PLACE AND

TIME
GROUP 6
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• 15.1 Cartesian Coordinates
• 15.2 Latitude and Longitude.
• Highlight: Global Positioning
System (GPS)
• 15.3 Time
• Highlight: Daylight Saving Time
• 15.4 Determining Latitude and Longitude
• 15.5 The Seasons and the Calendar
• Highlight: A Brief History of the Calendar
• 15.6 Precession of the Earth's Axis
 15.1:
CARTESIAN
COORDINATES
- A reference system with one or
more dimensions is necessary for
determining an object's location. A - Cartesian coordinate systems are used
one-dimensional axis system uses a to determine positions in planes, while
number line, while a Cartesian determining a location on a spherical
coordinate system, named after curved surface is different. The two
French philosopher René Descartes, reference circles on a sphere's surface
uses two number lines perpendicular can be used to designate a position,
to each other.
similar to the Cartesian coordinate axes.
- The x-axis and y-axis are used to Latitude and longitude are the
represent horizontal and vertical coordinates used to designate a position
lines, with scale units like meters or on Earth's surface.
seconds. Positions in the sy plane
have coordinates (x, y).
 15.2:
LATITUDE AND
LONGITUDE
The Earth's surface is determined by a coordinate system called latitude and
longitude, with geographic poles serving as north-south reference points. East-
west coordinates are measured along the equator or parallel lines. The latitude-
longitude grid consists of parallels and meridians, which are circles drawn
around the Earth parallel to the equator. As the distance from the equator
increases, parallels become smaller.

Meridians are imaginary lines running from the North Pole to the South Pole,
forming half circles. Latitude is the angular measurement in degrees north or
south of the equator, with the North Pole having a latitude of 90°(90°N), the
South Pole having a latitude of 90°(90°S), and the equator having a latitude
of 0°. Longitude is the angular measurement east or west of the reference
meridian, the Greenwich meridian, chosen for celestial navigation due to
England's rule.
In an x-y Cartesian system, the shortest distance
between two points is a straight line. However,
the shortest surface distance on Earth is the arc
length along a great circle. One minute of a great
circle is equal to one nautical mile, which is longer
than a regular mile.
Gerardus Mercator, a Flemish
cartographer and geographer,
introduced the term atlas in 1589
to describe projection maps of
Earth's surface. These maps,
based on latitude and longitude
lines, are used for navigation and
are often oriented north, south,
cast, and west. They also provide
directions and distances when
scaled.
 HIGHLIGHT: GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)
The GPS is a network of solar-powered The GPS determines a position (latitude
satellites that circle the Earth at altitudes of and longitude) on the Earth through
about 20,000 km, making two complete orbits triangulation, where one receiver gets a fix
every day. Originally developed for the U.S.
on the direction of the signal from its
Department of Defense as a military navigation
system, the GPS is now available to everyone. position, and a straight line is drawn on a
All you need is a GPS receiver to find your map. In the case of the GPS, distance
location anywhere on Earth, except where rather than direction is plotted. For
satellite radio signals cannot be received, such example, if you want to find your location
as in caves and under water. GPS receivers are on a campus map, you can draw a circle
widely used for finding locations in navigation with a one-block radius with the bell tower
and other applications, such as hunters, hikers, at the center, draw a two-block radius
boaters, and roadside assistance. The accuracy
circle with the gym at the center, and draw
of a receiver location depends on its price, with
high-end units having accuracies down to 1 a three-block radius circle with the campus
meter. gate at point A.
 HIGHLIGHT: GLOBAL
POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

The same idea works in three

dimensions on spheres. The
satellites send time radio signals
to the receiver, and its electronics
interpret this information in
terms of a satellite's distance.
Then, In a manner analogous to
our two-dimensional.
15.3:
TIME
The Solar Day is the elapsed time
between two successive crossings
of the same meridian by the Sun.
This period is also known as the
apparent solar day, because that is
what appears to happen. Because
the Earth travels in an elliptical
orbit, its orbital speed is not
constant.
A Sidereal Day is the elapsed
time between two successive
crossings of the same meridian
by a star other than the Sun.
A Solar Day is longer than a sidereal day due to
Earth's additional rotation of 360°/24 h. It begins at
midnight and ends 24 hours later at the following
midnight. The hours before noon are designated
A.M. (ante meridiem) and those after noon are
designated P.M (post meridiem). The times of 12
noon and midnight should be stated as 12 noon and
12 midnight, with dates. These times are dividing
lines, like a fence on a dividing line.
 Modern civilization relies on accurate
timekeeping, which has led to the
adoption of standard time zones since

TIME the late 19th century. These zones

divide the Earth's surface into 24 time
zones, each containing 15° of
longitude. The first zone, Greenwich

ZONES Mean Time (GMT), is centered on the

central prime meridian (0°) and
extends 7.5° on each side. The zones
continue east and west from the
Greenwich meridian, with the actual
boundaries varying due to local
conditions.
 The first zone is known as "Zulu" and
is used for navigation purposes.
However, due to variations in Earth's

TIME rotation and revolution, the time of

atomic clocks became the official
standard of time in 1972. Coordinated
Universal Time (UTC) is now used for

ZONES what was previously referred to as

GMT. As the Earth rotates eastward,
the Sun moves westward, taking 12
noon with it. Traveling west into an
adjacent time zone requires setting the
hour hand one hour earlier to maintain
the correct standard time.
The International Date Line (IDL) was established to address the issue
of a day being lost when traveling around the Earth in a westward
direction. The IDL is a zigzag line that zigzags to accommodate the
needs of various Pacific Ocean countries, similar to time zone
boundaries. It does not follow the 180° meridian line exactly, but it
zigzags to accommodate the needs of various countries in the Pacific
Ocean.

In 1995, Kiribati relocated the IDL to the east of the country, a change
that is now generally accepted. The IDL also separates the islands of
Tonga and Samoa, which are in the same time zone but one day apart.
A Recommended Procedure for Solving Time and Date Problems:

1. Draw a circle and add tick marks to divide it into quarters (for 0°, 90°E, 90°W, and 180°).

2. Divide the four sections into halves with a tick mark, and then add two more dividing marks
in each section, giving 24 marks to represent the central meridians of the 24 different 15 time
zones. Draw a line from the center of the circle to the 180° mark to indicate the International
Date Line (IDL).

3. Label the longitudes of the central meridians around the circle. (Note: Analyze the problem
first. If the two locations of interest are relatively close together, then you may not need to
label the complete circle but only the part with the locations, thus saving a little time. Pun
intended.)
4. Locate the longitudes of the places of interest and note the nearest time zone
central meridians. Using the known time, count around the time zones and find 12
noon, Then draw a midnight line from the center of the circle to the longitude
opposite noon to locate where the date changes and which time zones have which
date.

As the Sun (noon) moves westward, the midnight line also moves, bringing the new
date to each time zone as it moves into it. The new date appears to "come out of the
180° line, whereas the old day is "pushed" into it.

5. Then count around to the central meridian of the time zone in which the place of
interest is located, and you now have the time and date.
 HIGHLIGHT: DAYLIGHT
SAVING TIME
The Uniform Time Act of 1966
Daylight Saving Time (DST) DST was implemented in established a uniform daylight
is a practice where we set Germany, Great Britain, and saving time (DST) throughout the
our clocks to advance one the United States during United States and its possessions,
hour in spring and then fall World War I and World War except for Arizona, Hawaii, Puerto
Rico, the US Virgin Islands, Guam, and
back to standard time in II to save energy and reduce American Samoa. A 1972 revision
the fall. The idea of DST traffic accidents and crime. allowed states with two or more
was proposed by Ben However, after World War time zones to exempt parts of the
Franklin in 1784, who II, states and localities had state, provided the other went on
DST. Indiana joined DST in 2006, but
called for a tax on every to choose whether to go on all counties are not in the same time
window shuttered after DST or not, causing zone. The national DST system has
sunrise to encourage the controversy and confusion been revised, with DST now in effect
economy of using sunlight in coordinating schedules from March to November. More
instead of candles. among cities and states. than one billion people worldwide
observe DST.
 15.4:
DETERMINING
LATITUDE AND
LONGITUDE
 LATITUDE
The sextant, a tool used to measure the altitude of the Sun, was
developed to determine latitude. The zenith angle, which is the point
directly over an observer's head, is 90° from the horizon. Knowing the
Sun's noon altitude and date helps determine latitude. The Earth's axis
tilt, which is 23 1/2° from the vertical to its orbital plane, causes the
noonday Sun to be overhead at different latitudes at different times
of the year.

The farthest north latitude, 23°N, occurs on June 21 or 22, the longest day
of the year for the Northern Hemisphere, and the farthest south latitude,
23°5, occurs on December 21 or 22, the shortest day of the year for the
Northern Hemisphere. The zenith angle, which is 90° minus the Sun altitude,
is also 40° relative to the zenith line.
LATITUDE = ZENITH ANGLE + DEGREES
OVERHEAD THE SUN IN YOUR
HEMISPHERE
or
Latitude = zenith angle - degrees
overhead the Sun in other hemisphere
In simplified form,
L = ZA ± Sun degrees
Thus, a diagram is not needed if the directional (north or south) altitude of the
Sun is measured and the noon overhead position of the Sun is known on that
date. How do you get the latter? Easy. We know that the overhead position of
the noon Sun "travels" between the equator and 231°N (and 5) between March
21 (September 22) and June 21 (December 22), or about 3 months, or 90 days.
So, 23.5/90 days 0.26/day. With this "speed" we can determine the overhead
position of the noon Sun north or south of the equator on a particular date.

For example, 20 days after the Sun is over the

equator (April 10 or October 12), the overhead
position of the Sun is 20 days ( 0.26°/day) =
5°north or south of the equator, depending on the
time of the year.
 LONGITUDE

In theory, determining longitude is a simple process, but in

the 1700s, the lack of accurate clocks led to faulty
longitude measurements. A metallic "marine chronometer"
was developed in the mid-1760s, which was tested on a 47-
day voyage from England to Barbados. The watch showed a
39-seconds error over 47 days, making longitude a good
approximation. The sextant solved the problem of finding
accurate latitudes, but an accurate clock was needed for
reliable longitude measurements.
 15.5:
THE SEASONS
AND THE
CALENDAR
 THE SEASONS
Seasons, such as summer, autumn, winter, and
spring, are caused by the Earth's tilt in its yearly
revolution about the Sun. The Earth's slightly
elliptical orbit, which is slightly farther from the
Sun at aphelion than at perihelion, causes the
seasons. The Earth's tilt, which occurs on June 21,
influences the Northern Hemisphere's direct rays
of the Sun, marking the beginning of summer in
the Northern Hemisphere. The noon Sun's altitude
can be calculated from this angle.
The Summer Solstice (solstice The Winter Solstice, the
meaning "the Sun stands beginning of winter in
still") marks the beginning of the Northern Hemisphere,
summer. It is the longest day
occurs on December 22.
of the year in the Northern
Hemisphere.

The Autumnal Equinox The Vernal Equinox, the

(equunas meaning "equal beginning of spring occurs on
nights") on September 22, the March 21, when the Sun is
beginning of fall. again over the equator.
The tropical year, or year of
seasons, is the time interval The sidereal year is the time interval
from one vernal equinox to the for the Earth to make one complete
next vernal equinox; in other revolution around the Sun with
words, it is the elapsed time respect to any particular star other
between one northward than the Sun (sidereal means
crossing of the Sun above the ("pertaining to stars"). The sidereal
equator (vernal equinox) and year is equal to 365.2536 mean solar
the next northward crossing days and is approximately 20 min
With respect to the rotational longer than the tropical year. The
period of the Earth, the tropical reason for this difference is due to
year is 365.2422 mean solar the precession of Earth's axis.
days.
 THE CALENDAR
The measurement of time relies on the
periodic movement of an object, with the
Sun's apparent motion being the first
unit. Moon phases and seasons, along
with the zodiacal constellations, provide
yearly units, forming the zodiacal
calendar.
 THE CALENDAR
The zodiac is a central, circular section of the celestial
sphere that is divided into 12 sections. Each section is
identified by a prominent group of stars called a
constellation. Ancient civilizations named
constellations for the figures the stars seemed to
form, such as Leo (the Lion) and Taurus (the Bull)
Because of the Earth's revolution, the 12
constellations, or "signs," of the zodiac periodically
change in the night sky during the course of a year.
Thus, a particular constellation's appearance in the
night sky marked a particular time of the year.
The lunar calendar, based on the motion and phases
of the Moon, was developed by the Babylonians
before 3000 BCE. The calendar divided the year into
12 lunar months, each consisting of 30 days.
However, due to Earth's pre-cession, the 12
constellations change over time. The length of our
month is based on the 29.5 solar days it takes the
Moon to orbit Earth. The Babylonians adjusted the
length of the months and added an extra month
when needed, setting the pattern for many ancient
civilizations' calendars.
 HIGHLIGHT: A BRIEF
HISTORY OF THE CALENDAR
The seven-day week on the The names for the The Gregorian calendar is
calendar is not definitively seven days are derived commonly used to designate
known, but it may have from Nordic mythology, years, with designations like
originated from the Moon with Tuesday, 300 BCE and 450 CE. The
transitioning from one Wednesday, Thursday, term "Common Era" refers
phase to another or from and Friday coming from to the Gregorian calendar,
the nighttime sky. The which is the most widely
seven celestial bodies Tiw, Woden, Thor, and
Fria. Sunday, Monday, accepted civil calendar
visible to the unaided eye system. Other calendars,
are the Sun, Moon, and and Saturday retain
their connection to the such as the Chinese and
five planets: Mars, Muslim calendars, also
Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Sun, Moon, and
Saturn. exist.
and Saturn.
 15.6:
PRECESSION OF
THE EARTH'S
AXIS
Many of us are acquainted with the action
of a toy top that has been set in rapid
motion and allowed to spin about its axis.
After spinning a few seconds, the top
begins to wobble or do what physicists call
precess.
The top, a symmetric object, will continue
to spin about a vertical axis if the center of
gravity remains above the point of support.
When the top slows down and the center
of gravity is not in a vertical line with the
point of support, the axis starts to slowly
rotate. This slow rotation of the axis is
called precession.
Earth's rotation causes it to bulge at the equator,
causing its axis to rotate clockwise. This precession
takes 25,800 years, causing the axis to point towards
Polaris, the pole star. As it precesses, it will point
towards different stars, eventually becoming the North
Star. However, this slow precession has little effect on
the seasons. In the Northern Hemisphere, winter is
shorter than summer due to the Earth's proximity to the
Sun. As a result, winter in the Northern Hemisphere will
gradually lengthen over 10,000 years, potentially
initiating another ice age.
 KEY TERMS

1. Cartesian coordinate system (15.1) 13. Daylight Saving Time (DST)

2. parallels (15.2) 14. altitude (15.4)
3. meridians 15. zenith angle
4. great circle 16. summer solstice (15.5)
5. latitude
17. winter solstice
6. longitude
18. autumnal equinox
7. Greenwich (prime) meridian
8. solar day (15.3)
19. vernal equinox
9. sidereal day 20. tropical year
10. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) 21. sidereal year
11. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) 22. Gregorian calendar
12. International Date Line (IDL) 23. precession (15.6)
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