for magma, how does the addition of gas
bubbles affect the viscosity of magma, if at all?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

2. If you took your sample from the used bubbly syrup tub instead of taking a fresh sample and
mixing the syrup described in the procedure, would you consider the results to be useful?
Discuss your reasons. _________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

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 Group Project 10-4: Does Magma Viscosity Affect the Shape of Volcanoes?
Volcanoes exist across a spectrum of shapes and sizes, from the largest mountain in the
Solar System (the shield volcano Olympus Mons on Mars) and the largest mountain on Earth
(the Mauna Loa volcano in Hawaii, measured from its base to its top) to small cinder or spatter
cones just a few meters in height. Volcanoes also vary significantly in shape from steep-sided
cones that challenge the best climbers to large-diameter, low-slope features that look more like
plateaus than what most people consider mountains. In this project, we will investigate what
affect magma viscosity and lava type has on the shape of volcanoes that grow through the
addition of successive flow layers.
We use a special wax that melts at a low (safe) temperature as a physical analog for lava
flows. Two containers are in the project area, one containing molten wax with low viscosity, and
the other containing molten wax mixed with vermiculite, which has a high viscosity.

Step 1: Determine the flow properties of a lower-viscosity magma.

There are two model volcanoes in the project area. One model is use in a low-viscosity lava
flow experiment and the other will be used in a high-viscosity lava flow experiment. Focusing on
the volcano model for the low-viscosity experiment, scoop up about 59 ml (1/4 cup) of molten wax
from the container with pure wax into the measuring cup. When everyone in the group is ready to
observe what happens (and not a moment sooner), gently/slowly pour the low-viscosity wax onto
the top of the model volcano.

Observe and describe how the wax flows down the sides of the volcano. How fast does it
flow? Does it flow in narrow “streams” or does it flow in sheets across the entire volcano surface?
Does most or all of the wax flow down from the top to the base of the volcano and out on the
adjacent flats, or does a significant amount stay near the top? After discussing with your group,
record your observations on the answer sheet.

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

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Step 2: Determine the Flow properties of a high-viscosity magma.
Now shift your focus to the volcano model for the high-viscosity lava flow experiment. Scoop
up about 59 ml (1/4 cup) of molten wax with vermiculite from the container into the measuring
cup. When everyone in the group is ready to observe what happens (and not a moment sooner),
gently/slowly pour the high-viscosity wax onto the top of the model volcano.
As for Step 1, observe and describe how the wax flows down the sides of the volcano. How
fast does it flow? Does it flow in narrow “streams” or does it flow in sheets across the entire
volcano surface? Does most or all of the wax flow down from the top to the base of the volcano
and out on the adjacent flats, or does a significant amount stay near the top? How does this
simulated flow differ from that in Step 1. How will the difference influence the ultimate shape of
the two volcanoes. Which style of flow would tend to increase the slope of the volcano sides over
time and which lower the slope of the sides over time? After discussing with your group, record
your observations on the answer sheet.

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 4 points on this page

Name: ___________________________ Group No: _______Section: ______________

Answer Sheet 10-4: Does Magma Viscosity Affect the Shape of Volcanoes?

Step 1: Low-viscosity lava flows: (1 point each)

1. Describe the behavior of the low-viscosity flow:

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
2. If the wax in the low-viscosity flow solidified in its position after a few minutes, and many
repeated flows of the same viscosity were piled on top of the first flow, what would the ultimate
shape of the volcano be?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________
Step 2: High-viscosity lava flows:
3. Describe the behavior of the high-viscosity flow:

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

4. If the simulated high-viscosity lava flow solidified in its position after a few minutes, and many
repeated flows were piled on top of the first flow, what would the ultimate shape of the volcano
be?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

Lab 10: What Controls Magma Viscosity

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