Basics for Filed Theory

Lectures 1st − 5th

By
DR. SHAKIR ALI
Department of Mathematics
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh
E-mail:[email protected]
August, 2021

1 Basics for filed theory

These lectures deals with basic background of algebraic structures like, groups, rings,
domains, polynomial rings, and vector spaces. We begin our discussions with following:

2 Polynomial Rings
Let R be a ring and F be a filed. These lectues deals with the study of a class of rings
called the polynomial rings over R (or over F ), written as R[x](or F [x]). In order to
make a ring out of R[x], we must be able to recognize when two elements in it are equal,
we must be able to add and multiply elements of R[x] so that the axioms defining a ring
hold true for R[x]. We describing computation, addition, multiplication, factorization and
divisibility in such rings. Further, we will discuss its algebraic properties and study some
important results. We begin with the following:

Definition 2.1. Let x be an indeterminate. A polynomial over R in x is an expression

of the form

a0 x 0 + a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n ,
where n ≥ 0, n ∈ Z and a0 , a1 , · · · , an ∈ R.

Remark 2.2. The following conventions are important in our discussions:

(i) the role of a symbol x is to fix the positions of the elements a0 , a1 , · · · , an of R,

known as the coefficients of terms a0 x0 , a0 x1 , a2 x2 etc.

(ii) write x0 = 1, so that we shall write a0 = a0 x0 ,

(iii) write x1 = x,

(iv) write xn = 1.xn (i.e., when an = 1),

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

(v) when an = 0, we usually omit the term an .xn in the expression,

(vi) when an 6= 0, the term an .xn is called the leading term and an is called the leading
coefficient.

(vii) when an = 1, the polynomial is monic.

(viii) the simple notations like, p(x), q(x), f (x), g(x), h(x), fi , · · · are used for polyno-
mials.
n
ai xi is used for the polynomial a0 x0 +a1 x1 +a2 x2 +· · ·+an xn .
P
(ix) the shorter symbol
i=0

In general, we write
n
X
Pn (x) = ai xi = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn , where ai ∈ R, n ≥ 0 and n ∈ Z.
i=0

Definition 2.3. Two polynomials p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn and q(x) =

b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + · · · + bm xm is said to be equal if and only if n = m and ai = bi for all
i. That is, two polynomials are said to be equal if and only if their coefficients are equal.
Mathematically, we write p(x) = q(x).

Definition 2.4. Let a0 + a1 x + · · · an xn be a polynomial over a ring R. Each of

a0 , a1 · · · an is a coefficient of this polynomial. If an 6= 0, we call an the leading coefficient
of this polynomial.

If a1 = 0 = a2 = · · · = an , we get the constant polynomial. Thus, every elements

of R is a constant polynomial. In particular, the constant polynomial 0 is the zero
polynomial and it has no leading coefficient.

Definition 2.5. Let a0 + a1 x + · · · an xn be a polynomial over a ring R. Then we call the

integer n the degree of this polynomial. Symbolically, we write
n
!
X
deg ai xi = n, if an 6= 0
i=0
.

Convention: We define the degree of the zero polynomial to be −∞ and hence we

write deg 0 = −∞.

Remark 2.6. We notice the following:

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 2

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

(i) Let p(x) ∈ R[x] such that def p(x) = 0. Polynomials of degree zero are precisely
the nonzero constants.

(ii) The elements of R are called constants.

(iii) Polynomials of degree 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · are known as linear, quadratic, cubic, biquadratic,

· · · etc.

Example 2.7.

(i) 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 3 is a polynomial of degree 3, whose coefficients belong to the ring

of integers Z. Its leading coefficient is 2 and it is not monic.

(ii) x5 + 3x4 + 6x + 9 is a polynomial of degree 5, with coefficient in Z and leading

coefficient 1. It is a monic polynomial.

(iii) 5x2 + 3x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 2, with coefficient in Z and leading coefficient

5.

(iv) 2̄x2 + 3̄x + 9̄ is a polynomial of degree 2, with coefficient in finite ring Z5 and leading
coefficient 2.(Note that this polynomial can be rewritten as 4̄ + 3̄x + 2̄x2 ).

(v) Let R be a ring and 0 6= a ∈ R. Then a is a polynomial of degree 0, with leading

coefficient a.

(vi) The expression

1
f (x) = = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
1−x
is not a polynomial, since it is an infinite expression(doesn’t have finite degree),
called a power series.

Note: The set of all such polynomials is called the ring of polynomials in indeterminate
x with coefficients in R. We denote the ring of polynomials over a ring R by R[x]. (Please
note the use of the square bracket [ ]. Do not use any other kind of brackets because R[x]
and R(x) denote different sets.) Consequently, we write the ring of polynomials by

( n )
X
R[x] = ai xi |ai ∈ R for all i = 0, 1, · · · , n, where n ≥ 0 and n ∈ Z .
i=0

We can use the addition and multiplication as defined on the ring R to define opera-
tions of addition and multiplication in R[x]. As we shall see later on, with these operations,
the set R[x] has the structure of ring. We start with addition of two polynomials.
Addition and multiplication in R[x]

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 3

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Definition 2.8. Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm be two

polynomials in R[x] of degree n and m respectively. Let us assume that an 6= 0, am 6= 0
and n ≥ m. Then the sum of f (x) and g(x) is define by

f (x) + g(x) = (a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · + (an + bn )xn + bn+1 xn+1 + · · · + bm xm

Xn
= (ai + bi )xi , where ai = 0 for i > m.
i=0

Obviously, the sum of two polynomials over R is a polynomials over the ring R. Also,
we notice that

deg[f (x) + g(x)] ≤ max [deg f (x), deg g(x)] for all f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x].
In similar manner, we define the product of two polynomials f (x) and g(x).
Definition 2.9. Let f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x] such that f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and
g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm . Then, the product of f (x) and g(x) is denoted by f (x).g(x)
and define as

f (x).g(x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + · · · + ci xi + · · · + cm+n xm+n .

Here, ci = ai b0 + ai−1 b1 + · · · + a0 bi where i = 0, 1, 2 · · · , m + n and ai = 0 for i > n, bi = 0

for i > m. That is, c0 = a0 b0 ; c1 = a1 b0 + a0 b‘ ; and
2
X
c2 = aj b k = a2 b 0 + a1 b 1 + a0 b 2 ;
i=j+k
3
X
c3 = aj b k = a3 b 0 + a2 b 1 + a1 b 2 + a0 b 3
i=j+k
4
X
c4 = aj b k = a4 b 0 + a3 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a1 b 3 + a0 b 4
i=j+k
··· ··· ··· ··· ··· ···
n+m
X
ci = aj bk = ai b0 + ai−1 b1 + ai−2 b2 + · · · + a0 bi .
i=j+k

Therefore, we obtain

f (x).g(x) = a0 b0 + (a1 b0 + a0 b1 )x + (a2 b0 + a1 b1 + a0 b2 )x2 + · · · + an bm xm+n .

Thus, it is straightforward to check that the product of two polynomials over a ring
R is a polynomial over a ring R.
Remark 2.10. Let f (x) and g(x) be two polynomials of degree n and m respectively.
Then the following statements are hold.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 4

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

(i)

 = max(m, n) if n 6= m,
deg[f (x) + g(x)] = =n if n = m and an + bm 6= 0,
<n if n = m and an + bm = 0.


(ii) If an bm 6= 0, then deg[f (x).g(x)] = m + n = deg f (x) + deg g(x).

(iii) If an bm = 0, then deg[f (x).g(x)] ≤ deg f (x) + deg g(x).

(iv) If the polynomials are chosen over an integral domain, and an 6= 0, bm 6= 0, an am 6=

0, then deg[f (x).g(x)] = n + m = deg f (x) + deg g(x).

To be more precisely, consider the following examples.

Example 2.11. Let f (x) and g(x) be two polynomials in the finite ring Z5 (x) such that

f (x) = 3 + 4x + 2x2 and g(x) = 1 + 3x + +4x2 + 2x3 .

Then f (x) and g(x) can be written as f (x) = 3x0 +4x+2x2 +0x3 = a0 x0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +a3 x3
and g(x) = 1 + 3x + +4x2 + 2x3 = b0 x0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 , where a0 = 2, a1 = 4, a2 =
2, a3 = 0 and b0 = 1, b1 = 3, b2 = 4, b3 = 2. Thus, by the definition of the sum of two
polynomials, we have

f (x) + g(x) = (3 +5 1)x0 + (4 +5 3)x + (2 +5 4)x2 + (0 +5 2)x3 = 4 + 2x + x2 + 2x3 .

Obviously, f (x) + g(x) ∈ Z5 [x] and we also notice that

deg[f (x) + g(x)] = 3 = max[deg f (x), deg g(x)].

From the definition given above, it seems that deg([(x) + g(x)] = max[deg f (x), deg g(x)]
for all f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x]. However, this is not true always. Let us consider two polynomials
f (x), g(x) ∈ Z[x] such that f (x) = 1 + 2x2 − x3 and g(x) = 1 + 5x2 + x3 . Then we obtain
f (x) + g(x) = (1 + 1) + (2 + 5)x + (−1 + 1)x3 = 2 + 7x2 . Thus, we have deg[f (x) + g(x)] =
2 < max[deg f (x), deg g(x)]. Consequently,

deg[f (x) + g(x)] ≤ max[deg f (x), deg g(x)] for all f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x].

Example 2.12. Let f (x) and g(x) be two polynomials in Z(x) such that

f (x) = 2 + 3x + 5x2 and g(x) = 3 − 5x + +4x2 − 9x3 .

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 5

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Here a0 = 2, a1 = 3, a2 = 5, a3 = a4 = a5 = 0 and b0 = 3, b1 = −5, b2 = 4, b3 = −9, b4 =

5
ci x i =
P
b5 = 0. By the definition of product of two polynomials, we have f (x)g(x) =
i=0
c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + c4 x4 + c5 x5 , where
c0 = a0 b0 = 6,
c1 = a1 b0 + a0 b1 = −1,
c2 = a2 b0 + a1 b1 + a0 b2 = 8,
c3 = a3 b0 + a2 b1 + a1 b2 + a0 b3 = −31,
c4 = a4 b0 + a3 b1 + a2 b2 + a1 b3 + a0 b4 = −7,
c5 = a5 b0 + a4 b1 + a3 b2 + a2 b3 + a1 b4 + a0 b5 = −45
Therefore according to our definition, we obtain f (x).g(x) = 6−1x+8x2 −31x3 −7x4 −45x5 ,
Hence, f (x).g(x) ∈ Z[x] and deg(f (x).g(x)) = 5 = 2 + 3 = deg f (x) + deg g(x), since Z[x]
is an integral domain.
It is straight forward to check that the set R[x] is a ring under usual addition and mul-
tiplication of polynomials. In similar fashion, we denote by F [x] the set of all polynomials
in x over a field F . Moreover, it is true for any ring, commutative or not.
Theorem 2.13. Let R be a ring. Show that hR[x], +, ·i is ring, where x is an indetermi-
nate.
Remark 2.14. Let R be a ring. Then the following statement are true.
(i) R is a subring of R[x], i.e.; R ⊂ R[x].

(ii) R is a commutative ring iff R[x] is a commutative ring.

(iii) R is a ring with identity iff R[x] is a ring with identity.

(iv) If R is an integral domain, then char(R) = char(R[x]).

Exercise 2.15. (Embedding of R into R[x]) Let R be any ring and R0 be the set of
all constant polynomials in the polynomial ring R[x]. Then prove that R is isomorphic to
R0 .
Proof. Let us consider the ring R0 = {ax0 |a ∈ R}. Define a mapping f : R → R0 by
f (a) = ax0 for all a ∈ R. Then, we have f (a+b) = (a+b)x0 = ax0 +bx0 = f (a)x0 +f (b)x0
for all a, b ∈ R and f (ab) = (ab)x0 = (ax0 )(bx0 ) = f (a)f (b) for all a, b ∈ R. Thus, f is
homomorphism. Also, for any a, b ∈ R, we have f (a) = f (b). It implies that ax0 = bx0
gives a = b. That is, f is one-one mapping and hence Ker(f ) = {0}. Moreover, if ax0
is an arbitrary constant polynomial in R0 , then there exists a ∈ R such that f (a) = ax0 .
Thus, f is onto. Therefore, f is one-one and onto homomorphism. By the FTH, we
R ∼
R
conclude that Ker(f )
= {0} = R0 . Hence, R ∼
= R0 . This proves the result.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 6

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Exercise 2.16. Let R1 and R2 be commutative rings and f : R1 → R2 be a homomor-

phism. Suppose that the mapping φ : R1 [x] → R2 [x] defined by φ(a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn =
f (a0 ) + f (a1 )x + · · · + f (an )xn . Prove that φ is a homomorphism.
Proof. Let f (x) = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+an xn and g(x) = b0 +b1 x+· · ·+bm xm be two polynomials
in R[x] of degree n and m respectively. Then, we have

φ(f (x) + g(x)) = φ((a0 + b0 ) + (a1 + b1 )x + · · · + (an + bn )xn + bn+1 xn+1 + · · · + bm xm )

Xl
= φ( (ai + bi )xi ), where l= max(m, n)
i=0
l
X
= f (ai + bi )xi , by the definition of φ
i=0
Xl
= [f (ai ) + f (bi )]xi , since f is homomorphism
i=0
Xl l
X
i
= f (ai )x + f (bi )xi
i=0 i=0
= φ(f (x)) + φ(g(x)) since f (ai ) = 0 = f (bj ) whenever ai = 0, bj = 0.

This implies that φ(f (x) + g(x)) = φ(f (x)) + φ(f (x)) for all f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x]. Similar,
we can prove that φ(f (x) · g(x)) = φ(f (x)) · φ(f (x)) for all f (x), g(x) ∈ R[x]. Hence, φ is
a ring homomorphism.

3 Factorizations and Division Algorithm

In the present section, we discuss about the factorization of polynomials and we prove
some relevent results. In particular, we study some important properties of R[x] and F [x]
respectively. Moreover, there are several very interesting properties of R[x], which are
similar to those of Z, the set of integers. Here, we shall discuss the properties of division
in R[x]. Similar to the case of Z, there is a division algorithm in R[x], the polynomial
ring over a ring R. We start with the following theorem.

Theorem 3.1. Let R be a ring and f (x) and g(x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x].
Then prove that deg(f (x)g(x)) ≤ deg f (x) + deg g(x), with equality if R is an integral
domain.
Proof. Let f (x) and g(x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x] such that f (x) = a0 +
a1 x + · · · + an xn , an 6= 0, and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm , bm 6= 0. Clearly, deg f (x) =
n, deg g(x) = m. By the definition of product of two polynomials, we have f (x).g(x) =
c0 + c1 x + · · · + cm+n xm+n , where ck = ak b0 + ak−1 b1 + · · · + a0 bk . Since an+1 , an+2 · · · and

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 7

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

bm+1 , bm+2 , · · · are all zero, cm+n = an bm . Now, if R has zero divisors, then an bm = 0. In
this case, we have deg(f (x)g(x)) < m + n = deg f (x) + deg g(x).
On the other hand, if R is an integral domain, then an bm 6= 0, since an 6= 0 and bm 6= 0.
Thus, in this case,
deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + deg g(x). This completes the proof of the theorem.

The next result is very important and can be use as a tool.

Theorem 3.2. Prove that R is an integral domain if and only if R[x] is an integral
domain.

Proof. First we assume that R is an integral domain. Then we need to prove R[x] is
integral domain. Let f (x) and g(x) be two nonzero polynomials in R[x]. Since f (x) and
g(x) are nonzero, so at least one coefficient of these polynomials is nonzero. Let an and
bm be nonzero. Then, f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn , and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm
be in R[x] such that an 6= 0 and bm 6= 0. Thus, in view of Theorem 1.18 we have
deg(f (x)g(x)) = m + n ≥ 0. This implies that f (x)g(x) 6= 0. Hence, R[x] is without zero
divisors. Further, we know that R[x] is a commutative ring with identity. Consequently,
R[x] is an integral domain.
Conversely, let us assume that R[x] is an integral domain. Let a and b be non-zero
elements of R. Then they are non-zero elements of R[x] also. Thus, we have ab 6= 0.
Therefore, R is without zero divisors. Hence R is an integral domain.
Following are immediately consequences of the above theorem.

Corollary 3.3. Let F be a field. Prove or disprove F [x] is field.

Proof. Clearly, F [x] is a ring as well integral domain, since F is filed and every field is
an integral domain. In order to prove F [x] is not field, it is sufficient to find a nonzero
polynomial in F [x] which does not have multiplicative inverse in F [x]. Let f (x) be a
polynomial in F [x] such that deg f (x) = n > 0. Let us assume that g(x) ∈ F [x] such
that f (x)g(x) = 1. Then by Theorem 1.00 we get
0 = deg 1 = deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + deg g(x) = n + deg g(x) > 0, which is a
contradiction. Therefore, no nonzero polynomial of degree greater than zero in F [x]
possesses its multiplicative inverse. Hence, F [x] is not a field.

Corollary 3.4. Let f (x) and g(x) be two nonzero polynomials in F [x]. Then prove that

deg[f (x)g(x)] = deg f (x) + deg g(x)and deg[(f (x) + g(x))] ≤ max[deg f (x), deg g(x)].

Corollary 3.5. Let f (x) and g(x) be two nonzero polynomials in F [x]. Then prove that
deg f (x) ≤ deg f (x)g(x).

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 8

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Proof. By Corollary 1.21, we have deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x)+deg g(x) for all f (x), g(x) ∈
F [x]. Consequently, deg f (x) ≤ deg f (x)g(x) for all f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x].
Remark 3.6. Let F be a field. Then the following statements are true.
(i) F [x] is an integral domain, but not a field.

(ii) F [x] is a Euclidean domain.

(iii) F [x] is a principal ideal domain.

(iv) F [x] is a unique factorization domain.

Theorem 3.7. (The Division Algorithm(DA)) Let F be a field. Let f (x) be any
polynomial and g(x) be a nonzero polynomials in F [x]. Then
(i) there exist two polynomials q(x) and r(x) in F [x] such that

f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x), where deg r(x) < deg g(x). (3.1)

(ii) the polynomials q(x) and r(x) in (2.1) are unique.

Remark 3.8. (i) The division algorithm is also known as long division(LD) in litera-
ture.

(ii) In the division algorithm, the polynomials q(x) and r(x) are called the quotient
and the remainder obtained on dividing f (x) by g(x).

(iii) When the ring of coefficients of a polynomial ring is a field, we can use the long
division process to find q(x) and r(x) respectively.

Theorem 3.9. Let F [x] be a principal ideal domain. Prove that, for every ideal J 6= (0)
of F [x] there exists a uniquely determined monic polynomial g(x) ∈ F [x] such that J =<
g(x) >.

Proof. Clearly, F [x] is an integral domain. Suppose J is a nonzero ideal in F [x]. Choose
a non-zero polynomial h(x) ∈ J of smallest degree contained in J and let b be the leading
coefficient h(x). We set g(x) = b−1 h(x). Then g(x) ∈ J and g(x) is monic. We will
prove that J = (g(x)). Clearly, (g(x)) ⊆ J. If f (x) ∈ J is arbitrary, then the division
algorithm gives, there are polynomials q(x) and r such that f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)
where either r(x) = 0 or deg(r(x)) < deg(g(x)) = deg(h(x). This implies that
r(x) = f (x) − q(x)g(x) ∈ J, since J is an ideal. If r(x) 6= 0, we contradict the minimality
of the polynomial g(x), then we must have r(x) = 0. Thus, we have f (x) = q(x)g(x), i.e.,

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 9

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

f (x) is a multiple of g(x) and hence J = (g(x)).

To prove uniqueness. Let g1 (x) ∈ F [x] is another monic polynomial with J = (g1 (x)).
Then g(x) = c1 g1 (x) and g1 (x) = c2 g(x) with c1 , c2 ∈ F [x]. This implies that g(x) =
c1 c2 g(x), i.e., c1 c2 = 1, and hence c1 and c2 are constant polynomials. Since both g(x)
and g1 (x) are monic, we must have g(x) = g1 (x). This proves the uniqueness of g(x).
Let F be a field. Next, let f (x), g(x) ∈ F [x] such that g(x) 6= 0. We say that
g(x) divides f (x)(or g(x) is a factor of f (x), or f (x) is divisible by g(x)) if there exists
q(x) ∈ F [x] such that f (x) = q(x)g(x). Further, we write g(x)|f (x) for 0 g(x) divides
f (x)0 , and g(x) - f (x) means f (x) does not divide g(x). Now, if f (x) ∈ F [x] and
g(x) ∈ F [x], with g(x) 6= 0, then does DA say when g(x)|f (x) ? It does. We find that
g(x)|f (x) if r(x) = 0 in the DA. An element a is a zero (or a root) of a polynomial f (x)
if f (a) = 0. Here f (a) means substitute a for x in the expression for f (x). We call f (a)
is the value of f (x) at x = a. Moreover, let a ∈ F and f (x) ∈ F [x]. Then we say that
a is a zero of multiplicity k (where k ≥ 1) if (x − a)k is factor of f (x) but (x − a)k+1
is not a factor of f (x). In other words, we say that a ∈ F is a root of multiplicity k
(where k ≥ 1) of f (x) if (x − a)k | f (x), but (x − a)k+1 - f (x). With these notions, we
may now state and prove some important results of the division algorithm. The first one
is known as the remainder theorem.

Theorem 3.10. (Remainder Theorem): Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x]. Next, let
a ∈ F be a fixed element. Then there exists a unique polynomial q(x) ∈ F [x] such that
f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + f (a).

Proof. Let us assume that g(x) ∈ F [x] such that g(x) = x − a. Then, applying the DA to
f (x) and g(x). Moreover, we can find polynomials unique q(x) and r(x) in F [x] such that

f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x)

= q(x)(x − a) + r(x), where deg r(x) < deg g(x) = 1,
Since deg r(x) < 1 and r(x) ∈ F, say b = r(x).

Thus, we write, f (x) = (x−a)q(x)+b. Substituting a for x, we obtain f (a) = (a−a)q(a)+

b = 0.q(a)+b = b. This gives b = f (a). Hence, we conclude that f (x) = (x−a)q(x)+f (a).

Remark 3.11. In view of Remainder Theorem, we conclude that

deg q(x) = deg f (x) − 1, since deg f (x) = deg(x − a) + deg q(x) = 1 + deg q(x).

Exercise 3.12. Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x] such that degf (x) ≥ 1. Next let a ∈ F .
Prove that f (x) is divisible by x − a if and only if f (a) = 0.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 10

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Proof. Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x]. By the Reminder Theorem, we have f (x) =
(x − a)q(x) + f (a). This implies that f (x) = (x − a)q(x) ⇔ f (a) = 0, i.e (x − a) |
f (x) ⇔ f (a) = 0.

Theorem 3.13. (The Factor Theorem): Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x]. Then
a ∈ F is a root of f (x) if and only if x − a is a factor of f (x).
Proof. Proof follows by the above exercise.
Our next theorem gives information about the number of roots of a polynomial. This
is a one of the most fundamental result in algebra.
Theorem 3.14. Let f (x) be a non-zero polynomial in F [x] of degree n. Then f (x) has
at most n roots in a field F .
Proof. Let f (x) ∈ F [x] be nonzero polynomial such that deg f (x) = n. We divide the
proof in the following cases:
Case (i). When n = 0, then f (x) is a non-zero constant polynomial. Thus, it has not
roots and hence it has at most 0(= n) roots in F .
Case (ii). When n 6= 1. Then we shall use the principal of mathematical induction on
the degree of polynomial, i.e., on n. If n = 1, i.e. deg f (x) = 1, then f (x) must be of
the form a0 + a1 x, where a0 , a1 ∈ F and a1 6= 0. Consequently, f (x) has only one root,
namely, (−a−11 a0 ).
Case (iii). We assume that the theorem is true for all polynomials in F [x] of degree < n.
We will show that the number of roots of f (x) ≤ n. If f (x) has no root in F , then the
number of roots of f (x) in F is 0 ≤ n. So, let us assume that f (x) has a root a ∈ F .
Application of Exercise 1.30 yields f (x) = (x − a)g(x), where deg g(x) = n − 1. Thus,
by the induction hypothesis g(x) has at most n − 1 roots in F say a1 , · · · .an−1 . If ai is a
root of g(x), then g(ai ) = 0 and hence f (ai ) = (ai − a)g(ai ) = 0. This implies that ai is a
root of f (x) for all i = 1, · · · , n − 1. Therefore, each root of g(x) is a root of f (x). Now,
b ∈ F is a root of f (x) iff f (b) = 0, i.e., iff (b − a)g(b) = 0, i.e., iff b − a = 0 or g(b) = 0,
since F is an integral domain. Thus, b is a root of f (x) iff b = a or b is a root of g(x). So
the only roots of f (x) are a and a1 , · · · , an−1 . Thus, f (x) has at the most n roots, and
hence, the theorem is true for n. In consequence, we conclude that the theorem is true
for all n ≥ 1.

Corollary 3.15. Let R be an integral domain and f (x) ∈ R[x] be a polynomial of degree
n. Then f (x) has at most n distinct roots in R.
The above mentioned results does not holds for polynomials over rings.
Example 3.16. Let Z8 be a finite ring, which is not a field. Next, let us consider the
polynomial f (x) ∈ Z8 such that f (x) = x2 − 1. Then, it is straightforward to check that
1, 3, 5 and 7 are roots of f (x), i.e., f (1) = 0 = f (3) = f (5) = f (7). Hence, f (x) has 4
roots, while degf (x) = 2. Similarly, the polynomial x3 + 5x over Z6 [x] has 6 roots.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 11

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

A field F is called algebraically closed field if every polynomial in F [x] has a root in
F and hence all the roots in F . The field of complex numbers is an algebraically closed
field, since any polynomial with complex coefficients has a root in C. This is commonly
known as the fundamental theorem of algebra. For an arbitrary field F (not necessarily
algebraically closed), the polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] may not have a root in F , but we can
always find another field F ⊂ E that contains a root of f (x). Such a field F ⊂ E is called
an extension field of F . We shall study about E in the next unit.

4 Irreducibility
In the present section, we shall study irreducibility of polynomials and discuss some tools
for obtaining the irreducible polynomials over Z and Q respectively. In particular, we shall
discuss the Eisenstein criterion and Modp irreducibility Test. We begin with the following:

Definition 4.1. Let F be a field. The polynomial f (x) ∈ F [x] is called irreducible over
F if it cannot be factorised into polynomials of lower degree than the degree of f (x), that
is,
f (x) = q(x)g(x) =⇒ q(x) of g(x) is constant.
OR
A nonconstant polynomial f (x) ∈ F (x) is said to be irreducible over F if f (x)
cannot be expressed as a product g(x)h(x) of two polynomials g(x) and h(x) in F [x] both
of lower degree than the degree of f (x). In particular, any linear polynomial is always
irreducible.

The above definition concerns the concept irreducible over a field F and not just the
concept irreducible. We also stated the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, which said
that a polynomial over C is irreducible iff it is linear. We also learnt that if a polynomial
over R is irreducible, it must have degree 1 or degree 2. Hence, any polynomial over R
of degree more than 2 is reducible. By the quadratic formula, we know which quadratic
polynomials over R irreducible. A polynomial f (x) may be irreducible over F , but may
not be irreducible if viewed over a larger field E containing F . In fact, irreducibility
depends on the underlying field, for example, the polynomial f (x) = x2 + 1 is irreducible
over the real field R but not over the complex field C, since p(x) = x2 + 1 = (x + i)(x − i)
where i2 = −1. Precisely, the following example justifying the fact.

Example 4.2. Let f (x) ∈ Q[x] such that f (x) = x2 −2. Then it is easy to check that f (x)
has no roots in Q and hence f (x)
√ is irreducible
√ over Q. However, x2 − 2 is reducible over
R, since we write x2 − 2 = (x + 2)(x − 2). Similarly, we can check that the polynomial
2x2 + 4 is irreducible over R but reducible over the complex filed C.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 12

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Irreducible polynomial will play an important role in abstract algebras and its related
areas, and in particular, in coding theory and cryptography. Here we study .... In general,
it is a difficult to decide whether or not a particular polynomial is reducible over the
underlying filed or not. We now state some criteria for irreducibility that are very useful
in certain cases. We begin with the following.

Theorem 4.3. Let f (x) ∈ F [x], and let f (x) be the polynomial of degree 2 or 3. Then,
f (x) is reducible over the filed F if and only if it has a root in F .

Proof. Assume that f (x) is reducible. Then, there exist the polynomials g(x) and h(x)
in F [x] such that f (x) = g(x)h(x) provided the degree of g(x) and the degree of h(x)
are both less than the degree of f (x). Since F [x] is an integral domain, so we must have
deg f (x) = deg g(x) + deg h(x). This implies that at least one of g(x) and h(x) has degree
1, since deg f (x) = 2 or 3. We say, deg g(x) = 1. Then, g(x) = ax + b with a 6= 0.
Therefore, −a−1 b is a root of g(x) and hence a root of f (x). Consequently, f (x) has a
root in F .
Conversely, we assume that f (a) = 0 with a ∈ F . Then by Factor Theorem, we say that
(x − a) is a factor of f (x) and hence f (x) is reducible over the field F .

Definition 4.4. The polynomial f (x) = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+an xn ∈ Z[x] is called a primitive
if the g.c.d. of a0 , a1 , · · · , an is 1.

Definition 4.5. Let f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ Z[x]. Then the content of f [x] to be

the g.c.d. of the integers a0 , a1 , · · · , an .

Thus, f (x) is primitive if the content of f (x) is 1.

Example 4.6. Let f (x) and g(x) be two polynomials in Z[x] such that
f (x) = x5 + 3x2 + 4x − 5 and g(x) = 3x2 + 6x + 12. Then f (x) is primitive
polynomial, since the content of f (x) is 1, i.e. the g.c.d. of 1, 0, 0, 3, 4, −5, i.e., 1.
However, g(x) is not primitive, as the g.c.d. of 3, 6 and 12 is 3.

Proposition 4.7. Let f (x) be any polynomials in Z[x]. Then prove that f (x) can be
written as kg(x), where g(x) is a primitive polynomial and k is the content of f (x).

Proof. Let f (x) ∈ Z[x] such that f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and let the content of
f (x) be k. Assume that ai = kbi for all i = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n. Then the g.c.d. of b0 , b1 , · · · bn
is one. Thus, we have g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn is primitive polynomial. This implies
that f (x) = kb0 + kb1 x + · · · + kbn xn = k(b0 + b1 x + · · · + bn xn ). Consequently, we get
f (x) = kg(x) for all f (x) ∈ Z[x].

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 13

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Theorem 4.8. ( Gauss’s Lemma): Prove that the product of two primitive polynomials
is also a primitive polynomial.
Proof. Let f (x) and g(x) be two primitive polynomials in Z[x] such that f (x) = a0 +
a1 x + · · · + an xn and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm , where the g.c.d. of a0 , a1 · · · an is 1
and the g.c.d. of b0 , b1 · · · bm is 1. Then we have

f (x)g(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cm+n xm+n , where ck = a0 bk + a1 bk−1 + · · · + ak b0 .

We prove the result by a contradiction. So let us assume that f (x)g(x) is not primitive.
Then the g.c.d. of c0 , c1 , · · · , cm+n is greater than 1, and hence some prime p must divide
it. Thus, p|ci for all i = 0, 1, · · · , m + n. Since f (x) is primitive, p does not divide some
ai . Let r be the least integer such that p - ar . Similarly, let s be the least integer such
that p - bs . Now we see that

cr+s = a0 br+s + a1 br+s−1 + · · · + ar bs + · · · + ar+s b0

= ar bs + (a0 br+s + a1 br+s−1 + · · · + ar−1 bs+1 + ar+1 bs−1 + · · · + ar+s b0 ).

In view of the assumption, we have p|a0 , p|a1 , · · · p|ar−1 , and p|b0 , p|b1 , · · · , p|bs−1 , but
p - ar and p - bs . Also p|cr+s . This implies that p|cr+s −(a0 br+s +· · ·+ar−1 bs+1 +ar+1 bs−1 +
· · · + ar+s b0 ) and hence p|ar bs . This further implies that p|ar or p|bs , since p is a prime.
But p - ar and p - bs . Thus, we reach a contradiction. Therefore, our supposition is wrong.
Hence, the product of two primitive polynomials is again a primitive polynomial.

Theorem 4.9. Let f (x) ∈ Z[x]. If f (x) is reducible over the field Q, then it is reducible
over Z.
Proof. We are given that f (x) is reducible over the field Q. Thus we write f (x) =
g(x)h(x), where g(x), h(x) ∈ Q[x]. Obviously, we may assume that f (x) is primitive
because we can divide both f (x) and g(x)h(x) by the content of f (x). Let k1 and k2 be
the l.c.m. of the denominators of the coefficients of g(x) and h(x) respectively. Then, we
have k1 k2 f (x) = k1 g(x).k2 h(x) where k1 g(x) and k2 h(x) both are in Z[x]. Suppose that c1
and c2 are the content of k1 g(x) and k2 h(x) respectively. Thus, we get k1 g(x) = c1 g1 (x)
and k2 h(x) = c2 h1 (x) where both the polynomials g1 (x) and h1 (x) are primitive. This
implies that k1 k2 g(x) = c1 c2 g1 (x)h1 (x). Clearly, the content of k1 k2 f (x) is k1 k2 , since f (x)
is primitive. By Gauss’s Lemma, the product of two primitive polynomials is primitive and
hence the content of c1 c2 g1 (x)h1 (x) is c1 c2 . Thus, we get k1 k2 = c1 c2 and f (x) = g1 (x)h1 (x)
where g1 (x) and h1 (x) both are in Z[x] and deg g1 (x) = deg g(x) and deg h1 (x) = deg h(x).
Consequently, f (x) is is redicible over Z. This completes the proof.
Notice that the question of reducibility rely on which ring of coefficients one permits.
For example, the polynomial x2 + 1 is irreducible over Z and R but reducible √ over C.
2
Similarly, the polynomial x − 3 is irreducible over Z but reducible over Q[ 3]. This
observation shows that the polynomial is irreducible over some filed F but it is reducible

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 14

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

over the larger field than F . Now, we focus our attention to polynomials over rational field,
to understand its importance, let us assume a polynomial over Q, say f (x) = 23 x2 + 15 x+ 31 .
If we take the l.c.m of all the denominators, i.e., of 2, 5 and 3, i.e., 30 and multiply f (x) by
30, then we obtain the polynomial 30f (x) = 30x2 + 6x + 10 ∈ Z[x]. By the same process,
we can multiply the polynomial f (x) ∈ Q[x] by a suitable integer k so that kf (x) ∈ Z[x].
We shall use this fact while relating irreducibility in Q[x] with irreducibility in Z[x]. This
idea leads the following key result in the theory of irreducibility of polynomials.
Theorem 4.10. Let f (x) be an irreducible polynomial such that f (x) ∈ Z[x]. Prove that
f (x) is irreducible in Q[x].
Proof. We prove this result by a contradiction. We assume on contrary that f (x) is not
irreducible over Q[x]. Then, f (x) can be written as f (x) = g(x)h(x) in Q[x], where
neither g(x) nor h(x) is a unit, i.e., deg g(x) > 0 and deg h(x) > 0. Since g(x) ∈ Q[x],
there exists an integer m such that mg(x) ∈ Z[x]. Similarly, for an integer n we have
nh(x) ∈ Z[x]. Thus, we obtain

mnf (x) = mg(x)nh(x). (4.1)

In view of Proposition 1.43, we write f (x) = c1 f1 (x), mg(x) = c2 g1 (x), nh(x) = c3 h1 (x),
where c1 , c2 and c3 are the contents of f (x), mg(x) and nh(x) and f1 (x), g1 (x), h1 (x) are
primitive polynomials of positive degree. Consequently, relation (1.4) yields

mnc1 f1 (x) = c2 c3 g1 (x)h1 (x). (4.2)

Since g1 (x) and h1 (x) are primitive polynomials, so g1 (x)h1 (x) is also primitive polynomial
by Gauss’s Lemma. Hence, the content of the right hand side of relation (1.5) is c2 c3 . But
the content of the left hand side of (1.5) is mnc1 . Thus, the relation (1.5) yeilds mnc1 =
c2 c3 . Hence, using the cancellation property in (1.5), we obtain f1 (x) = g1 (x)h1 (x).
Therefore, f (x) = c1 f1 (x) = (c1 g1 (x))h1 (x) in Z[x], where neither c1 g1 (x) nor h1 (x) is a
unit. This contradicts the fact that f (x) is irreducible in Z[x]. Thus, our supposition in
wrong. For this reason, f (x) must be irreducible in Q[x].

5 Some important irreducibility tests

In the present section, we shall discuss some important irreducibility criterion. In partic-
ular, we study the famous Eisenstein’s criterion, that we mentioned at the beginning of
this chapter. This terrific criterion gives irreducibility of the polynomial f (x) in Z[x] to
Q[x].
Theorem 5.1. (Eisenstein’s Criterion) Let f (x) ∈ Z[x] be a polynomial such that
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn with an 6= 0. Let p ∈ Z be a fixed prime number such that

(i) p - an ,

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 15

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

(ii) p|a0 , p|a1 , · · · , p|an−1 , and

(iii) p2 - a0 .

Then f (x) is irreducible in Z[x] =⇒ f (x) is irreducible in Q[x]).

Proof. Suppose on contrary that f (x) in reducible in Z[x]. Then there exist the polyno-
mials g(x) and h(x) in Z[x] of degree m > 0 and r > 0 such that f (x) = g(x)h(x) where
g(x) = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm and h(x) = c0 + c1 x + · · · + cr xr . Since Z[x] is an integral
domain, so we must have n = deg f = deg g + deg h = m + r, and

ak = b0 ck + b1 ck−1 + · · · + bk c0 for all k = 0, 1, · · · n. (5.1)

This yields that a0 = b0 c0 . By the assumption we conclude that p|b0 c0 . This implies that
p|b0 or p|c0 as p is prime. Since p2 - a0 , p cannot divide both b0 and c0 . Assume that p|b0
and p - c0 .
Now let us look at the term an = bm cr . Since p - an , we see that p - bm and p - cr . Hence,
we notice that for some k, p - bk . Let k be the least integer such that p - bk . Note that
0 < k ≤ m < n. Thus, p|ak . Also we see from (1.6) that ak = (b0 ck + · · · + bk−1 c1 ) + bk c0 .
Since p|ak and p|b0 , p|b1 , · · · , p|bk−1 , and so p|ak − (b0 ck + · · · + bk−1 c1 ), i.e., p|bk c0 . But
p - bk and p - c0 , which is a contradiction. Thus our supposition is wrong. Thus, f (x)
must be irreducible in Z[x] and f (x) must be irreducible in Q[x]
Following are immediate consequences of Theorem 4.1.

Corollary 5.2. If p is a prime and n > 1, then the polynomial xn − p over Z[x] is
irreducible.

Proof. Take f (x) = xn − p = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn . This gives a0 = −p, a1 = a2 = 0 =

· · · = an−1 and an = 1. Therefore, p|ai for all i = 0, 1, · · · n − 1, but p2 - a0 and p - an .
Thus, f (x) is irreducible over Z and hence over Q by Eisenstein’s criterion. This proves
the corollary.

√
Corollary 5.3. Prove that n p is irrational, where p is a prime and n > 1.
√
Proof. In order to prove n p is irrational. It is sufficient to prove that the corresponding
√
polynomial is irreducible over Z and it no rational root. Let x = n p. Then, we get the
polynomial xn − p ∈ Z[x]. Therefore we conclude that xn − p is irreducible by Corollary
√
1.49. Hence, n p is irrational.

Remark 5.4. The following facts are useful in further discussions.

(i) If R is unique factorization domain(UFD), then R[x] is also UFD. In particular,

Z[x] is UFD.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 16

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

(ii) Let R be a UFD and r ∈ R be any fixed element. Then, f (x) is irreducible over R
if and only if f (x + r) is irreducible over R.
(iii) If F is field and 0 6= a ∈ F and f (x) is irreducible over F =⇒ af (x) is irreducible
over F .
(iv) If F is field and 0 6= a ∈ F and f (x) is irreducible over F =⇒ f (ax) is irreducible
over F .
Corollary 5.5. For any prime p, prove that the pth cyclotomic polynomial f (x) = xp−1 +
xp−2 + · · · + x + 1 is irreducible over Q.
xp −1
Proof. Given f (x) = xp−1 + xp−2 + · · · + x + 1 = x−1
(say). This implies that
(x + 1)p − 1
f (x + 1) =
x
1 p p
= (x + C1 xp−1 + · · · +p Cp−1 x + 1 − 1), (by the binomial theorem)
x
= xp−1 + pxp−2 +p C2 xp−3 + · · · +p Cp−2 x + p.
Since every coefficient except that of xp−1 is divisible by p, so by Eisenstein’s criterion,
the polynomial f (x) is irreducible over Q. Moreover, if f (x) = g(x)h(x) were a nontrivial
factorization of f (x) over Q, then f (x + 1) = g(x + 1)h(x + 1) would give a nontrivial
factorization of f (x) over Q. But this is impossible and hence we conclude that f (x) is
irreducible over Q.
Example 5.6. The polynomials 8x3 + 6x2 − 9x − 24 and 7x4 − 2x3 + 6x2 − 10x + 18
are irreducible in Q. Taking p = 3. Then it is easy to check that p = 3 satisfies the
Eisenstein’s Criterion and hence the polynomial 8x3 + 6x2 − 9x − 24 is irreducible over
Q. Similarly, for p = 2, the polynomial 7x4 − 2x3 + 6x2 − 10x + 18 is irreducible over Q.
Exercise 5.7. Determine which of the polynomials below are irreducible over Q ?
(i) x4 + 9x + 3.
(ii) 25x5 − 9x4 + 3x2 − 12.
(iii) 3x5 + 15x4 − 20x3 + 10x2 + 10.
Solution: Taking p = 3. Then the polynomial x4 + 9x + 3 is irreducible over Q
because 3 - 1 and 9 - 1 but 3 divides 9. Similarly, for p = 3 and p = 2 the polynomials
25x5 −9x4 +3x2 −12 and 3x5 +15x4 −20x3 +10x2 +10 are irreducible over Q by Eisenstein’s
Criterion.
Theorem 5.8. (Mod p Irreducibility Test) Let f (x) ∈ Z[x] be a polynomial such that
degf (x) ≥ 1. Next, let f (x) be the polynomial in Zp [x] (where p is prime) obtained from
f (x) by reducing all the coefficients of f (x) modulo p. If f¯(x) is irreducible over Zp and
deg f¯(x) = degf (x), then f (x) is irreducible over Q.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 17

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Proof. Assume on contrary that f (x) in reducible in Q. Then, there exist the poly-
nomials g(x) and h(x) in Z[x] such that f (x) = g(x)h(x) provided the degree of g(x)
and the degree of h(x) are both less than the degree of f (x). Suppose f¯(x), ḡ(x) and
h̄(x) are the polynomials obtained from f (x), g(x) and h(x) by reducing all the coeffi-
cients of f (x) modulo p. Also, we notice that deg g(x) ¯ ≤ deg g(x) < deg f¯(x) and
¯ ≤ deg h(x) < deg f¯(x) because deg f (x) = deg f¯(x). But we always write
deg h(x)
¯
f (x) = ḡ(x)h̄(x). This is a contradiction to the assumption that f¯(x) is irreducible over
Zp . Hence, f (x) is irreducible over Q.
Example 5.9. Let us consider the polynomial f (x) = 21x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 9. Here we can
not apply Eisenstein’s Criterion to check irreducibility of f (x). Thus, we will check the
irreducibility of f (x) by Mod p Irreducibility Test. Take p = 2, then we obtain f¯(x) =
x3 + x2 + 1 over Z2 . Also, we notice that f¯(0) = 1 and f¯(1) = 1. Then, f¯(x) is irreducible
over Z2 . Hence, by Mod p Irreducibility Test, f (x) is irreducible over Q.
Theorem 5.10. (Maximal ideal Irreducibility Test) Let f (x) ∈ F [x] be a polynomial.
Prove that a nonzero ideal < f (x) > is maximal if and only if f (x) is irreducible over F.
Proof. We are given that < f (x) > 6= (0) is a maximal ideal of F [x]. Clearly,
< f (x) >6= F [x] and f (x) ∈ / F [x]. Suppose that f (x) = g(x)h(x) is a factorization of
f (x) in F [x]. Since < f (x) > is a maximal ideal and we know that every maximal ideal is
prime, so it is a prime ideal as well. Thus, we have (g(x)h(x)) ∈< f (x) >. This implies
that g(x) ∈< f (x) > or h(x) ∈< f (x) > and hence either g(x) or h(x) has f (x) as a
factor. But then we can not have the degrees of both g(x) and h(x) less than the degree
of f (x). This shows that f (x) is irreducible over F.

Now we assume that f (x) is irreducible over F . We want to prove < f (x) > is a
maximal ideal of F [x]. Let I be any nonzero ideal of F [x] such that < f (x) >⊆ I ⊆ F [x].
We know that if F is field, then F [x] is a principal ideal domain and hence we have
I =< g(x) > for some g(x) ∈ F [x]. Thus, f (x) ∈< g(x) > and hence f (x) = g(x)h(x),
where h(x) ∈ F [x]. But f (x) is irreducible over F , it follows that either g(x) is a constant
or h(x) is a constant. In the first case, we get I = F [x]. Further in the case second, we
have < f (x) >=< g(x) >= I. Consequently, < f (x) > is a maximal ideal.
Immediate consequences of the above theorem are the following results.
Corollary 5.11. Let F be a field and f (x) be an irreducible polynomial over F. Prove
that the quotient ring <fF(x)>
[x]
is a field.

Proof. Let F be a field and f (x) be an irreducible polynomial over F. By Theorem 4.10 <
f (x) > is maximal ideal. It is well known that if R is a ring, and M is a maximal ideal
of R, then R/M is a field. Hence, <fF(x)>
[x]
is a field.
Corollary 5.12. For any number n ∈ N and fixed prime p, prove that the quotient ring
Q[x]
<xn −p>
is a field. Hence, <xQ[x]
5 −2> is a field.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 18

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

Proof. In view of Corollary 1.48, the polynomial xn − p is irreducible. Hence, the quotient
ring <xQ[x]
n −p> is a field by Corollary 4.11.

Exercise 5.13. Let p be any integer and 6= a non unit square free integer i.e., b2 - a for
any b ∈ Z. Prove that xZ[x]
p +a is an integral domain.

Proof. Let f (x) = xp + a be a polynomial in Z[x]. In order to prove xZ[x]p +a is an integral

domain, it is sufficient to check about irreducibility of the polynomial f (x) and hence
result follows by Eisenstein’s Criterion. Since a 6= 0, ±1, there exists a prime number t
such that t | a. Also t2 - a, as a is square free element. Now using t as the prime and
then we conclude that the polynomial f (x) is irreducible in Z[x]. Moreover, it is a prime
element in Z[x] and hence < f (x) > is a prime ideal of Z[x]. Consequently, xZ[x] p +a is an

integral domain.

6 Problems
1. Identify the polynomials from the following expressions. Which of these are elements
of Z[x]? Also, find degree of each polynomials.
1
(i) 3
x + 15 x2 + 17 x3
(iii) 1 + 12 x + 13 x2 + 14 x3
(iii) x1/2 + 2x3/2 + 3x5/2

2. Calculate

(i) (2 + 3x2 + 4x3 ) + (5x + x3 ) ∈ Z[x].

(ii) (6̄ + 2̄x2 ) + (1̄ − 2̄x + 5̄x3 ) ∈ Z7 [x].
(iii) (1 + x)(1 + 2x + x2 ) ∈ Z[x]

3. If R is a ring such that R[x] is commutative and has identity, then

(i) is R commutative?
(ii) does R have identity?

4. Which of the following polynomial rings are free from zero divisors?
√
(i) R[x], where R = a + b −5|a, b ∈ Z
(ii) Z7 [x]
(iii) Z6 [x]
(iv) R[x], where R = C[0, 1]

5. Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Prove that I[x] is an ideal of R[x].

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 19

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

6. Let R be a commutative ring with unity. If I is prime ideal of R, then prove that
I[x] is prime ideal of R[x].
7. Prove that < 2x > and < x > are different ideals of the polynomial rings Z[x].
However, they are equal ideals in Q[x].
8. Prove that the ideal < x > in Q[x] is maximal.
R[x] ∼
9. For any ring R, prove that <x> = R. (Hint: Let us define a map φ : R[x] → R by
φ(a0 +1 x + · · · + an xn ) = a0 .
10. Let R and S be commutative rings and f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Show
that the map φ : R[x] → S[x] : φ(a0 +1 x+· · ·+an xn ) = f (a0 )+f (a1 )x+· · ·+f (a0 )xn
is a homomorphism:
11. Express f (x) as g(x)q(x) + r(x), where deg r(x) < deg g(x), in each of the following
cases.
(i) f = x4 + 1, g = x3 in Q[x]
(ii) f = x3 + 2̄x2 − x + 1̄, g = x + 1̄ in Z3 [x].
(iii) f = x3 − 1, g = x − 1 in R[x]
12. Find the sum and product of f (x) = 2x2 + 4x + 4 g(x) = 3x2 + x and h(x) = 2x + 2
given that f (x), g(x), h(x) ∈ Z5 [x]. Also, prove that deg[f (x) + g(x)] = 0.
13. Let I be an ideal of a ring R. Show that the set of all polynomials in R[x], whose
constant terms are arbitrary but all other coefficients belong to I, is a subring of
R[x].
14. Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x] with deg f (x) ≤ 1. Let a ∈ F . Show that f (x) is
divisible by x − a iff f (a) = 0.
15. Let F be a field and f (x) ∈ F [x]. Prove that for any α ∈ F, x−α divides f (x)−f (α).
16. Let f (x) = x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 and g(x) = 4x2 + 5x + 2 inZ7 [x]. Find the quotient
and remainder upon dividing f (x) by g(x).
17. Find the roots of the following polynomials, along with their multiplicity.
(i) f (x) = 21 x2 − 52 x + 3 ∈ Q[x]
(ii) f (x) = x2 + x + 1̄ ∈ Z3 [x]
(iii) f (x) = x4 + 2̄x3 − 2̄x − 1̄ ∈ Z5 [x]
18. Let F be a field and a ∈ F . Define a function φ : F [x] → F : φ(f (x)) = f (a).
This function is the evaluation at a.
Show that

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 20

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

(i) φ is an onto ring homomorphism

(ii) φ(b) = b ∀ b ∈ F
((iii)) ker φ =< x − a >

So, what does the fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism say in this case?

19. What are the contents of the following polynomials over Z?

(i) 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4
(ii) 7x4 − 7
(iii) 5(2x2 − 1)(x − 2)

20. Prove that any polynomial f (x) ∈ Z[x] can be written as dg(x), where d is the
content of f (x) and g(x) is a primitive polynomial.

21. For any n ∈ N and prime number p, prove that xn − p is irreducible over Q[x]. Note
that this shows us that we can obtain irreducible polynomials of any degree over
Q[x].

22. If a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ Z[x] is irreducible in Q[x], can you always find a prime p

that satisfies the conditions (i), (ii) and (iii)of Eisenstein’s Criterion.

23. Which of the following elements of Z[x] are irreducible over Q?

(i) x2 − 12
(ii) 8x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 24
(iii) 5x + 1

24. Show that xp + ā ∈ Zp [x] is not irreducible for any ā ∈ Zp .

25. Show that

(i) Q + iQ is a subfield of C
√
(ii) Z + 2Z is not a subfield of R.

26. Which of the following quotient rings are field ?

(i) Q[x]/ < x3 + 10 >,

(ii) R[x]/ < x2 + 2 >,
(iii) Q[x]/ < x2 − 5x + 6 >.

27. Determine which of the following polynomials in Z[x] satisfy an Eisenstein Criterion
for irreducibility over Q.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 21

Preliminaries 1st − 5th by Dr. Shakir Ali Department of Mathematics, AMU, Aligarh

(i) 2x − 5.
(ii) x4 − 13.
(iii) 4x10 − 9x3 + 24x − 18.
(iv) 2x5 + 25x3 − 20x2 + 20.

28. Show that 21x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 9 is irreducible over Z2 , but not over Z3 .
(Hint : Note that on Z3 , we have f¯(x) = 2x and then apply Mod p irreducibility
Test.)

29. Let F be the field of integers modulo 7 and f (x) = x2 + x + 4 is irreducible over F .
Prove that <fF(x)>
[x]
is a field having 49.

30. Let F be the field of integers modulo p and f (x) be any irreducible polynomial of
degree n over F . Prove that <fF(x)>
[x]
is a field with pn elements.
Q[x]
√ √
31. Show that x2 −3
is a ring isomorphic to the field Q[ 3] = {a + b 3 | a, b ∈ Q.
F [x]
32. Let F be the field of real numbers. Show that <x2 +1>
is a field isomorphic to the
field of complex numbers.

September 28, 2021 Dr. S Ali, Page 22