FACULTY OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE &
GEOMATIC ENGINEERING
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY & GEOPHYSICS LABORATORY

REPORT
COURSE NAME ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
COURSE CODE BFC 21303
TEST CODE & TITLE LAB 4 – ROCK SLOPE STABILITY (4a, 4b & 4c)
TESTING DATE 21 March 2024
SECTION 7

GROUP 7

1. MUHAMMAD NAUFAL HAZIM BIN JALALUDDIN (DF230041)

2. MUHAMMAD SHAH ZARIF BIN SHAHRUDI (DF230084)
GROUP MEMBER NAMES
3. NUR SUFIAH IZZATY BINTI MOHD NIZAM (DF230131)
AND MATRIX NUMBERS
4. NUR SYAZWINA BINTI SAMSUDIN (DF230083)
5. NURULAIN ADILAH BINTI RADZUAN (DF230124)
LECTURER/ INSTRUCTOR/ IR. TS. DR. MOHD FIRDAUS BIN MD DAN @ AZLAN
TUTOR NAME
REPORT RECEIVED DATE
CLO 1: Classify and characterize rock testing based on its categories (3.99 %)
Knowledge & comprehension
Describe the rock slope
(C1)
Knowledge & comprehension
Classify the type of rock slope
(C2)
Illustrate and examine the rock slope
Application (C3)
based on stereonet
CLO 3: Reporting lab findings in a team and satisfy all assessment requirements (3.01 %)
MARKS
Receiving, responding and
Name the rock slope
valuing phenomena (A1)
Receiving, responding and
Discuss the rock slope
valuing phenomena (A2)
Receiving, responding and
Report the rock slope
valuing phenomena (A3)
TOTAL (CLO 1 & CLO 3) /7%
EXAMINER COMMENT RECEIVED
STAMP
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GEOPHYSIC LABORATORY DATE:
TOPIC: PLOTTING POLES AND CONTOURING OF STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY DATA (LAB 4a)

1.0 OBJECTIVE
To plot poles and carry out contouring of the structural geology data.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should be able to use the geological compass.
b) Students should be able to measures the dip and dip direction of any planes.
c) Students should be able to plot poles of the structural geology data.
d) Students should be able to plot contour from the structural geology data.

3.0 THEORY
Analysis of the orientation of structural geology data involves.

• Plotting poles representing the dip and dip direction of each discontinuity. This plot will help to identify
discontinuity sets, for which both the average orientation and the scatter (dispersion) can be calculated.

• The second step in the analysis is to plot great circles representing the average orientation of each set,
major discontinuities such as faults, and the dip and dip direction of the cut face.

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

• Equal area for plotting poles and great circles (Appendix C)
• Equal-area polar net (Appendix D)
• Kalsbeek counting net (Appendix E)
• Tracing paper
• Pencil

5.0 PROCEDURE
1. Plotted poles on the polar stereonet on which the dip direction is indicated on the periphery of the circle,
and the dip is measured along radial lines with zero degrees at the center.
2. The procedure for plotting poles is to lay a sheet of tracing paper on the printed polar net and mark the
north direction and each quadrant position around the edge of the outer circle. A mark is then made to
show the pole that representsthe orientation of each discontinuity as defined by its dip and dip direction.
Poles for shallow dipping discontinuities lie close to the center of the circle, and poles of steeply dipping
discontinuities lie close to the periphery of the circle.
3. Step of ploting pole using equal area equatorial net: eg. 265º/70º
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TOPIC: PLOTTING POLES AND CONTOURING OF STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY DATA (LAB 4a)

4. Concentrations of pole orientations can be identified using Kalsbeek counting net. The Kalsbeek net
is made up of mutually overlapping hexagons, each with an area of 1/100 of the full area of the
stereonet.
5. Contouring is performed by overlaying the counting net on the pole and counting the number of poles
in each hexagon; this number is marked on the net. These numbers of poles are converted into
percentages by dividing each by the total number of poles and multiplying by 100. Once a percentage
is written in each hexagon, contours can be developed by interpolation. In this study, contouring is
performed using the count of poles instead of percentages.

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

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GEOLOGY DATA (LAB 4a)

a. Nur Syazwina binti Samsudin

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b) NurulAin Adilah binti Radzuan
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c) Nur Sufiah Izzaty binti Mohd Nizam

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GEOLOGY DATA (LAB 4a)

d) Muhammad Shah Zarif bin Shahrudi

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e) Muhammad Naufal Hazim bin Jalaluddin

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GEOLOGY DATA (LAB 4a)

7.0 QUESTION & DISCUSSION

I. Describe two graphical methods for showing structural geology data and explain when each method
is best used.
a) Streonet Techniques
This method makes it simpler to construct the projection because all of the sphere's circles plot
as circles on the plane. Angles and tiny shapes on the sphere project true on the plane because
the projection is conformal. In order to make the contour meaningful, each projection depicts
the pertinent information on the map. Although radial distortion grows away from the tangency
point, small locations on the sphere project true on the plane, making the stereographic map
projection an excellent choice for small areas.
b) Cross-Section Techniques
Geological cross-section is an interpretation of a vertical section through the Earth’s surface,
most usefully a profile, for which evidence was acquire by geologic and geophysical echniques
or from a geological map. Cross-section sometimes are trial sections, drawn to solve structural
problems, or are drawn to supplement a fair copy map or illustrate a report. They are also
drawn to site boreholes in the search for a lost aquifer or ore body. The geological cross
sections drawing are not a small or trivial undertaking and methods for their generation have
become sophisticated. This is because we are trying to make interpretations about the
geometry of features. However, this is often the exception and skills should be tuned for cross
section construction without such subsurface information.

II. Use a diagram to illustrate the geological structures that can be represented on a stereonet.
According to the geological structure plotted in this experiment by the stereonet, we can determine the
earth terrain such as the hill, mountain and many other earth surface represented by the contour. This
experiment requires several data, such as the dip directions and dip angles in the geological map. It
can be plotted on polar stereonet which dip direction and dip degree is being used. In this experiment,
we have 120 data to be plotted. Using the tracing paper, we have plotted 120 dotes on it which is
requires focus on the plotting work or else the result will be slightly inaccurate based on the data. After
the data were plotted, there are groups of plotted dotes then calculated. After that, another tracing
paper was used to plot the contour. Using this kind of plotting contour method, the slope stability and
the slope failure can be determined. The failure of slope is whether planar, wedge, circular or toppling.

III. Explain the field methodology for gathering discontinuity data in detail.
To determine the discontinuities survey data, we need to collect some data and assuming some
parameters to measure the discontinuities. The data that we need to collect are dip direction, dip angle
and persistence(m) while the parameters are its aperture, infilling and roughness. To collect such data,
the best tool is the geological compass (Brunton Compass). Collecting data by using geological
compass is a better method because it can save a lot of time while using other method that wasting
much time on calculation to find the data needed. There are another kind of method to determine the
discontinuities which called Scanline Survey. Before conducting this job, there is some preliminary
preparation before we do the right procedure smoothly. The discontinuities survey data sheet is
prepared which is containing all the data that we need to measure on the site.
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GEOLOGY DATA (LAB 4a)

8.0 CONCLUSION
The pole and plotting of the structures, as well as contouring of structural geology data are basic in the
laboratory as they enhance the skills of the students in analyzing the structures. Students come into a practical
understanding of how to use a geological compass in determining the dip angle and dip direction of rock planes
as well as practical knowledge in identifying and plotting the orientation of other geological features. The
process includes the placing of poles on a stereonet instrument which is used to determine the spatial
orientation of different structures within the geology field. Moreover, contouring is also used in determining the
high density of pole orientations and understanding the density and distribution pattern of geological breaks in
a given area. In addition to providing clear learning outcomes and improving the general knowledge of students
and their understanding of structural geology, this approach is also helpful for further work in fields such as
engineering geology, as the skills of interpreting and analyzing geological data are essential there.
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TOPIC: DETERMINE THE DISCONTINUITY SETS AND MODES OF
FAILURES TOWARD THE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN (LAB 4b)

1.0 OBJECTIVE
i. To identify the discontinuity sets and analyze potential failure modes.
ii. To evaluate which discontinuity sets are susceptible to failure.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Students should able to plot the great circles
b) Students should able to analyze the potential failures modes.

3.0 THEORY
i. Mode of rock slope failures.
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FAILURES TOWARD THE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN (LAB 4b)

ii. Mode of slope failures based on discontinuities sets plot.

Modes of failure Criteria are met

i. Very weak material, highly jointed or fractured or

Circular
weak soil ii. Homogenous soil

i. The dip direction of joint sets should fall within a range of ± 20° from the slope's dip
direction. ii. The sequence of angles should follow this order: slope angle (ψf) > plane
Planar angle (ψp) > friction angle (ϕ).
iii. To present the lateral boundaries of the slide, it is necessary to identify and incorporate
release surfaces.

i. ψf> ψi> ϕ (slope angle > intersection of 2 plane angle > friction angle) ii. Driving
Wedge
force due to the weight of wedge must exceed the frictional resistance of the planes.

i. The dip direction of the joint set should be within a range of ±10° from the
Toppling opposite direction of the slope's dip.
ii. (900 - ψf ) + ϕ ≤ ψt

Where :
Ψf is rock slope dip angle
Φ is rock friction angle
Ψp is joint set dip angle has plane mode
ψi is intersection of 2 joint sets dip angle
ψf is joint set dip angle has toppling mode

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS

i. Equal-area equatorial net (Appendix C)
ii. Tracing paper

5.0 PROCEDURE
1. In order to allow the tracing paper to be spun on the net, it was placed on the net using a thumbtack
through the center.
2. On the tracing paper, the net's north orientation is marked.
3. The scale around the perimeter of the net indicated where the plane’s dip direction was located, and
this point was marked on the tracing paper. On the equatorial net, it was noted that the scale for the
dip direction for plotting great circles begins at the north point at the top of the circle and increases
clockwise.
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FAILURES TOWARD THE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN (LAB 4b)

4. The tracing paper rotated until the dip direction mark coincides with one of the horizontal axes of the
net, that is, the 90 degree or 180-degree points of the dip direction scale.
5. The plane's dip was found on the net, and an arc was drawn there on the paper. A large circle is used
to indicate a horizontal plane, and a straight line running through the middle of the net is used to indicate
a vertical plane.
6. The great circle is orientated appropriately, and the two north points coincide thanks to the tracing paper
being rotated.

7. Slope geometry and rock properties for analysis are given below:

6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

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FAILURES TOWARD THE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN (LAB 4b)

1. Discontinuity sets marks as J1,J2……..Jn

Discintinuity set Dip direction / Dip angle

Joint set 1, J1 208º/64º

Joint set 2, J2 096º/46º

Joint set 3, J3 316º/32º

Joint set 4, J4 258º/50º

Joint set 5, J5 294º/50º

Joint set 6, J6 352º/70º

2. Potential modes of failures:

Mode of Joint (s) Calculation Stability
Failure
Circular -nil- i) Very strong material, with 6 joint sets of rock. Stable
Failure ii) Rock mass

Planar J2 (096/46) i) 100°±20° = 120, 080 Unstable

Failure = 120 > 096 > 080
ii) slope angle (ψf) > plane angle (ψp) > friction
angle (ϕ).
= 70 > 46 > 30

Wedge 1) W1 (J1&J2) i) .ψf> ψi>(ϕ). (slope angle > intersection of 2 plane Unstable
Failure J1 (208/64) angle > friction angle)
J2 (096/46) = 70 > 42 > 30
ψi = 42°

2) W2 (J2&J6) ii) ψf> ψi>(ϕ). (slope angle > intersection of 2 plane

J2 (096/46) angle > friction angle)
J6 (352/70) = 70 > 40 > 30
ψi = 40°

Toppling J5 (294/50) i) (100°±180°)±10° = 290, 270 Stable

Failure = 290 < 294 > 270
ii) (900 - ψf ) + (ϕ) ≤ ψt
= (900 – 70 ) + 30 ≤ 50
= 50 ≤ 50
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a) NurulAin Adilah binti Radzuan

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b) Nur Syazwina binti Samsudin

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c) Nur Sufiah Izzaty binti Mohd Nizam

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d) Muhammad Shah Zarif bin Shahrudi

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e) Muhammad Naufal Hazim bin Jalaluddin

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FAILURES TOWARD THE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN (LAB 4b)

7.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

1) Explain the mode of failure for rock slope for each type.

Rock slopes can fail in several ways, depending on the kind of rock, geological structure, weathering conditions,
and external influences. The following are some frequent modes of failure for rock slopes:

i. Circular failure :
Circular failure occurs in rock masses that are either heavily fragmented or made of material with low intact
strength. This kind of failure is distinguished by the formation of a curved or circular failure surface inside the
body of the rock mass. Severely fragmented rock masses have several planes of weakness that, when
stressed, can combine to form a continuous curving failure surface. Similarly, rock masses composed of
material with low intact strength lack the internal cohesiveness required to sustain stability under stress,
resulting in a bent failure surface. This type of failure indicates considerable internal deformation and instability
inside the rock mass, which causes a characteristic rotational movement along the curved failure plane,
eventually leading to the collapse of the slope or rock structure.

ii. Planar failure :

Planar failure occurs when a rock slope falls at a single discontinuity, such as a bedding plane, fault, or the
transition between weathered rock and bedrock. In this form of failure, the failure surface is largely planar, which
means it is generally flat and extends along a single plane. As a result, the rock mass slides or travels down
this plane, eventually causing the slope to collapse. This process can be impacted by a variety of variables,
including the direction of the discontinuity, the properties of the rock mass, and external influences like
weathering and seismic activity.

iii. Wedge failure :

Wedge failure occurs when two discontinuities within the rock mass cross and link, resulting in a wedge-shaped
block that can slide or move along the junction formed by these planes. This sort of failure is more common in
rocks with slope bedding, foliation, or well-defined cleavages. These structural properties produce planes of
weakness inside the rock, allowing the wedge to form and move more easily, potentially leading to slope
instability and failure.

iv. Toppling failure :

Toppling failure occurs when a column or block of rock rotates around a fixed point or pivot at the bottom of the
slope as a result of acute discontinuities in the rock structure. This type of failure is more common in rock
formations with tightly packed jointed rock masses, where the joints are closely spaced and have sharp
discontinuities that slope away from the slope face. These geological conditions create a scenario in which the
rock columns become unstable and prone to toppling, particularly when external factors such as gravity, water
infiltration, or seismic activity act to exacerbate the instability and cause rotational movement of the rock
columns.
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FAILURES TOWARD THE ROCK SLOPE DESIGN (LAB 4b)

2) Identify which discontinuities sets that have some potential to fail and what are the failure modes.

From the calculations that have been made, planar discontinuity sets have some potential to fail. Planar failure
occurs when a single discontinuity surface drops out of the slope face and collapses the rock mass. This
collapse is common on rock slopes, where a single discontinuity dominates the structural fabric, resulting in a
plane of weakness that can cause instability. When the rock mass is exposed to external forces such as
gravitational pull or water penetration, the single discontinuity surface allows it to slide or move along the plane.
This causes the slope to fail and collapse, particularly in geological settings where the discontinuity is well-
defined and continuous, reducing the slope's stability dramatically.

Additionally, wedge failure has significant potential to occur under specific conditions. Wedge failure arises
when two discontinuity planes intersect, creating a line of intersection that dips out of the slope face, forming a
potential sliding surface. The identified discontinuities, J₁ (208/64) and J₂ (096/46) with an intersection line of lᵢ
= 38°, as well as another set involving J₃ (208/64) and J₂ (096/46) with lᵢ = 40°, demonstrate these
characteristics. In both cases, the stability calculations indicate that the shear stress (ψₜ) is greater than both
the normal stress (ψₙ) and the friction angle (φ), as shown by ψₜ > ψₙ > φ. Specifically, the calculations show
values such as 70 > 46 < 30 and 70 > 40 < 30, confirming that the shear stress surpasses the frictional
resistance along the discontinuity planes. This imbalance leads to instability, as the rock mass between the
intersecting planes is prone to sliding along the line of intersection. Wedge failure is particularly concerning
because it involves complex interactions between multiple discontinuities, resulting in large, potentially unstable
rock masses. Such conditions necessitate careful analysis and mitigation in geotechnical engineering to prevent
slope failure and ensure structural stability.

3) What the others criteria that must be met in order to promote the slope failure ?

Other criteria must be followed to encourage slope failure. In geological structure, the joint sets must dip quite
steeply into the slope and be able to slip relative to one another, while the rock mass must be able to bend
significantly for toppling to occur. In slope geometry, the strike of the plane of weakness must be within +/-20
of the crest of the slope, while the toe of the failure plane must be daylight between the toe and the crest. The
cohesiveness and angle of internal friction of the rock or soil can influence the slope's stability, with lower
cohesion and greater friction angles making the slope more stable. Groundwater can have a considerable
impact on slope stability, particularly in cohesive soils. In lithology, the kind of rock or soil available can impact
slope stability, with weaker materials more likely to fail. Stresses on a slope, such as those induced by mining
or other external pressures, can lead to slope failure. Mining methods and equipment can affect slope stability,
especially if they create considerable deformation or stress changes. Finally, blasting activities might affect
slope stability by introducing new failure surfaces or weakening the rock bulk.
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8.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, understanding discontinuity sets and modes of failure is crucial for guaranteeing stability and
safety when designing rock slopes. Meanwhile, discontinuity sets, or natural planes of weakness in the rock
mass, have a substantial influence on the slope's mechanical behaviour. This involves detailed geological
mapping, core logging, and geotechnical surveys to understand the spatial distribution, orientation, and physical
properties of discontinuities. The process of identifying and characterising the structural characteristics existing
in the rock mass can provide vital information about the likely failure mechanism that may effect slope stability.
Continuous monitoring and an integrated approach to rock slope design are necessary for risk management
and structural integrity.
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1.0 OBJECTIVE

To identify which discontinuities have the potential to fail and calculate the factor of safety.

2.0 LEARNING OUTCOME

I. Students should be capable of calculating the safety factors for plane failure.
II. Students should be able to calculate the safety factor for wedge failure.

3.0 THEORY

The factor of safety for planar failures is often easier to determine compared to the factor of safety of wedge
failures in rock slopes because only one discontinuity is involved in the former and consequently, the
calculations are less complicated. This makes wedge failures more complex than the previously discussed
failure modes, as two discontinuities have to be taken into account. Both types of failures depend on the wet
and dry conditions since occurrence of moisture affects the stability through reduction of strength of the rock
and friction along the discontinuity. The data on discontinuity orientation, spacing and roughness and other rock
properties such as unit weight, friction angle and cohesion are important for such analyses. Stabilization
measures can then be recommended depending on the factor of safety determined to be acceptable for the
given construction.

4.0 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL

I. Equal-area equatorial net (Appendix C)

II. Tracing paper

5.0 PROCEDURE

i. The mode of failure was determined.

ii. An appropriate formula of planar or wedge is used based on the given in Appendix A and B
iii. The other information of slope geometry, rock properties and stabilized method and material are
given as following: -
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Parameters Values

Slope face dip direction 100º

Slope face angle (slope angle) 70°

Upper slope face dip direction 100º

Upper slope face angle 10°

Height of slope / wedge 50 m

Unit weight of the rock 25 kN/m3

Depth of tension crack 2m

Unit weight of water 9.81 kN/m3

The cohesion of all discontinuities 100 kPa

Friction angle for all discontinuities 30°

Inclined angle of steel bar as anchor (Ω) = (ψT) 30°

Steel bars Y25, working load 10 ton = 100 kN

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6.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS

a) NurulAin Adilah binti Radzuan
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b) Nur Syazwina binti Samsudin

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c) Nur Sufiah Izzaty binti Mohd Nizam

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d) Muhammad Shah Zarif bin Shahrudi

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e) Muhammad Naufal Hazim bin Jalaludin

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7.0 QUESTION AND DISCUSSION

1.Provide the recommended safety factor values for slope in civil engineering.

The value of the factor of safety for rock slopes in civil engineering depends on
various factors including the type of project, geological conditions, slope height, and
possible consequences of failure. Typically, the safety factor ranges from
1.1 to 1.3. For other slope remains like road slopes, damn and other civil slopes usually need a higher safety
factor to ensure long term stability. Safe factor for this slope usually 1.5 to 2.0. for slope critical structure or in
high sensitive area when failure could lead to serious loss of life or economic effect, a higher safety factor is
utilised usually 2.0 to 3.0

2.Explain the primary differences between the assessment of rock slopes and soil slopes.

a) Rock slopes:
The material feature of rock slopes is discrete, which means that rock masses are often made up of whole blocks
separated by discontinuities. Rock slopes often have a high compressive strength. The orientation, spacing, and
discontinuity features all have a significant impact on slope discontinuity behaviour. The failure modes for rock
slopes are planar failure, wedge failure, toppling failure, and complicated failure. The assessment technique for
rock slopes is geological mapping, which involves careful mapping of rock outcrops and discontinuities. Aside
from that, discontinuity surveys are conducted to determine the orientation, spacing, and characteristics of
discontinuities, as well as to classify rock masses.

b) Soil slopes:
The material property of soil slopes is continuous medium, which means that soil does not have inherent planes
of weakness like rocks do. Soil slopes often have lower shear strength and more deformability. Compared to
rock masses, soil behaviour is more homogeneous and isotropic. The failure processes for soil slopes are
rational slip, translational slip, flow slides, and progressive failure. Soil sampling and testing, soil categorization,
soil stability analysis, and groundwater analysis are all methods used to assess soil slopes.

8.0 CONCLUSION

Failure can occur if there's a single weak spot in the slope, or if several weak spots come together to form a
failure surface. This is similar to how a heavy block might slide on an inclined plane. To assess slope stability,
engineers use the limit equilibrium approach, which compares the slope's shear strength to the shear stress it
experiences. The factor of safety is simply the ratio of these two values.