Helwan University

Faculty of Engineering – Mattaria

Mechanical Design Department

Lecture notes

Mechanical vibrations
Part I
Prepared by

Dr. Heba Hamed El-Mongy

Prospective students: Second year, Automotive department

Semester: Jan 2015

 Chapter I
Basic concepts of mechanical vibrations

This chapter introduces the subject of mechanical vibrations including the following topics:

 Importance of the study of vibration;

 Vibration and simple harmonic motion;
 Characteristics of vibration;
 Main elements of a vibrating system;
 Classification of vibration;
 Harmonic analysis;
 Machine health monitoring;
 Degrees of freedom;
 Modelling of vibrating systems.

1.1 Importance of the study of vibrations:

We experience many examples of vibration in our daily lives. A pendulum set in motion vibrates.
A plucked guitar string vibrates. Vehicles driven on rough roads vibrate, and geological activity
can cause massive vibrations in the form of earthquakes. All machines and structures are subject to
vibrations which arise due to internal and external forces applied to the machine. There are good
and bad effects of mechanical vibrations. The following are examples of the bad effects of
vibration:

1- Increased wear of machine components (Ex. Bearings, couplings, etc.)

2- Looseness of fasteners (may cause catastrophic accidents in vehicles and aircrafts).
3- Failure of machine components due to fatigue.
4- Poor surface finish due to tool chatter in metal cutting processes.
5- Excessive noise.
6- Earthquakes.
7- Resonance.
8- Instability.
9- Discomfort in operating machines or vehicles.

Figure 1.1 shows some examples of bad machine vibration. There are some applications where
vibrations are intentionally generated to obtain useful functions. Some applications of good
vibrations include (Fig. 1.2):

 Vibratory conveyors;
 Shaking table for earthquake testing of buildings;
 Vibratory sieves;
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  Grinding machines;
 Energy harvesting using piezoelectric elements.

Therefore, it is important to study vibration in order to reduce its bad effects through proper design
of machines and their mountings (vibration isolation and vibration absorption) and also to design
new systems that use the vibration phenomenon to perform useful functions.

Fig. 1.1 Examples of bad machine vibrations

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.2 Examples of good vibration applications, (a) Vibratory conveyor, (b) Shaking table, (c)
Piezoelectric energy harvesting device

1.2 Vibration and simple harmonic motion:

1.2.1 What is vibration?

Vibration can be defined as any motion that repeats itself in a certain interval of time around
a certain equilibrium position. The study of vibration is concerned with the oscillatory motion of
bodies and the forces associated with them. Most engineering machines and structures experience
vibration to some degree and their design generally requires consideration of their oscillatory
behavior.

1.2.2 Simple harmonic motion:

If the motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic motion. The
simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic motion. Harmonic motion can be represented as
shown in Fig. 1.3 by means of vector OP of magnitude A rotating at a constant angular velocity ω.
The projection of the end of the vector OP is given by:
2
 x  A sin  t (1.1)
This is considered the harmonic displacement. Velocity and acceleration can be obtained by
differentiating Eq. (1.1) with respect to time once and twice respectively as follows:
x  A sin  t (1.2)
x   A 2 sin  t (1.3)
Figure 1.4 shows the three measures of vibration; displacement, velocity and acceleration
waveforms and vectors.

Fig. 1.3 Harmonic motion as the projection of the end of a rotating vector

Fig. 1.4 Displacement, velocity and acceleration (a) waveforms, (b) vectors

1.3 Characteristics of vibration:

1- Cycle of vibration:

This is the motion of a vibrating body as shown in Fig. 1.5: from its neutral position
(Position O) to the maximum position in one direction (Position A), then passing through
the neutral position to the maximum position in the other direction (Position B) and
finally to the neutral position again.

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 Fig. 1.5 One cycle of vibration
2- Period (T):
It is the time taken to complete one cycle of motion and is denoted by T and measured in
seconds.
3- Frequency (f):
It is the number of cycles per unit time and is denoted by f and measured in Hz or cps.
1
f (1.4)
T
4- Angular (Circular) frequency (ω):
This is the angular velocity of the cyclic motion measured in rad/s.
2
  2 f  (1.5)
T
5- Amplitude of vibration:
It is the maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium position.
6- Phase angle (φ):
It is the angular difference between the occurrence of similar points of two harmonic
motions. If we consider the two waves shown in Fig. 1.6 denoted by:
x1  A1 sin  t (1.6)
and x2  A2 sin ( t   ) (1.7)

Fig. 1.6 Phase difference between two waves

It can be noticed that there is a lag (difference) between the peak of x1 and the peak of x2. The
difference is called phase lag and is measured by the phase angle φ. The two waves are described
to be out of phase by φ degrees.

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1.4 Main elements of a vibrating system:
Figure 1.7 shows the mass-spring-damper system (MSD) which demonstrates the main elements
of a vibrating system. All machines and structures have these fundamental properties (mass,
stiffness, damping) that combine to determine how the machine will react to the forces that cause
vibrations just like the MSD system. Table 1.1 shows the function, forces and energies associated
with each element. It may be noted that there are other forms of damping such as fluid resistance,
friction, etc. however, in this course focus will be given to viscous damping shown in Fig. 1.7
which resembles shock absorbers used in vehicles.

Fig. 1.7 Mass-spring-damper system

Table 1.1 Main elements of a vibrating system details

Mass Spring Damper

Notation m (mass in kg) k (Spring constant or C (Damping coefficient
stiffness in N/m) in N.s/m)
Function Moving element Restoring element Energy dissipating
element
Force Inertia force Spring force Damping force
 F=kx 
F = m a = mx F=Cv= Cx
Energy Kinetic energy Potential energy Dissipated energy
1 1 1 1
2 Cx
2

K.E. = m v  m x
2 2
P.E. = k x D.E. =
2 2 2 2
P.E. = m g h
(If the cg level of the body
is changed by h)

1.4.1 Elastic elements as springs:

Stiffness has other forms in vibrating systems than the simple linear spring. Elastic elements
like beams also behave as springs. Consider a cantilever beam with an end mass m, as shown in
Fig. 1.8. We assume for simplicity that the mass of the beam is negligible in comparison with the
end mass m.

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 Fig. 1.8 Equivalent system of a cantilever beam with end mass

From strength of materials, we know that the static deflection of the beam at the free end is given
by:

W L3
 st  (1.8)
3E I
where W = mg is the weight of the mass, E is Young’s modulus and I is the moment of inertia of
beam cross-section.
Hence, the spring constant is:
W 3E I
k  (1.9)
 st L3
Similar results can be obtained for beams with different end and different loading conditions as
shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2 Equivalent stiffness formulae for different cases *:

Configuration Equivalent stiffness

Longitudinal vibration in rod/cable EA
k
L
Cantilever beam (Fixed – free beam) 3E I
k
L3
Simply-supported beam 48 E I
k
L3
Fixed-fixed beam: k
192 E I
L3
*(For more information on the derivation of these formulae refer to Appendix B in Ref. [1])

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1.4.2 Combinations of springs:
In many practical applications, several linear springs are used in combination. The springs
can be combined into a single equivalent spring as indicated below:

Case (1): Springs in parallel (Common displacement):

For the springs shown in Fig. 1.9, in equilibrium position:

W = k1δst + k2δst (1.10)

where W is the weight of the mass and δst is the static deflection in the springs due to the weight of
the mass and it is shown to be equal in both springs, i.e. displacement is common for parallel
springs.

For the equivalent spring:

W = keq δst (1.11)
Substituting Eq. (11) in Eq. (10) yields:
keq = k1 + k2 (1.12)
Case (2): Springs in series (Common force):

For the springs shown in Fig. 1.10, the deflections in the springs are not equal. However, both
springs are subjected to the same force (W). In equilibrium position:

δst = δ1 + δ2 (1.13)
where δ1 is the deflection in spring k1 and δ2 is the deflection in spring k2.
For k1: δ1 = W/k1, for k2: δ2 = W/k2
and for the equivalent spring keq: δst = W/keq

Substituting in Eq. (13) we get:

1 1 1
  (1.14)
keq k1 k2
k1 k2
keq 
k1  k2

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 Fig. 1.9 springs in parallel

Fig. 1.10 Springs in series

1.5 Vibratory motion and transfer of energy:

The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic energy and
vice versa. If a damper is present in the system, some energy will be lost.

Example: Consider the simple pendulum shown in Fig. 1.11 and the corresponding oscillation in
Fig. 1.12:

1- The mass is given an initial displacement and then released, the pendulum starts
oscillation.

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 2- When the mass m reaches its maximum position, the velocity will be zero and therefore all
the kinetic energy is converted to potential energy due to the elevation of the mass from its
neutral position.
3- This will cause a moment that will restore the mass to return to the neutral position.
4- The mass will not stop but will continue to the maximum position in the other direction.
5- The same as step (2) is repeated.

The sequence of events will continue but the magnitude of oscillation will decrease gradually and
the pendulum will stop due to the resistance (damping) offered by the surrounding medium (air).

Fig. 1.11 Vibration as an interchange between kinetic ad potential energies

Fig. 1.12 Oscillation of the simple pendulum expressed in velocity

1.6 Classification of vibration:

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 Vibration can be classified in several ways. The following are the most important
classifications:

1.6.1 Undamped and damped vibration (Fig. 1.13):

 Undamped vibration occurs when no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other
resistance during oscillation (No damping is present).

 Damped vibration occurs when some energy is lost due to damping.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.13 Classification of vibration according to damping (a) Undamped, (b) Damped vibration

1.6.2 Free and forced vibration:

 Free vibration is the condition when the system is given an initial disturbance (displacement,
velocity or force) and then released to vibrate on its own.
 Forced vibration is the condition when the system is subjected to an external force.
1.7 Harmonic analysis:
A vibration or system response can be represented in both time and frequency domains as shown
in Fig. 1.14 and Fig. 1.15. It can be inferred from Fig. 1.16 that using time domain view for
complex signals is less useful while the frequency spectrum is clear and more informative.

Time waveform: Amplitude varies with time.

Frequency spectrum: Amplitude varies with frequency.

Fast Fourier transform (FFT) is used to convert vibration from time domain to frequency domain.
It is based on the Fourier series principle that indicates that any periodic function in time can be
represented as an infinite series of sine and cosine terms.

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 Fig. 1.14 Example of a single harmonic signal in time and frequency domains

Fig. 1.15 Example of a two-harmonic vibration signal in time and frequency domains

Fig. 1.16 Frequency spectrum versus time waveform for complex signals

1.8 Machine health monitoring:

Predictive maintenance is basically a condition-based preventive maintenance. Various
techniques are used to assess the equipment condition such as:

1- Vibration analysis;
2- Oil analysis;

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 3- Ultrasonics;
4- Temperature measurement, etc.

However, vibration is considered the best indicator of machine condition due to the following
reasons:

1- Its effectiveness in detecting various faults that may occur in a machine such as unbalance,
misalignment, bearing defects, gear defects, mechanical looseness, shaft cracks and flow
related problems.
2- It is a non-destructive method that does not disturb machine operation.
3- It can be used during normal operation and during starts and stops of machines.

Therefore, vibration analysis is primarily used on rotating equipment such as steam turbines,
pumps, motors, compressors, rolling mills, machine tools and gearboxes. The vibrations caused by
the defects occur at specific frequencies which are characteristic of the components. Hence, the
vibration amplitudes at particular frequencies are indicative of the presence and severity of the
faults as illustrated in Fig. 1.17. (Ex: for faulty gears, vibration is high at gear mesh frequency
which equals = rotational frequency of gear * No. of teeth).

Fig. 1.17 Fault detection using vibration

1.9 Degrees of freedom:

Degrees of freedom can be defined as the minimum number of independent coordinates that
describe the motion of a system completely. To specify the DOF for any system, you need to
observe the number of independent displacements for each mass.

DOF = ∑ (Independent displacements of masses)

The systems shown in Fig. 1.18, represent single-degree-of-freedom systems. For example, the
motion of the simple pendulum can be stated either in terms of the angle or in terms of the linear
coordinates. In this example, we find that the choice of θ as the independent coordinate will be
more convenient than the choice of x or y. For the torsional system (long bar with a heavy disk at
theend) shown in Fig. 1.18, the angular coordinate can be also used to describe the motion. The
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mass-pulley system motion can be represented by either the linear displacement of the mass or the
angular displacement of the pulley because the two coordinates are dependent on each other
through this equation (x = r θ) assuming no slip condition where r is the radius of the pulley.

Fig. 1.19 and Fig. 1.20 show examples of two-DOF and three-DOF systems respectively. Some
systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members, have an infinite number of
degrees of freedom. As a simple example, consider the cantilever beam shown in Fig. 1.21. Since
the beam has an infinite number of mass points, we need an infinite number of coordinates to
specify its deflected configuration. Thus the cantilever beam has an infinite number of degrees of
freedom. Most structural and machine systems have deformable (elastic) members and therefore
have an infinite number of degrees of freedom.

Fig. 1.18 Examples of 1-DOF systems

Fig. 1.19 Examples of 2-DOF systems

Fig. 1.20 Examples of 3-DOF systems

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 Fig. 1.21 A cantilever beam having infinite number of DOF

1.10 Modelling of a vibrating system:

Vibration analysis of an engineering system usually involves the following steps:

1- Mathematical modelling:
First specify the purpose of the analysis. Second identify the elements of the system
based on the purpose of the analysis.
2- Derivation of the governing equations.
3- Solution of the governing equation.
4- Interpretation of the results.

Steps 1 and 4 depend on the experience and judgment of the analyzer while steps 2 and 3 depend
on mathematical treatment.

Example: Modelling of an automobile:

Model 1 (Fig. 1.22.a): The simplest quarter-model (1 DOF)

 Masses of the engine, gearbox, body, frame, passengers can be lumped as a single mass.
 Tires and suspension system can be modeled as one spring and one damper.
 One coordinate: the vertical displacement of the mass.

Model 2 (Fig. 1.22.b): More sophisticated quarter model (2 DOF)

 The masses of the wheel axles are considered.

 The suspension and tires are considered separately as springs and dampers.
 Two coordinates: the vertical displacements of the two masses.

Model 3 (Fig. 1.22.c): Simple half-vehicle model (2 DOF)

 The rotational motion of the car body is taken into account (center of gravity of car body
is in the middle).
 The suspension stiffness values are not equal.
 The masses of the wheel axles are not considered.
 Two coordinates: Vertical and rotational displacements of the mass.

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Model 4 (Fig. 1.22.d): Half-vehicle model (4 DOF)

 The rotational motion of the car body is taken into account (center of gravity of car body
is not in the middle).
 The masses of the wheel axles are considered.
 The suspension and tires are considered separately as springs and dampers.
 Four coordinates: Vertical and rotational displacements of the vehicle mass and the two
displacements of the two masses.

Model 5 (Fig. 1.22.e): Half-vehicle model (5 DOF)

 The car seat is considered as a mass, spring and damper in addition to the assumptions of
model 4 also.
 Five coordinates: Vertical and rotational displacements of the vehicle mass, the two
displacements of the two masses and the displacement of the car seat.

More sophisticated models are shown in Fig. 1.23 as extra information.

(a) (b)

(c)

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 (d) (e)

Fig.1.22 Models of an automobile using different assumptions

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 1.23 Sophisticated models of automobile, (a) Two passengers are taken into account (6 DOF),
(b) One passenger body is taken as several masses, springs and dampers (9 DOF) and (c) Full car
model (10 DOF)

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 Chapter II
Single degree of freedom systems

2.1 Free vibration of undamped SDOF system:

Figure 2.1 shows a spring-mass system that represents the simplest possible vibratory system. The
motion is called free vibration because there is no external force applied to the mass. Motion is
started by initial displacement and/or velocity at t = 0. The system is undamped because there is
no element that causes dissipation of energy during the motion of the mass. Therefore, the
amplitude of motion remains constant with time. The governing equation of a vibrating system is
called the equation of motion (EOM) and it is a second order ordinary differential equation whose
solution gives the displacement of the system at any instant of time. There are different methods to
determine the equation of motion of vibrating system. In this course, we will focus on two
methods; Newton’s law and energy method.

Fig. 2.1 Spring-mass system in horizontal direction

2.1.1 Equation of motion using Newton’s second law of motion:

Newton’s law states that:

“The rate of change of momentum of a mass is equal to the resultant force acting on it.”

d dx
F  (m )  m x  (2.1)
dt dt
In other words: Resultant force on the mass = mass * acceleration.

For rotational or torsional motion, Newton’s law becomes:


M J  (2.2)
where M= resultant moment on the mass and J = mass moment of inertia
The procedure of finding the EOM will be as follows:
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 1- Select a suitable coordinate (displacement) to describe the motion of the mass in the
system.
Linear motion ----------------> Linear coordinate (x, y, …)
Angular motion --------------> Angular coordinate (θ, φ, …)
2- Determine the static equilibrium position of the system.
3- Draw the free-body diagram of the mass if given initial conditions. Indicate all the forces
acting on the mass.
4- Apply Newton’s law to the mass.
5- Rearrange to get the EOM in the standard form.

Applying Newton’s law to the mass shown in Fig. 2.1, we get:

 k x  m x 

 m x   k x  0 (2.3)

Eq. (2.3) represents the equation of motion of the system (EOM).

Now, we will consider the same system but in vertical position as shown in Fig. 2.2.

(a) (b)

δst
δst
δst

W = mg

Fig. 2.2 Spring-mass system in vertical direction, (a) mass at rest, (b) after vibration

At static equilibrium condition (mass at rest):

∑F=0 m g = k δst (2.4)


After vibration, we apply Newton’s law (  F  m x ) and we get:

 k ( st  x)  mg  m x  (2.5)
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Substitute Eq. (2.4) in Eq. (2.5) we get:

 k x  m x   m x   k x  0 (2.6)

2.1.2 Equation of motion using Energy method (principle of conservation of energy):

For a conservative system, the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy is a constant:

K.E. + P.E. = Constant (2.7)

d
or ( K .E.  P.E.)  0 (2.8)
dt

The procedure of finding the EOM will be as follows:

1- Determine K.E. of the system.

2- Determine P.E. of the system.
3- Substitute with 1 and 2 in Eq. (2.8).
4- Rearrange to get the standard form of the equation of motion (EOM).

Applying this method to the spring-mass system shown in Fig. 2.2, we get:

1 2
Step 1: K . E .  m x
2

1 2
Step 2: P.E.  kx
2

Step 3: substitute in Eq. (2.8):

d 1 1
( m x   k x 2)  0
2

dt 2 2

Applying the differentiation and rearranging we get:

x ( m x   k x)  0

x  0  m x   k x  0 (2.9)

which represents the same equation of motion got using Newton’s law.

2.2 Natural frequency:

Natural frequency of a given system can be defined as the frequency at which a system vibrates
naturally without external forces.

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Mathematically, natural frequency is calculated by:

Coefficient of x in EOM
n
Coefficient of x  in EOM

In other words:

Equivalent stiffness
n (2.10)
Equivalent mass

Applying this equation to Eq. (2.9) we get:

k
n (2.11)
m

Also, natural frequency can be calculated using static deflection (δst):

Recalling that at static equilibrium condition (Fig. 2.2): m g = k δst

k g
or 
m  st

g
n (2.12)
 st

It is important to identify the natural frequency of engineering systems during modelling and
design stage in order to prevent a dangerous condition called resonance.

Resonance is the condition at which the system vibrates at a frequency that equals its natural
frequency. The resulting vibration will be extremely high and dangerous and will cause
catastrophic failure of the system.

Example: If natural frequency of a system equals 25 rad/s, and the system is excited to vibrate by a
frequency that equals 25 rad/s or near to it, resonance occurs.

2.3 Free vibration of damped SDOF system:

Fig. 2.3 shows a mass-spring-damper system. Due to the presence of the damper, some of the
energy of the system will be dissipated. Applying Newton’s law to the system, we get:


F m x  k x  c x   m x 


 mx c x  k x 0 (2.13)

20
Eq. (2.13) represents the EOM of the damped system.

δst δst

Fig. 2.3 Damped SDOF system

Homogeneous solution of the EOM:

The EOM for free damped SDOF system is an ordinary differential equation of the second order.
It is called a homogeneous differential equation because the right hand side of the equation is
equal to zero. To derive the homogeneous solution, first assume that the solution is in the form of:

x (t )  Ae st (2.14)

Differentiating Eq. (2.14) to get the first and second derivative:

x ( t )  As es t and x  (t )  As 2 es t (2.15)

Substituting Eq. (2.14) and Eq. (2.15) in Eq. (2.13) we get:

m A s 2 e st  c A s e st  k Ae st  0
Ae st ( m s 2  c s  k )  0
Ae st  0  ( m s 2  c s  k )  0
(2.16)
c k
 s2  s   0
m m
Now, consider ζ as the damping ratio and it is defined as:

Damping ratio is the ratio between the damping coefficient of a system and the critical damping
coefficient.

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 c c
 
ccr 2 m n (2.17)

where (ccr = 2 m ωn) is the critical damping coefficient and can be defined as the minimum
damping required to allow a mass to return to its original position in the shortest time without
vibration.

c k
From Eq. (2.17) we can get that:  2  n and putting:  n2 .
m m

Substituting in Eq. (2.16), we get:

s 2  2  n s  n2  0 (2.18)

which is a quadratic equation of the form ( a s  b s  c  0 ) with two roots that can be solved
2

using the following formula:

b  b2  4ac
s (2.19)
2a

Therefore, Eq. (2.18) has the following roots:

s    n  n  2  1 (2.20)

Hence, the exact solution of the EOM will be:

x(t )  Ae s1 t  B e s2 t (2.21)

There are three cases for the roots s1 and s2 depending on the value of the damping ratio (ζ):

 2 1 +ve (if ζ > 1)

zero (if ζ = 1)

-ve (if ζ < 1)

Case 1: Over-damped system (ζ > 1):

s1    n  n  2  1
Two real roots

s2    n  n  2  1

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Substitute in Eq. (2.21) we get the response of an over-damped system:

(  n  n ( 2 1) ) t (  n  n ( 2 1) ) t
x(t )  Ae  Be (2.22)

Figure 2.4 shows the plot of Eq. (2.22) for different cases of over-damping. It is shown that the
mass will return to its original position without oscillation. The increase of damping factor ζ will
increase the time needed to reach the position of rest.

Case 2: Critically-damped system (ζ = 1):

s1  s2    n   n Two real equal roots

Fig. 2.4 Response of over-damped system

Therefore, the response of critically-damped system will be:

n t
x ( t )  ( A  B t )e (2.23)

Figure 2.5 shows the plot of Eq. (2.23).

Application: Large guns have dampers with critical damping value so that they return to their
original position after recoil in minimum time without vibrating.

Fig. 2.5 Response of critically-damped system

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Case 3: Under-damped system (ζ < 1):

s    n  i n 1   2 Two imaginary roots

where i  1

Now, we will define the damped natural frequency:

d  n 1   2 (2.24)

Therefore, the roots can be written as follows:

s1    n  i d and s1    n  i d

Substituting in Eq. (2.21) we get:

(  n  id ) t (  n  id ) t
x(t )  Ae Be
(  n t ) (  id t) (  n t ) ( id t)
 Ae e Be e
(  n t )
e  Ae(  id t)  B e( id t) 
 
i
Recalling that: e d  cos d t  i sin d t and e i d  cos d t  i sin d t

Then, the response of under-damped system can be written in trigonometric form as follows:

x (t )  e   n t  A1 cos d t  B1 sin d t 
or  C e   n t sin (d t  1 ) (2.25)

A1
where C  A12  B12 and 1  Tan 1 as shown in Fig. 2.6.
B1

C
B1
φ1 Reference
A1 ωd t

Fig. 2.6 Vectorial addition of two harmonic functions

Figure 2.7 represents the plot of Eq. (2.25). It can be shown that the system experiences oscillation
in this case.

24
Calculation of constants A1 and B1 from the initial conditions:

Assume the initial conditions are:

I.C. 1: initial displacement x(t=0) = x0 and

I.C. 2: initial velocity v(t=0) = v0.

Substituting I.C. 1 in Eq. (2.25), we get:

A1 = x0 (2.26)

Now, differentiate Eq. (2.25) to get the equation of velocity as follows:

v(t )  x (t )    n e   n t  A1 cos d t  B1 sin d t   e   n t  A1 d sin d t  B1 d cos d t  (2.27)

Substitute I.C. 2 in Eq. (2.27), we get:

v0    n A1  B1 d

v0   n x0
 B1 
d

Hence, the under-damped solution will be:

 v   n x0 
x (t )  e   n t  x0 cos d t  ( 0 )sin d t  (2.28)
 d 

Special case: Assume no damping is present (ζ = 0 and then ωd = ωn). The response of the
undamped system can be deduced to be written as follows:

x (t )  A1 cos n t  B1 sin n t
or  C sin (n t  1 ) (2.29)

25
 Fig. 2.7 Response of under-damped system

Figure 2.8 shows a comparison between the behaviour of the system for the different cases of
damping. It is shown that:

1- Undamped system: Vibration amplitude is constant and do not decrease with time;
2- Under-damped system: Vibration amplitude decreases with time;
3- Over-damped system: System returns to original position without vibration;
4- Critically-damped system: System returns to original position without vibration in
shorter time in comparison with over-damped system.

Fig. 2.8 Comparison of motions with different types of damping

26
2.4 Logarithmic decrement:
Logarithmic decrement (δ) represents the rate at which the amplitude of a free damped vibration
decreases. It is defined as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes. It is
a method used to estimate the damping ratio experimentally from the free response.

x1
  ln (2.30)
x2

Let t1 and t2 denote the times corresponding to two consecutive amplitudes x1 and x2 measured one
cycle apart for an under-damped system. Using Eq. (2.25), we can form the ratio:

x1 C e   n t1 sin (d t1  1 )

x2 C e   n t2 sin (d t2  1 ) (2.31)

2
t2  t1  Td and Td 
d

sin (d t2  1 )  sin (d (t1  Td )  1 )  sin (d t1  2   1)  sin (d t1  1)

Substituting in Eq. (2.28) we get:

x1 e   n t1
    ( t  T )  e   n Td
x2 e n 1 d

x1 2 2
   ln   n Td   n   n
x2 d  (1   2 )
n

2 
 (2.32)
(1   2 )

or simply for small ζ:

  2  (2.33)

Tip: A more general law of logarithmic decrement is:

1 xi
  ln (2.34)
n xi  n

where n = number of cycles separating two amplitudes xi and xi+n.

27
Application:

Experimental procedure to estimate the damping ratio (ζ) using logarithmic decrement (δ):

1- For a damped system, initiate free vibration by giving an initial displacement then
releasing the system;
2- Measure the resulting vibration;
3- Measure any two successive amplitudes in the vibration signal (x1 and x2);
4- Calculate the logarithmic decrement using Eq. (3.30);
5- Calculate the damping ratio from Eq. (3.33).

2.5 Forced vibration of damped systems:

For the shown system in Fig. 2.9, the equation of motion is as follows:


mx  c x   k x  f (t ) (2.35)

where f(t) is an externally applied harmonic force and can be expressed as follows:

f (t )  F0 sin  t (2.36)

Mathematically, the EOM of a forced system is a non-homogeneous ordinary differential

equation; therefore its complete solution consists of two parts: complementary function and
particular integral. The complementary function represents the homogeneous solution (i.e. taking

the equation as ( mx  c x   k x  0 ) which is the free vibration case explained earlier in
section 2.3. The particular integral is the solution of the equation taking into account the applied
force.

Practically, all forced systems experience a stage of free vibrations which is called transient
vibrations due to the initial conditions and another stage of forced vibrations and is called steady-
state vibrations. Hence, the complete solution of the EOM will be:

x(t )  xtr  xss (2.37)

or x(t) = transient free response + steady-state forced response

The transient free response of a damped system is expressed by Eq. (2.25). Now, we will focus on
obtaining the stead-state response which is exclusively due to the applied force.

Assume xss(t) to be a harmonic motion having the same form as the applied force f(t) as follows:

xss (t )  X sin ( t   ) (2.38)

where X = amplitude of steady-state vibration

28
 φ = phase angle between the applied force and the resulting vibration (see Fig. 2.10)

Fig. 2.10 Phase difference between force and response

Follows that:


xss (t )  X  cos ( t   )
 (2.39)
xss (t )   X 2 sin ( t   )

Substitute Eq. (3.36), Eq. (3.38) and Eq. (3.39) in Eq. (3.35), we get:

 m 2 X sin ( t   )  c  X cos( t   )  k X sin ( t   )  F0 sin  t (2.40)

Inertia force Damping force Spring force External force

Fig. 2.11 represents the graphical representation of Eq. (2.40) is as follows:

mΩ2 X
cΩ X
F0
kX
Ωt
φ Reference

Fig. 2.11 Vectorial representation of Eq. (2.40)

To get the amplitude of steady-state, use Pythagoras theorem:

F02  (k X  m 2 X )2  (c  X)2
 X 2 [( K  m 2 )2  (c )2 ]

29
 F0
 X
( k  m  2 ) 2  ( c ) 2

Divide the numerator and denominator by k and put (cΩ/k) = 2 ζ Ω / ωn:

F0 / k
 X
 2
2 
(1  )2  ( )2
n2 n


Define the frequency ratio ( r  ), we get:
n

F0 / k
 X (2.41)
(1  r 2 )2  (2  r)2

From Fig. 2.10 we can get the phase angle (φ) as follows:

c X
Tan   ,
X ( k  m 2 )

Rearranging we get:

2 r
  Tan 1 (2.42)
1 r2

Hence, the steady-state response is expressed as:

F0 / k
xss (t )  sin ( t   ) (2.43)
(1  r )  (2  r)
2 2 2

The complete solution will be:

  n t F0 / k
x (t )  e  A1 cos d t  B1 sin d t   sin ( t   ) (2.44)
(1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2

2.6 Magnification factor:

It is the ratio between the amplitude of steady-state vibration and the static displacement in the
spring due to the initial application of the force. It is also called amplitude ratio and
amplification factor.

X
 (2.45)
X st

30
where X= amplitude of steady-state vibration

Xst = static displacement due to initial application of force

F0
X st  (2.46)
k

1
  (2.47)
(1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2

The variation of (λ) and phase angle (φ) with the frequency ratio (r) and the damping ratio (ζ) is
shown in Fig. 2.12.

Notes on Fig. 2.12.a: (λ vs r at different ζ)

1- For an undamped system at resonance (ζ = 0 and r = 1): λ = ∞;
2- As ζ increases, λ decreases;
3- The reduction in λ is more significant at or near resonance;
4- For a constant force (r = 0): λ = 0;
5- As r increases, λ decreases;
1
6- At resonance: res  .
2

Notes on Fig. 2.12.b: (φ vs r at different ζ)

1- For an undamped system (ζ = 0):
φ = 0° for r<1
φ = 180° for r>1
2- For damped system:
(a) For r<1 : 0 < φ < 90° (response lags the excitation)
(b) For r > 1 : 90°< φ < 180° (response leads the excitation)
(c) For r=1 : φ = 90° for all values of ζ
3- Before resonance (r < 1): As ζ increases, φ increases
4- After resonance (r > 1): As ζ increases, φ decreases

31
 Fig. 2.12 Magnification factor and phase angle versus frequency ratio at different values of
damping ratio

2.7 Quality factor and bandwidth:

Quality factor is the value of the magnification factor at resonance.

1
Q  res 
2 (2.48)

Q
Half-power points are the points r1 and r2 where the magnification factor equals .
2

Bandwidth (ΔΩ) is the difference between the frequencies associated with the half-power points
Q
at   .
2

ΔΩ = Ω2 – Ω1 ≈ 2 ζ ωn (2.49)

From Eq. (3.48) and Eq. (3.49), we get:

1 n
Q  (2.50)
2  2  1

32
Application:

Estimation of the damping ratio from the forced response:

Given the steady-state response in Fig. 2.13 we can find the damping ratio using the following
procedure:
1- From the curve, record the maximum value of Q at r = 1 (Ω = ωn).
Q
2- Draw a line corresponding to the value of .
2
3- Record the corresponding values of the half-power points R1 and R2.
4- Record the bandwidth ΔΩ = Ω2 – Ω1.
5- Estimate the damping ratio from the following relation:
  1
 2
2 n

Fig. 2.13 Use of quality factor and bandwidth to estimate damping ratio

2.8 Effect of changing system parameters:

Practically, it is very difficult to change one physical parameter (mass, for example) without
changing another parameter (stiffness, for example). However, it is important to understand how a
change in physical parameters will affect the system properties and response. Table 2.1 shows the
effect of changing mass, stiffness and damping on natural frequency and steady-state amplitude.
Figure 2.14 illustrates the information of Table 2.1.

33
Table 2.1 Effect of changing system parameters

Change of mass (m) Change of stiffness (k) Change of damping (c)

Effect on ωn As m increases, ωn As k increases, ωn Change of c has no effect on
k decreases increases ωn
n 
m
Effect on X As m increases, X As k increases, X As c increases, X decreases
increases decreases especially at resonance

(a) (b)
Increase of k
Increase of m

(c)

Increase of c

Fig. 2.14 Effect of changing (a) mass, (b) stiffness, (c) damping on system response

2.9 Applications of forced vibration:

2.9.1 Rotating unbalance:

Unbalance in rotating machines is one of the main causes of vibrations. Unbalance can be defined
as uneven distribution of mass around an axis of rotation. It can be due to an increase in mass or a
decrease in mass. A rotating mass is said to be out of balance when its center of mass (inertia axis)
is out of alignment with the center of rotation (geometric axis). Forms of unbalance include wear,
broken tooth in gears, broken or lost blade in fans and impellers, excess dirt on a rotating part,

34
adhesions, non-homogeneous materials, and manufacturing inaccuracies. Unbalance is usually
corrected in real machines by adding or removing mass such as in balancing car tires.

We consider here a spring-mass system constrained to move in the vertical direction and excited
by a rotating machine that is unbalanced as shown in Fig. 2.15. The unbalance is represented by an
eccentric mass m with eccentricity e that is rotating with angular velocity Ω. The total mass of the
machine including the unbalance mass is denoted as M.

Fig. 2.15 Rotating unbalance machine

The rotating unbalance mass causes an unbalance force (centrifugal force) that can be expressed
as:

f (t )  F0 sin  t (2.51)

where F0  m e  2 (2.52)

The EOM of the forced system will be as follows:

M x  c x  k x  m e  2 sin  t (2.53)

To get the amplitude of steady-state vibration, substitute Eq. (2.52) in Eq. (2.41):

me 2 / k m e  2 / M n2 mer 2 / M

X  
(1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2 (1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2 (1  r 2 )2  (2  r)2

MX r2
  (2.54)
me (1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2

MX
Variation of with frequency ratio (r) for different values of damping factor (ζ) is shown in
me
Fig. 2.16.
35
 MX
Fig. 2.16 Variation of with frequency ratio (r) for different values of damping factor (ζ)
me

Notes on Fig. 2.16:

1- All the curves begin at zero amplitude;
MX
2- At large r, is almost 1, i.e. the effect of damping is negligible in this range;
me
MX
3- At and near resonance (r = 1), damping effect is very significant (As ζ increases,
me
decreases);
4- The phase angle variation is the same as Fig. 2.12.b.

2.9.2 Vibration isolation:

The effect of vibratory forces in machines can be minimized by using proper isolation system. An
isolation system, in its simplest form, can be rubber pads placed under machine supports such as
in home appliances, air-conditioning systems or small motors and pumps. Figure 2.17 shows
different types of vibration isolators. Usually, a vibration isolator is modeled as a spring and a
damper.

36
 Fig. 2.17 Vibration isolators

An isolation system has either two functions:

1- To prevent vibration forces generated by the machine to be transmitted to its surroundings.

2- To protect the machine from transmitted vibration from its support or nearby machines
(will be discussed in the next section).

Consider the shown system in Fig. 2.18 which represents a machine of mass m mounted on
vibration isolators incorporating some damping.


As discussed before, the EOM of this system is m x  c x  k x  F0 sin  t where
F0 / k
xss (t )  X sin ( t   ) and X  .
(1  r )  (2  r ) 2
2 2

Now we will find the transmitted force to the machine support through the spring and damper as
follows:

FT (t )  k x  c x  K X sin ( t   )  C  X cos( t   ) (2.55)

From Fig. 2.19, we can deduce the amplitude of the transmitted force and its angle as follows:

FT

kX
cΩX
β
Ωt-φ Reference

Fig. 2.19 Vectorial representation of Eq. (55)

Amplitude of transmitted force:

FT  (k X )2  (c  X )2 (2.56)

and the angle of the transmitted force =  t    

c X c
where   Tan 1  Tan 1  Tan 1 (2  r ) (2.57)
kX k

Transmissibility of forces:

It is the ratio of the transmitted force to the support to the original applied force to the machine.
Transmissibility is a measure of how much force is transmitted to the support through the
vibration isolators. Hence, it is a measure of the effectiveness of the isolation system.

37
 FT
TR  (2.58)
F0

F0 / k
X
(1  r )  (2  r )2
2 2

( F0 / k ) k 2  (c )2 F0 1  (c  / k )2
FT  X k 2  (c )2  
(1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2 (1  r 2 )2  (2  r ) 2

where c  / k  2  r

FT 1  (2  r )2
 TR   (2.59)
F0 (1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2

Hint: Assume that the TR is 20 % then the isolation can be estimated to be 80 %.

Figure 2.20 shows the variation of the transmissibility (TR) with the frequency ratio (r) for
different values of damping factor (ζ).

Notes on Fig. 2.20:

1- For r = 0, TR =1;
2- For ζ = 0, TR = ∞ at r = 1;
3- For r > 2 , TR < 1 for all values of damping ζ;
4- At r = 2 , TR = 1 for all values of damping;
5- For r < 2 , as ζ increases, TR decreases;
6- For r > 2 , as ζ increases, TR increases.

From Fig. 2.20, vibration isolation can be achieved by selecting vibration isolators that makes:

Ω > > ωn and hence r > > 2 and TR < < 1 Vibration isolation condition

38
 TR

Fig. 2.20 Variation of transmissibility with frequency ratio for different values of damping factor

2.9.3 Support motion:

Sometimes the base or support of a spring-mass-damper system undergoes harmonic motion, as
shown in Fig. 2.21. Let y(t) denote the displacement of the base and x(t) the displacement of the
mass from its static equilibrium position at time t. Then the net elongation of the spring is (x – y)
and the relative velocity between the two ends of the damper is ( x  y ) .

Fig. 2.21 Support motion

39
From the free body diagram shown in Fig. 2.21.b, the equation of motion can be got using
Newton’s law:


F m x

 c ( x   y  )  k ( x  y )  m x 

Rearranging:

m x  c x  k x  k y  c y 

If y  Y sin  t and hence, y  Y  cos  t , then:

m x  c x  k x  k Y sin  t  cY  cos  t

 F0 sin ( t   )

where F0  (k Y )  (c  Y )  Y k 2  (c  )2 (Based on vectorial addition as shown before)

2 2

1 c
and   Tan
k

F0 / k
X
(1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2

(Y k 2  (c )2 ) / k 1  (2  r )2
 X Y
(1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2 (1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2

X 1  (2  r )2
TR   (2.60)
Y (1  r 2 )2  (2  r )2

where TR is the transmissibility of displacement and represents the percentage of support

displacement that is transmitted to the mass through the spring and damper.

Comparing Eq. (2.59) and Eq. (2.60) shows that the force transmissibility and displacement
transmissibility are identical. Hence, Fig. 2.20 represents both types of transmissibility.

Application:

This model can be used to represent a vehicle travelling over a rough road which resembles a sine
wave or a machine mounted on a vibrating foundation.

40