1.

Examples of Wireless Communication Systems

Wireless communication systems are used to transmit information over distances without the use
of physical connections (wires). Here are some examples:

 Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology used to

connect devices (like laptops, smartphones, and tablets) to the internet or local area
networks (LANs). It operates on 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz radio bands, offering
high-speed internet access within a limited range (typically 100 meters).
 Bluetooth: A short-range wireless communication technology that allows devices
to exchange data over distances of up to 100 meters. Common applications include
wireless headsets, speakers, and connecting peripheral devices (keyboards, mice)
to computers and phones.

 Cellular Networks (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G): Cellular networks provide mobile
communication services (voice, text, and data) over large areas using cell towers.
With each generation (2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G), there is a significant improvement in
speed, data capacity, and coverage.

 Satellite Communication: Satellites are used for global communication services,

such as television broadcasting, GPS, and global internet services. These systems
allow communication over long distances, such as between continents, without
requiring terrestrial infrastructure.

 ZigBee: A low-power, short-range wireless technology used for applications like

home automation, smart energy, and IoT (Internet of Things) devices.
 2. Short Note on Cordless Telephone Systems

A cordless telephone system consists of two main parts: a handset and a base station. The
handset communicates with the base station via radio signals, eliminating the need for a physical
telephone line.

 Frequency Range: Cordless phones generally operate in 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, or 5.8 GHz
ISM (Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) bands.
o Usage: They provide mobility within a certain range (typically 100 meters from the
base station), allowing users to make and receive calls while moving around the
house or office.
 Advantages:
o Portability: Unlike wired telephones, users can move around while using the phone.
o Convenience: No cables or wires are involved.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited Range: The range is much smaller compared to mobile phones.
o Interference: Cordless phones may experience interference from other devices
operating on the same frequency, like microwave ovens and Wi-Fi routers.

3. IEEE Standard Name for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

 Wi-Fi: The IEEE standard for Wi-Fi is IEEE 802.11. This standard defines wireless local
area networks (WLANs), specifying the protocols for implementing communication in
wireless networks.
 Bluetooth: The IEEE standard for Bluetooth is IEEE 802.15.1, which is part of the IEEE
802.15 family that defines wireless personal area networks (PANs). Bluetooth supports
short-range communication (up to 100 meters) and is widely used for connecting personal
devices like headphones, phones, and computers.
4. Advantages & Disadvantages of WLAN

A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) allows devices to communicate wirelessly within a
limited geographic area, such as a home, office, or campus. The most popular WLAN technology
is Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).

 Advantages:
o Mobility: Users can connect to the network from anywhere within range, providing
great flexibility in movement and positioning.
o Easy Setup: WLANs require no physical cables for connection, which makes them
easier and cheaper to set up compared to wired networks.
o Cost Savings: It reduces the cost of wiring in large buildings or open spaces.

 Disadvantages:
o Security Risks: WLANs are vulnerable to unauthorized access if not properly
secured (e.g., through encryption protocols like WPA3).
o Interference: Wireless signals can be disrupted by obstacles (walls, furniture) or
interference from other devices operating in similar frequency ranges (e.g.,
microwaves, Bluetooth).
o Limited Range: The coverage area of a WLAN is smaller compared to wired
networks and is dependent on factors like building layout and obstacles.

5. Define WLL (Wireless Local Loop)

WLL (Wireless Local Loop) refers to a system in which wireless communication

technology is used for the "last mile" connection between the telephone exchange and the
end-user. It is used as an alternative to wired telephone lines in rural or difficult-to-wire areas.
  Use Case: WLL is used to provide telephone services and data (internet) to remote or
underserved locations where laying traditional copper or fiber optic cables is not feasible.

 Advantages:
o Quick deployment in areas with difficult terrain.
o Lower infrastructure costs compared to wired networks.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited capacity in terms of bandwidth and the number of users that can be connected.
o Vulnerable to interference from other radio systems.

6. Briefly Explain Mobile Radio Evolution

Mobile radio communication has evolved through several generations, each improving upon the
previous one in terms of technology, speed, and data services:

 1G (First Generation – Analog): Introduced in the 1980s, 1G was an analog system

providing only voice communication. It had limited coverage, poor security, and
low-quality voice services.
 2G (Second Generation – Digital): Launched in the 1990s, 2G networks used digital
signals and enabled services like SMS (text messaging) and limited data transmission
(GPRS and EDGE). GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) was the
dominant 2G technology.
 3G (Third Generation): Rolled out in the early 2000s, 3G introduced mobile internet
access, allowing for faster data speeds and multimedia services like video calling. UMTS
(Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) was a key 3G technology.
 4G (Fourth Generation): 4G networks offer even faster internet speeds (up to 1 Gbps),
enabling high-definition video streaming, online gaming, and video calls. The dominant
technology is LTE (Long-Term Evolution).
 5G (Fifth Generation):5G offers ultra-low latency, high capacity, and speeds up to 10
Gbps. It supports massive IoT deployments, autonomous vehicles, and high-quality
 immersive experiences like AR/VR.

7. Briefly Compare Common Wireless Communication Systems

Here's a comparison of common wireless communication systems:

 Wi-Fi: A technology for local wireless networks (WLANs), providing high-speed

internet access over short to medium distances (up to 100 meters). Ideal for home,
office, and public networks.
 Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology (up to 100 meters) designed for
connecting devices like headphones, speakers, and other peripherals. It operates in
the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
 Cellular Networks: Provide mobile communication over wide areas using cell
towers. Technologies include 2G (GSM), 3G (UMTS), 4G (LTE), and 5G.
 Satellite Communication: Uses satellites to provide communication over long
distances. Applications include global communication, GPS, satellite TV, and
internet access.
 ZigBee: A low-power, low-data-rate wireless communication technology used in
IoT applications like home automation and smart energy systems.
 NFC: A very short-range wireless technology used for secure communication, such
as contactless payments and data transfer between devices placed in close
proximity.

8. Explain 2G and 3G Cellular Networks

 2G (Second Generation):
 Key Feature: Digital communication replacing analog.
 Technology: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), CDMA.
 Services: Voice calls, SMS, and basic data services like GPRS (General Packet
Radio Service) and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution).
 Speed: Maximum data speed of 50-100 kbps.
  3G (Third Generation):
 Key Feature: High-speed mobile data.
 Technology: UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System), HSPA
(High-Speed Packet Access).
 Services: Mobile internet, video calling, mobile TV.
 Speed: Maximum data speed of 2-5 Mbps for mobile internet.

9. Explain WLL and WLAN

 WLL (Wireless Local Loop): A wireless communication system used for last-mile
connectivity between the central office (telephone exchange) and the end user. It is often
used in rural or remote areas where traditional telephone lines cannot be installed.
 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network): A wireless network that connects devices within a
limited area like a home, office, or campus. It provides internet and data services through
Wi-Fi, using the IEEE 802.11 standard. WLAN offers high-speed access but with a limited
range (typically 100 meters).

10. Short Note on GSM and GPRS

 GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications): A 2G mobile network standard that
provides digital voice services and SMS. It is the most widely used mobile network
technology globally.
 GPRS (General Packet Radio Service): An enhancement to GSM, GPRS enables
packet-switched data services, allowing mobile users to access the internet and
send/receive emails at speeds of up to 171 kbps.

11. Short Note on Bluetooth and PAN

 Bluetooth: A wireless communication technology used for short-range data transfer

between devices like smartphones, laptops, and peripherals. Bluetooth operates in the 2.4
GHz ISM band and supports devices within a range of up to 100 meters.
  PAN (Personal Area Network):A small-scale network typically used for connecting
personal devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Bluetooth is a common technology
for PANs.

12. Define Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a wireless communication standard used for short-range data exchange between
devices. It operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band and is designed for low-power, low-cost, and
short-range connections (typically up to 100 meters). It’s commonly used for connecting headsets,
speakers, keyboards, and other personal devices.

13. Describe WLAN Standards

WLAN Standards are defined by the IEEE 802.11 family. The most common standards include:

 802.11a: Operates in the 5 GHz band with speeds up to 54 Mbps.

 802.11b: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band with speeds up to 11 Mbps.
 802.11g: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band with speeds up to 54 Mbps.
 802.11n: Operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands with speeds up to 600 Mbps.
 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5): Operates in the 5 GHz band with speeds up to 1 Gbps.
 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Latest standard, operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, and can
deliver speeds up to 9.6 Gbps.

14. Define IEEE 802.11

IEEE 802.11 is the family of standards that governs wireless local area networks (WLANs). It
defines the protocols for wireless communication in local area networks, specifying the physical
(PHY) and data link (MAC) layers for communication. The most popular and widely used 802.11
standard is Wi-Fi, which is used in homes, offices, and public hotspots to provide wireless internet
access.

The standard includes several amendments, such as:

  802.11a: Operates in the 5 GHz band and provides speeds up to 54 Mbps.
 802.11b: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band and supports speeds up to 11 Mbps.
 802.11g: Also operates in the 2.4 GHz band, but with speeds up to 54 Mbps.
 802.11n: Operates in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, providing speeds up to 600 Mbps.
 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5): Operates in the 5 GHz band and supports speeds up to 1 Gbps.
 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Latest standard, offering speeds up to 9.6 Gbps and improved
efficiency, especially in dense environments.

15. Enhancements in IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX)

IEEE 802.16 is the standard for WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), a
high-speed broadband wireless technology designed for both fixed and mobile applications. The
key enhancements in IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX) include:

 Mobile WiMAX (802.16e): This enhancement allows for mobility, enabling high-speed
broadband access for mobile devices. It can provide data rates up to 1 Gbps for fixed
stations and 100 Mbps for mobile stations.
 Advanced Antenna Systems: Utilizes techniques such as MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple
Output) for better spectral efficiency and higher data rates.
 QoS (Quality of Service): Enhanced support for different types of traffic, providing
prioritization for voice, video, and data.
 Improved Security: Includes robust security mechanisms to ensure data integrity and user
privacy.
 Increased Range and Coverage: WiMAX can provide wide-area broadband access, even in
rural and remote areas, with a range of up to 30 miles for fixed applications.

16. Define HIPER LAN

HIPERLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network) is a European standard for
high-speed wireless LANs. It is similar to Wi-Fi but is designed to offer better data rates and more
efficient spectrum usage. HIPERLAN offers better quality of service (QoS) and supports
high-speed internet access, video, and voice services.
  Key Features:
 Operates in the 5 GHz band.
 Provides high-speed data rates up to 100 Mbps.
 Supports multimedia services such as video streaming and conferencing.
 Includes mobility support, enabling seamless handover as users move between access
points.

However, HIPERLAN has largely been superseded by Wi-Fi technologies (802.11) for consumer
WLANs, though it is still used in some niche applications.

17. Discuss Various Types of Wireless Services and Their Requirements

Wireless services are applications that use wireless communication technologies. Each type has
specific requirements based on the type of service it provides:

 Voice Services: Require low latency, high reliability, and coverage. Technologies like 2G
(GSM) and 3G (UMTS) are used for mobile voice communication.
 Requirements: Low latency (typically below 100 ms), high availability, and clear
communication quality.
 Data Services: Includes internet browsing, file transfer, email, etc. Require higher data
rates and bandwidth.
 Requirements: High bandwidth (ranging from 1 Mbps to 100 Mbps), low latency, and
reliable coverage (e.g., 4G LTE, 5G).
 Video Services: Streaming video, video conferencing, and IPTV require high-speed data
transmission and high bandwidth.
 Requirements: Very high data rates (e.g., HD video requires 5-10 Mbps, 4K video requires
25 Mbps), low latency, and high QoS to avoid buffering or interruptions.
 IoT Services: Internet of Things (IoT) services connect devices like smart thermostats,
fitness trackers, and industrial sensors. These typically use low data rates but require
massive connectivity and low power consumption.
 Requirements: Low power (e.g., LoRa or ZigBee), low data rates, and long-range
communication.
18. Evolution of Wireless Communication

Wireless communication has evolved significantly over the decades:

 1G (First Generation - Analog): The first cellular networks, offering analog voice
communication. Poor security, low call quality, and limited capacity were the primary
limitations.
 2G (Second Generation - Digital): Introduced digital transmission, providing better voice
quality, text messaging (SMS), and low-speed data (e.g., GPRS). GSM became the
standard.
 3G (Third Generation): Introduced higher data speeds (up to 2 Mbps) enabling mobile
internet, video calls, and multimedia services.
 4G (Fourth Generation): Provided ultra-fast mobile internet (up to 1 Gbps) with
technologies like LTE, supporting high-definition video streaming, mobile gaming, and
VoLTE (Voice over LTE).
 5G (Fifth Generation): The latest technology, offering ultra-low latency (1 ms), high-speed
data (up to 10 Gbps), and massive device connectivity for IoT, smart cities, and
autonomous vehicles.

19. Explain in Detail 3rd Generation Wireless Networks (3G)

3G (Third Generation) wireless networks provide faster data speeds (up to 2 Mbps), allowing users
to access mobile internet, make video calls, and send multimedia messages (MMS). Some key
features include:

 High-Speed Data: 3G provides speeds significantly higher than 2G, enabling internet
browsing, video calls, and multimedia services.
 Technologies: Includes UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) and
HSPA (High-Speed Packet Access).
 Multimedia Services: 3G supports high-quality audio and video calls, streaming services,
and fast mobile internet.
 Global Roaming: 3G networks allow users to roam internationally, providing mobile
connectivity across different countries and regions.
20. What is a Paging System? Explain

A paging system is a one-way communication service that sends short messages to mobile devices,
often used in emergencies or for simple notifications.

 Use Case: Commonly used in hospitals, emergency services, and for sending brief
messages or alerts to a specific individual.
 How It Works: The paging system broadcasts a message over a radio frequency, and the
paged device (pager) receives it. This can be a numeric message or a text-based message
depending on the system.

21. Function of Cordless Telephone System

A cordless telephone system works by using radio waves to communicate between the base station
(connected to the telephone line) and the handset (which is portable). The handset communicates
with the base station over short distances, usually up to 100 meters.

 Key Features:
 Allows mobility within a limited range (e.g., users can move within their house or office).
 Uses frequencies in the 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, or 5.8 GHz bands.
 Functionality: Provides voice communication similar to a traditional telephone but without
the limitation of being tethered to a physical wire.

22. Compare Second and Third Generation Networks (2G vs 3G)

 2G (Second Generation):
 Focused on digital voice communication, text messaging, and basic data services.
 Technologies: GSM, CDMA.
 Data Speed: 50-100 kbps.
 Key Feature: Digital voice and SMS.
 3G (Third Generation):
 Introduced mobile internet, video calling, and enhanced data services.
 Technologies: UMTS, HSPA.
  Data Speed: 2 Mbps for mobile, up to 42 Mbps for HSPA.
 Key Feature:
Mobile broadband and multimedia services.

23. Routing Services in Networks

There are two general types of routing services provided by networks:

1. Connection-Oriented Routing:

 Example: ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode).

 How It Works: A dedicated path is established between the sender and receiver before
communication begins.
 Pros: Guaranteed performance (low latency, high reliability).
 Cons: Less efficient in terms of bandwidth utilization and higher setup overhead.

2. Connectionless Routing:

 Example: IP Routing.
 How It Works: Data is sent as independent packets, and each packet may take a different
path to its destination.
 Pros: More efficient in utilizing available bandwidth.
 Cons: Less reliable and may experience packet loss or delay.

24. What is Multiple Access Techniques? What is Duplexing?

 Multiple Access Techniques allow multiple users to share the same communication
 medium (frequency, time, or code) without interference. Examples include:
 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access).
 Duplexing refers to the ability to transmit and receive simultaneously in a communication
channel. There are two types:
 Half-Duplex: Data can be sent in both directions, but not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkies).
 Full-Duplex: Data can be sent and received simultaneously (e.g., mobile phones).

25. What is Frequency Hopping?

Frequency hopping is a method used in wireless communication to avoid interference and

eavesdropping. The transmitter rapidly switches between different frequencies within a
predetermined range, ensuring that the communication is more secure and resistant to interference.
It is widely used in systems like Bluetooth and military communication systems.

26. Two Categories of Multiple Access Techniques

1. Channel Division Techniques:

 FDMA: Divides the available bandwidth into distinct frequency channels.

 Advantage: Simple, effective for narrowband services.
 Disadvantage: Inefficient for variable traffic loads.
 TDMA: Divides time into slots, with each user assigned a specific time slot.
 Advantage: More efficient than FDMA for variable traffic.
 Disadvantage: Time synchronization is critical.

2. Code Division Techniques:

 CDMA: Assigns a unique code to each user to distinguish their signals within the same
frequency band.
 Advantage: Efficient use of bandwidth.
 Disadvantage: Requires complex signal processing.

27. Difference Between Narrowband and Wideband Systems

 Narrowband Systems: Use a small range of frequencies for communication (e.g., FM

radio, walkie-talkies).
 Feature: Lower data rates and limited capacity.
 Wideband Systems: Use a broad range of frequencies, allowing for higher data rates and
better performance (e.g., Wi-Fi, 4G LTE).
 Feature: Higher bandwidth and better data throughput.
28. Compare FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA Techniques

 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):

 Divides the frequency spectrum into separate channels for each user.
 Pros: Simple, low interference.
 Cons: Inefficient for variable traffic.

 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):

 Divides time into slots, with each user assigned a time slot.
 Pros: More efficient than FDMA.
 Cons: Time synchronization is complex.
 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):
 Users transmit on the same frequency, but each user's signal is distinguished by a unique code.
 Pros: Efficient use of bandwidth, good interference resilience.
 Cons: Requires more complex hardware and processing.

29. Difference Between Multiple Access & Multiplexing

 Multiple Access refers to allowing multiple users to share a communication channel

simultaneously (e.g., FDMA, TDMA, CDMA).
 Multiplexing involves combining multiple signals into a single transmission channel to
utilize bandwidth more efficiently (e.g., FDM, TDM, WDM).

30. FHSS vs DSSS Comparison

 FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum):

 Method: The transmitter and receiver switch between different frequencies in a
pseudo-random sequence.
 Advantage: Resistant to interference and eavesdropping.
 - Disadvantage: Lower data rate.

- DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum):

-Method: The data is multiplied by a pseudo-random code, spreading the signal across a wide
frequency range.

- Advantage: More efficient in terms of bandwidth.

- Disadvantage: More susceptible to interference in noisy environments.

30.Spread Spectrum is defined as a communication technique in which the intend signal is spread
over a bandwidth in excess of the minimum bandwidth required to transmit the signal.

31. Why Use Spread Spectrum?

 Reduced crosstalk and interference

 Better voice quality/data integrity
 Lower susceptibility to multipath fading
 Much improved security with minimum complexity
 Allows for co-existing signals over a wide bandwidth
 Within ISM band one can have greater signal power greater distance
 Harder to jam a spread spectrum signal
32.Comparison between FHSS and DSSS:

S/N Feature FHSS (Frequency Hopping DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread

Spread Spectrum) Spectrum)
1 Technique Frequency hops over a wide Spreads data over a wider band
band using a code
2 Bandwidth Lower Higher
Efficiency
3 Applications Bluetooth, military Wi-Fi (802.11b), GPS
communications
4 Security More secure Less secure
5 Interference Good in avoiding narrowband Better for wideband interference
Handling interference

33.What is the application of Spread Spectrum Multiple Access

 Typical applications for the resulting short-range data transceivers include

o satellite-positioning systems (GPS)
o 3G mobile telecommunications
o W-LAN (IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11b, IEEE 802.11g), and Bluetooth.

34.Explain on Space Division Multiple Access

SDMA is a multiple access technique that uses spatial separation to allocate channels:
 Concept: Divides the physical space into distinct zones or beams.
 How it Works: Uses directional antennas to serve different users in distinct spatial locations.

35.Explain the advantages and disadvantages of Space Division Multiple Access

Advantages:

• Efficient Spectrum Use: Allows multiple users to share the same frequency and time resources.
• Enhanced Capacity: Increases system capacity by spatially reusing frequencies.

• Improved Signal Quality: Reduces interference by directing signals toward specific users.

Disadvantages:

• Complex Infrastructure: Requires sophisticated directional antennas.

• Line-of-Sight Requirement: Limited by the need for unobstructed paths between transmitter and
receiver.

• Cost: High implementation cost due to advanced hardware

36.Write in detail about Packet Radio

• Packet radio protocols allow multiple subscribers to access a shared channel for transmitting data
packets.

• Packet Radio (PR) represents the digital communications that use radio channels allocated to the
amateur services. The name comes from the format in witch the data are send, called packets.

• This technology can be used to create inexpensive experimental radio networks.

• Packet radio networks allowed multiple wireless terminals on a battlefield to communicate with
one another using packet switching technology over broadcast radio networks.

37 Media Access Methods Based on Packet Radio Protocol

• ALOHA: Simplest protocol, transmits data without checking for channel availability.

• Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): Checks if the channel is free before

transmitting.

• Token Passing: Ensures orderly access by passing a token among devices.

• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Allocates specific time slots for each

device.

38. Explain Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA

Pure ALOHA:

• Transmits data packets whenever ready.

• If collision occurs, waits for a random time before retransmitting.

• Efficiency: Maximum throughput is about 18.4%.

Slotted ALOHA:

• Divides time into slots and transmits only at the start of a slot.

• Reduces collisions compared to Pure ALOHA.

• Efficiency: Maximum throughput is about 36.8%

39. Features of Pure ALOHA

• Simple Implementation: No need for synchronization.
• Collision Tolerance: Handles collisions with retransmission.
• Low Efficiency: Due to high collision probability.
• Asynchronous: Works without a predefined time structure.

40. Primary Goal of Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

The primary goal of CSMA is to reduce collisions in shared communication channels by
ensuring that devices sense the channel's state before transmitting. If the channel is busy, the
device waits until it becomes free.

41. Reservation Protocol and Its Advantages

Reservation Protocol:
•Mechanism: Allocates resources (e.g., time slots) for communication in advance.
• Operation: Devices reserve slots for transmission to avoid collisions.
Advantages:
• Collision-Free: Ensures efficient use of the medium without collisions.
• Guaranteed QoS: Provides predictable latency and bandwidth.
• Fair Resource Allocation: Prevents resource hogging by a single user.
42. Comparison of FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, and SDMA.

S/N Feature FDMA TDMA CDMA SDMA

1. Interference moderate Low Very low Low
2. Complexity Low Moderate High Very high
3. Access Frequency Time - based Code -Based Space –
Method -Based Based
4. Efficiency Limited by Time slots High High
guard are fixed
bands
5. Application Analog GSM, LTE 3G, 4G, Wi- 5G, satellite
systems, Fi systems
radio

31 Why CDM is not applicable in Tanzania.

CDM stand for “Code Division Multiplexing” is a techniques used in telecommunication system
to enable users to transmit data simultaneously over a single communication channel. CDM is like
CDMA based system in communications.

The reasons why CDM is not applicable in Tanzania are;

High cost of Installation and Maintenance

CDM system requires specialized infrastructure and equipment which are very expensive in the
market compared to other system like GSM.

Existing of early GSM system that has low cost of implementation and running cost.

Spectrum allocation challenges, in order to avoid interference, CDM system require special
attention spectrum management which leads to the regulatory bodies to avoid complexity like that.
32 Compare and construct between the two traffic routing involves in commutations