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Changes shown by ➧

CONTENTS
Section Page

SCOPE ............................................................................................................................................................3

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................3
DESIGN PRACTICES (OTHER THAN SECTIONS OF SECTION VIII) ..................................................3
GLOBAL PRACTICES.............................................................................................................................3
OTHER REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................................3

BACKGROUND...............................................................................................................................................3

DEFINITIONS ..................................................................................................................................................4

BURNER TYPES AND APPLICATIONS.........................................................................................................4

NATURAL-DRAFT BURNERS ................................................................................................................4
FORCED-DRAFT BURNERS..................................................................................................................8

BURNER SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS..........................................................................................8

EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................................8
BURNER TURNDOWN...........................................................................................................................8
NOISE TREATMENT ..............................................................................................................................9
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD) MODELING:...................................................................9

FUEL SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS..............................................................................................10

GAS FUELS ..........................................................................................................................................10
LIQUID FUELS......................................................................................................................................11
PILOTS..................................................................................................................................................13
BURNER PIPING ..................................................................................................................................14

BURNER SELECTION ..................................................................................................................................14

TYPE OF BURNER ...............................................................................................................................14
NUMBER OF BURNERS ......................................................................................................................15
BURNER CAPACITY ............................................................................................................................15
BURNER SPACING ..............................................................................................................................15

PREPARATION OF BURNER DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS .........................................................................16

SAMPLE PROBLEM (CUSTOMARY UNITS) ...............................................................................................17

SAMPLE PROBLEM (METRIC UNITS) ........................................................................................................18

TABLES
Table 1 Burner Selection Guide.....................................................................................................................19

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CONTENTS (CONTD)
Section Page

FIGURES
Figure 1 Typical Natural-Draft Burners .......................................................................................................20
Figure 2 Typical Low NOx Burner Utilizing Staged-Fuel Combustion .........................................................21
Figure 3 Typical Low NOx Burner Utilizing Staged-Air Combustion ............................................................22
Figure 4 ULTRA Low NOx Burner Utilizing Staged-Fuel and Furnace Gas Recirculation..........................23
Figure 5 ULTRA Low NOx Burner Utilizing Staged-Fuel and Furnace Gas Recirculation..........................24
Figure 6 Typical Axial-Flow Burner Forced Draft Combination Gas/Oil Burner...........................................25
Figure 7 3D View of Same Burner as Shown in Figure 6............................................................................26
Figure 8 John Zink ST-1-SE Pilot Assembly with Flame Rod .....................................................................27
Figure 9 Callidus Std-1412 Pilot Assembly With Flame Rod ......................................................................28
Figure 10 Igniters Combustion Engineering Ltd. J250e Pilot Assembly With Dual Function Ignitor/Flame
Rod ................................................................................................................................................................29
Figure 11 Typical Fuel Oil Circulation System ............................................................................................30
Figure 12 Typical Burner Piping Arrangement for Burners .........................................................................31
Figure 13 Spacing of Plenum-Mounted Burners (Customary Units) ...........................................................32
Figure 14 Spacing Of Plenum-Mounted Burners (Metric Units) ..................................................................34
Figure 15 Sample CFD results: Burner Flames Leaning Towards Furnace Wall........................................36
Figure 16 Sample CFD results: Normalized Heat Flux At Various Radiant Box Height ..............................36

Revision Memo
11/03 Highlights of this revision include:
1. Editorial Changes
2. Revised burner vendor selection references.
3. Deleted reference to high intensity forced draft burners
4. Added definitions for Atomization, Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
5. Included discussion on Ultra low NOx burners and CFD modelling.
6. International Practices replaced with Global Practices
7. Added discussion on distribution of Vent/Waste Gases to burners
8. Figure 4 has been replaced and Figure 5 has been revised.
Both new figures represent two recent Ultra Low NOx burners
9. Burner Selection Guide (Table 1) updated
10. Figure numbering revised for editorial purpose
11. Reference to High-Intensity forced draft burners removed

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SCOPE
This section covers the burners used in refinery process heaters. Guidelines are presented for burner selection and burner
system design. Except as specifically noted, burner selection is consistent with meeting Global Practices requirements for
equipment noise levels. Details of the most commonly used burners are included. For other burners and unusual applications,
refer to the Heat Transfer Equipment Section of EETD.

REFERENCES

DESIGN PRACTICES (OTHER THAN SECTIONS OF SECTION VIII)

Section XV Safety in Plant Design
Section XVIII Air Pollution Control, Industrial Hygiene, and Noise Control
Section XXV Fuel Systems

GLOBAL PRACTICES
➧ GP 2-1-1, Equipment Noise Level Data Requirements
GP 2-1-2, Plant Noise Design Criteria
GP 3-4-1, Piping for Fired Equipment
GP 7-1-1, Fired Heaters
GP 7-4-1, Burners for Fired Heaters
GP 15-1-1, Instrumentation for Fired Heaters

OTHER REFERENCES
➧ John Zink Company, Burner Catalog
Airoil-Flaregas Burner Catalog ü
ï
Hamworthy Burner Company Catalog ý Divisions of Hamworthy Combustion Engineering Ltd.
Peabody Burner Company Catalog ï
þ

Callidus Technologies, Burner Catalog

Zeeco, Burner Catalog

BACKGROUND
Burners fall into two main categories: natural draft and forced draft. Prior to about 1960, nearly all ExxonMobil fired heaters were
equipped with natural draft burners. In the mid-1960s, large refining capacity expansions resulted in higher capacity heater
designs High capacity burners, typically forced draft, were specified to reduce the manpower needs for operation and
maintenance.
In the mid-1970s, as a result of energy conservation pressures, many fired heaters were designed or retrofitted with combustion
air preheaters which often resulted in a forced-draft burner selection to overcome increased pressure drop.
In more recent years, low NOx burners are being specified on most new heater designs, and retro-fitted on many existing
heaters. These are available in both forced and natural draft, depending upon the required NOx reduction, and the burner
vendor's design. In addition, the installation of FLEXICOKING Units has resulted in heaters being equipped with burners capable
of burning the low calorific off-gas generated. These, too, may be either natural or forced-draft burners. More recent Low NOx
burner designs are referred to "Ultra Low NOx " burners since achievable NOx emissions are significantly lower than in earlier low
NOx burner designs.
A few years ago, advances in basic burner design, utilizing features common in boiler burners, resulted in the axial flow burner as
an option in the larger heat release category. These forced-draft burners are typically considered where the heat release
requirements per burner exceed about 12 MBtu/hr (3.5 MW) and combination gas/oil firing is required.

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DEFINITIONS

Atomization

➧ Atomization is a process by which fuel oil is converted into small droplets. This increases surface area to mass ratio which helps
liquid fuel to vaporize and combust rapidly. Atomization can be either by mechanical means or by means of a medium (steam or
air).

Burner Turndown
Burner turndown is the ratio of the maximum design capacity to the minimum rate at which the burner can operate satisfactorily:
Maximum Burner Design Capacity
Turndown = (e.g ., 3 : 1 turndown )
Minimum Burner Capacity

Turndown can be referred to the air side and fuel side of the burner.

Lower Heating Value (LHV)

The theoretical heat of combustion of a fuel, when no credit is taken for the heat of condensation of water in the flue gas. This is
also called the net heating value (or low calorific value) and is usually expressed in Btu/lb (kCal/kg). By convention, lower
heating value is used for specifying burner firing rates as well as heater efficiency.

Maximum Burner Capacity

The maximum firing rate an individual burner can continuously sustain with acceptably stable combustion characteristics.

Maximum Burner Design Capacity

➧ The maximum specified heat release of a burner. This is typically higher than the Normal Burner Design Capacity. GP 7-1-1
specifies the additional heat release margin that should be applied to normal design firing rate of burners.
(Note on margin: In certain circumstances this margin can be exceeded, for example, to provide sufficient capacity to pick up
additional heat load when one burner in a heater is removed from operation for maintenance, cleaning, etc. With a small number
of burners, this additional margin can be excessive. The difficulties in operating burners at normal firing rates with high margins
must be recognized. It may not be cost effective to live with operational difficulties for 95% of the heater run length just to provide
allowances for the 5% when the burner may be removed from service. In any case, the Maximum Design Capacity must not
exceed the Maximum Burner Capacity.)

Minimum Burner Capacity

The minimum firing rate an individual burner can continuously sustain with acceptably stable combustion characteristics.

Normal Burner Design Capacity

The heat release of individual burners when the heater is operating at design firing rate with all burners in service.
➧ Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - The sum of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), collectively expressed as NOx. Majority of
nitrogen oxides formed by burners is in the form of nitric oxide (NO). After discharge into atmosphere, NO is eventually
transformed into nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrous oxide (N2O) formation is usually very small and generally not included in NOx.
NOx emission is considered to be a prime factor in acid rain and ground level ozone or smog formation.

BURNER TYPES AND APPLICATIONS

A large variety of burner equipment is available for use in refinery and chemical plant heaters. Each type of burner has unique
capabilities and limitations which will determine its applicability for a given service. Following are descriptions of the burner types
most commonly used.

NATURAL-DRAFT BURNERS
➧ Most natural-draft burners rely on the draft developed in the heater and stack (or induced draft fan) to provide the air required for
combustion. Some use the fuel gas energy to inspirate up to 100% of the stoichiometric air required. All of these burners are
classified according to the type of fuel which they burn, that is, gas, liquid or combination (gas and liquid). Burners are also

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BURNER TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (CONT)

classified based on how air is mixed with fuel (raw or premix), NOx emission levels (conventional, low NOx, Ultra low NOx, etc) or
burner configuration (floor up-fired, wall fired, flat flame, etc).

Some natural draft burners are used in forced draft heaters equipped with combustion air preheaters. In these cases, a
combustion air fan is used to provide the head necessary to overcome the resistance of the air preheater, ducting and burner.
Rather than providing a spare fan, it is common to fire the burner on ambient air in the event of a fan outage, using the natural
draft of the stack, and bypassing the air preheater. New heater designs, however, should be specified to have either natural or
forced draft burners. Use of a natural draft burner in a forced draft service is not desirable due to the compromises that must be
made to the burner design to accommodate each firing mode.
The maximum capacity of a natural draft burner is normally limited to about 10 MBtu/hr (3 MW). At higher rates, mixing energy
may become insufficient to provide stable combustion and consequently the efficiency of the combustion process suffers. This
results in higher excess air to enable full combustion of the fuel and longer flame lengths.

Basic Components - While many designs exist, all natural draft burners are made up of four basic components:
1. Fuel Injector - Gas fuels typically employ several risers (also called guns or pokers) terminating in orifice(s) for injection of
the fuel into the combustion zone. Liquid fuels are introduced by means of a burner gun which atomizes the fuel before
introduction into the combustion zone.
➧ 2. Air Control Device - In the past, combustion air to the burner was regulated by air registers around the perimeter of the
burners. Air dampers are preferred today. Figure-1 shows a natural draft burner with air registers. Figure-2 and Figure-3
show burners with dampers for air control.
3. Burner Stabilization Device - Two main methods for stabilizing the flame exist. The first is the utilization of a burner tile and
the second is to use a mechanical device, either a swirler or a stabilizer cone. Each device provides stabilization through
recirculation of the hot gases to cooler regions of the combustion zone. In addition, the tile provides a source for re-radiation
of heat back to the combustion zone.
4. Burner Tile - Assists in the shaping of the flame as well as provides some re-radiation back to the main combustion zone.

Gas Burners - These are either “raw gas" or “premix", depending upon the method used to combine the fuel and air.
1. Raw Gas Burners - A raw gas burner (also called nozzle mix burner) is one in which the fuel gas is injected, without prior
mixing with air, into the combustion zone for ignition. Mechanically, this is achieved via one of two acceptable general
burner configurations:
a. Center Fired - A single gas gun is mounted co-axially within the burner and is usually supplied with a flame stabilizing
cone (Figure 1A).
b. Multiple Pokers or Risers - A number of gas tips, typically four to eight, are located around the circumference of the
burner tile (Figure 1C).
Because of their low cost, center fired gas burners are usually used in applications where raw gas burners are selected and only
gaseous fuels are fired. Multiple gas gun burners, however, have the capability of being modified to also fire liquid fuels or a
second fuel gas by simply adding a center oil gun. Center fired oil guns are available for center fired gas burners, but this is
considered to be an unacceptable design.
2. Premix Gas Burners - Premix burners use the kinetic energy of the fuel gas to inspirate and mix part or all of the combustion
air (primary air) with the fuel gas in a venturi mixing tube. This air/fuel mixture is then introduced into the ignition zone
through a distribution head mounted on the outlet end of the mixing tube. Any additional (secondary) air which may be
required to complete combustion enters through, and is controlled by, an air register or control damper.
The size and shape of the flames produced by these burners vary considerably, depending on the configuration of the
distribution head. Flames are typically non-luminous. These burners are normally classified as short flame, long flame
(pencil) or radiant burners.
a. Short Flame Burner - The fuel/air mixture is dispersed into the ignition zone through a spider-shaped head with each
'arm' containing fuel gas ports. The head extends across the full radius of the burner throat. Characteristically, the
flames produced are relatively short, about 1 ft per MBtu/hr (1 m/MW) heat released (Figure 1B). Some spider burners
are equipped with center-fired oil guns. However, this is considered to be an unacceptable design.
b. Pencil Flame Burner - In these burners the burner head is centrally located and releases the fuel/air mixture in a vertical
column co-axially with secondary air entering through the register. The resulting flame is long and narrow. These
burners physically resemble short flame burners, except for the burner head. Pencil flame burners are normally used
only for special applications and in pyrolysis heaters.

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BURNER TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (CONT)

c. Radiant Wall Burner - These burners inspirate nearly 100 percent of their combustion air. The air/fuel mixture is
directed across, and essentially burns to completion on the surface of the burner tile which is oriented at right angles to
the burner axis. Significant heat is transferred to the heater tubes by radiation from the burner tiles and hot wall. These
burners are usually limited in capacity to about 0.75 MBtu/hr (0.2 MW). They are used only in specialized applications
such as pyrolysis heaters, where very even heat distribution and control are required.
The noise produced by the expanding gas jet in premix burners is usually higher than that of raw gas burners. However, the
noise can usually be adequately controlled by mufflers on the primary air inlet and/or by special inspirator spud designs. Premix
burners have a drawback in that they have restricted turndown, as limited by flashback into the mixing tube. Flashback occurs
when the velocity of the air/fuel mixture through the mixing tube and/or distribution head drops below the flame-front propagation
velocity for the mixture. Hydrogen has a significantly higher flame velocity than do hydrocarbon gases. Thus, with high hydrogen
concentrations in the fuel gas (30 to 50 Vol%), the degree of turndown can be limited. Usually, flashback will not occur in the
approved premix burners, provided the burner is kept clean and the fuel gas pressure is maintained above 2 psig (14 kPa).
Preignition of the air-fuel mixture can also occur if the mixing tube and/or distribution head heats up above the ignition
temperature of the fuel.

Low Btu Gas Burners - The FLEXICOKING Process, and some other processes, produce a dilute, low-pressure off-gas with a
heating value much lower than typical refinery fuel gases, often less than 150 Btu/ft3 (1350 kCal/m3). Safe disposal of this gas
requires special burner design parameters aimed at providing good air/fuel mixing with the limited available gas-side pressure
drop and acceptable turndown. These fuels normally require a minimum support from supplemental high heating value fuels.
Forced-draft burners were designed for disposing of large amounts of this off-gas, as high as 40 MBtu/hr (12 MW) heat release
rates and natural draft burners with heat release capabilities in the range of 6 - 10 MBtu/hr (2 - 3 MW) are available from John
Zink and Callidus.
Originally, it was considered a difficult gas to burn, and significant support from a high calorific supplemental fuel was deemed
necessary. ExxonMobil's Design Practice was to require a support gas at a rate of no less than 15% of the total burner heat
release. Experience has shown, however, that the gas burns more readily than expected, and in theory can be fired with no
support gas. For design considerations, however, it should still be assumed that support gas will normally be fired along with the
low Btu gas at a rate of about 15%. This ensures that the necessary control logic will be provided to allow simultaneous firing of
high and low Btu fuels.

➧ Low NOx Burners - The burning of most fuels produces oxides of nitrogen, termed NOx, which is of concern due to its adverse
effect on the environment. Control of NOx emitted to the atmosphere has now become an important criteria for burner design
and selection. To some degree, it can also impact on the design of the fired heater. Low NOx Burners typically provide NOx
reduction (compared to conventional raw gas burner) in the range of 50 to 75% and some recently developed burners are
achieving about 90% reduction.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are produced in three main ways - from the organic nitrogen compounds in the fuel (called fuel NOx),
from high temperature reaction of nitrogen and oxygen (called thermal NOx) and from instantenous reaction between nitrogen,
oxygen and hydrocarbon radicals (called prompt NOx). Fuel NOx is primarily associated with liquid fuel firing (fuel gas typically
does not have organic-nitrogen), more typically residual fuel oils where the fuel nitrogen is concentrated. Thermal NOx is derived
from nitrogen in the air combining with oxygen at high temperature. Prompt NOx is a rapid, low temperature reaction occurring
primarily in the fuel rich portion of the flame. Prompt NOx becomes an important consideration when emission levels are 20 to 30
ppm or below. This is more true in the latest developed low NOx burners showing NOx emission in 10-20ppm range.
Typical heavy fuel oils contain as much as 0.3 to 0.5 wt% nitrogen which contributes as much as 50% to the total NOx produced
within a conventional burner. As the fuel quality deteriorates, the fuel nitrogen content increases, which in turn results in higher
NOx emission.
For gaseous fuels, the NOx emitted is primarily from thermal NOx and prompt NOx. Thermal NOx process depends on the
concentration of nitrogen and oxygen, peak flame temperature and residence time at the peak flame temperature. Of all these
variables, the peak flame temperature has the most significant impact on NOx emissions. Generally speaking, a lower flame
temperature will result in a lower NOx emission. For this reason energy-saving systems which preheat the combustion air will
enhance the formation of NOx due to the higher resultant flame temperature. Prompt NOx formation is not well understood, but
known to depend on conditions of the flame and tends to occur in the rich zones in the flame front. Oxygen availability is an
important factor; high levels of excess air can reduce prompt NOx formation. More details concerning NOx formation, NOx
reduction performance of various NOx control applications and cost-effectiveness can be found in DP XVIII, Air Pollution Control,
Industrial Hygene, and Noise Control.

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Burner designers have found that lower flame temperatures can best be accomplished by slowing the rate of burning by staging
the introduction of fuel and/or air into the burner. The result is a cooler flame at its root due to the quenching effect of the air in
the case of the staged-fuel design, or the lower flame temperature in the substoichiometric combustion zone in the case of the
staged-air design. In addition to lowering the flame's root temperature, the process of staging the combustion allows more time
for radiation to the surrounding heat sink, thus resulting in a lower average flame temperature. Conversely, a high mixing-energy,
high-intensity type burner will tend to have a relatively short, high temperature flame, and will generally be a higher NOx
producer.
A reduction in flame temperature has no effect on fuel NOx production which is dictated by the amount of nitrogen in the fuel. To
combat this problem, some manufacturers have adopted air staging to reduce fuel NOx. A limited amount of air is added to the
primary combustion zone where a fuel rich mixture is formed. Due to the lack of oxygen in this region, molecular nitrogen is
produced in preference to the oxides. The temperature is also slightly reduced as full combustion does not take place. The
secondary air is then added to complete combustion of the fuel at lower temperatures.
Another design concept utilizes cooler flue gas (FGR-Flue Gas Recirculation), recirculated to the burner - the entrained flue gas
dilutes the oxygen concentration and reduces the local flame temperature, thereby reducing rate of NOx formation. Recirculation
of external flue gas (from stack) can be accomplished with the use of a separate fan (usual application in boilers). More
commonly, manufacturers utilize the inspiration of the expanding fuel leaving the burner throat to pull flue gases from within the
firebox into the flame - a process called internal flue gas recirculation. Since reduced oxygen concentrations in the flame have a
strong impact on fuel NOx, internal flue gas recirculation burners are an effective NOx control technique for burners firing
nitrogen-containing fuel oil. This is especially the case with staged-air combustion.

➧ Current Generation of Low NOx Burners - Most recent low NOx burner designs make use of a combination of either air or fuel
staging and internal flue gas recirculation. These are capable of achieving lower NOx emissions than conventional low NOx
burners. New as well as retrofit applications have demonstrated 10-30 ppm NOx emissions from these burners on gas firing. This
can lead to NOx reductions of about 90% compared to emission from conventional uncontrolled raw gas burners.
Figures 2 through 5 shows examples of burners using one or more of the above techniques for NOx reduction.
Use of any of the NOx control techniques may also impact flame stability. To reduce NOx effectively, it is necessary to develop a
burner that produces low emissions while maintaining adquate flame stability. As a result, the margin for error in the
constructional tolerances of a low NOx burner and the plant setup is reduced compared to a conventional burner. For this
reason, it is important that a thorough inspection of the burner and components is carried out before commissioning and that
components are maintained in good condition while in operation and storage. Burner component location and orientation are
more critical to achieve the desired NOx reduction and burner stability.

Liquid Burners - As with gas burners, there are many natural-draft types of liquid burners available. However, the only
ExxonMobilacceptable configuration has a centrally located fuel gun, surrounded by primary and secondary refractory tiles
(Figure 1C). The shape, length and quality of liquid fuel flames are a function of the atomizing gun design and the refractory tile
design. Steam atomizing fuel guns are usually used and will be supplied unless another type of atomizer is specified.
Mechanical and combination mechanical/steam assisted atomizers are available for special cases and are discussed below
under Fuel System Design Considerations. On a rare occasion, compressed air is used as an atomizing media where atomizing
steam is unavailable for initial start-up.
Combination Gas / Liquid Burners - Combination burners are essentially the combination of a liquid burner and a multiple-gun
raw gas burner (Figure 1C). All previous comments on these two types of burners apply to the combination burners. These
burners are capable of firing all gas, all liquid or both fuels simultaneously. Simultaneous firing of gas and liquid fuels in this type
of burner results in slightly longer flames as compared to single fuel firing. When firing simultaneously, the total combined firing
rate should not exceed the burner's maximum design capacity.
If firing both fuel oil and gas in a heater, it is recommended it be done simultaneously in all burners. That is, each burner should
have oil and gas firing in combination, rather than some burners firing gas, while the others are firing oil. This will allow a more
uniform heat distribution from burner-to-burner as well as allow the heater to fire with a minimum of overall excess air.
If the oil and gas firing is split among burners, the unit heat release will not be equal, and overall heater excess air must therefore
be higher to accommodate those burners firing hardest. Care should be exercised when selecting dual-fuel burners, since they
can be more easily over-fired. This is due to the normal requirement that combination burners have the capability of 100%
design heat release while firing either fuel, singly. In many cases, under-sized oil guns are specified, recognizing that 100% oil
firing may not be a normal operating case. In fact, this may mean only smaller gun tips and atomizers, both of which can be
easily retrofitted with larger size at a later time.
Today, many ExxonMobil refineries are limited to gas firing exclusively due to sulfur dioxide emission regulatory limits. For this
reason, most new burner installations are gas-only.

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BURNER TYPES AND APPLICATIONS (CONT)

FORCED-DRAFT BURNERS
➧ Forced-draft burners rely on fans to supply their combustion air under a positive pressure (normally in excess of 2inches of
water). In burners of this type, the kinetic energy of the air stream is utilized to achieve more efficient fuel/air mixing than is
possible in natural-draft burners. As a result of this improved mixing, smaller specific flame volumes are obtained, and
consequently higher burner capacities are permissible. Thus, fewer forced-draft burners are required for the same total heat
release than would be the case with natural-draft burners. This is a benefit when firing heavy fuel oil where burner gun
maintenance is manpower intensive. When firing clean fuel oils, or gases, high heat release burners may not be cost effective.

Figure 6 and Figure 7. schematically show a typical axial flow, swirl stabilized burner use for combination firing of oil and gas
fuels.

BURNER SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS

The burner must be sized to ensure that the air required for good combustion will be available at the burner's maximum design
capacity.
Natural-Draft Burners - The maximum air flow through the burners is governed by the available furnace draft at the burner level
and by the flow characteristics of the burner's air register. Approved natural-draft burners should be capable of 10 - 15% excess
air, firing either gas or oil.
Forced-Draft Burners - Heater designs with forced-draft burners should be based on 10% excess air.

BURNER TURNDOWN
➧ Turndown is a function of several factors, the most important being burner design and type of fuel. Other factors, including fuel
pressure, atomizing steam pressure and the ability to control combustion air flow also affect turndown. Burner turndown does not
normally affect burner selection or heater design, since burners often can be turned off or excess air increased when the heater
is operated at greatly reduced firing rates. It may be noted that though a burner may be able to operate at a high turndown (i.e.
lower firing duty), but the process control system may not allow operation at such low fuel pressure.
In situations where the fuel gas varies considerably in molecular weight, the burner gas orifices generally should be sized for the
gas composition with the lowest expected molecular weight. As density of the fuel gas increases, pressure drop through the
burner will decrease and will thus limit the turndown on the heavier fuel. For this reason, it is important for the designer to avoid
over-specifying the expected molecular weight range in an effort to build in conservatism.

Raw Gas Burners

➧ For both natural-draft and forced-draft installations, burners typically have a turndown in firing rate of 5 to 1 or greater, assuming
a constant molecular weight and heating value of the fuel gas. The fuel pressure at maximum design capacity should be at least
30 psig (210 kPa-g). Minimum fuel pressure is about 1 psig (7 kPa-g), and this sets the minimum burner capacity. Lower design
fuel pressures will limit the turndown. Since fuel gas at 1psig (7 kPa-g) does not have enough controllability in process operation,
turndown of 3 to1 is also acceptable, though burners can be tested for stability at 5 to 1 turndown.
Premix Gas Burners - These burners can be further limited in turndown by low molecular weight fuel gases, particularly if
hydrogen content is high, because of the potential of the fuel to flashback (burning in the mixing tube). A minimum fuel pressure
of about 2 psig (14 kPa-g) at turndown should be used to avoid flashback.
Oil Burners - These are usually limited to a turndown in firing rate of about 3 or 4 to 1 for both natural and forced draft burners.
This limit is set by the range over which most fuel guns can atomize the fuel adequately for good combustion. As with gas,
maximizing fuel pressure will maximize turndown.
Combination Gas / Oil Burners - When firing gas and liquid fuels simultaneously in both natural and forced draft burners,
greater turndown with either fuel is obtainable. The reason for this added flexibility is the main fuel acts as a large ignition source
for the secondary fuel. For dual fuel burners firing both fuels simultaneously, additional controls are necessary so that loss of
main fuel will automatically shut off the secondary fuel if the secondary fuel is firing below its recommended single fuel turndown
limit as given for raw gas and oil burners.

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DESIGN PRACTICES
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BURNER SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (CONT)

Air-Side Considerations - The air side conditions need not normally affect burner or heater turn-down since excess air can be
increased during operation at reduced firing rates to maintain mixing energy. Air rate can be reduced in both natural-draft and
forced-draft burners until there is insufficient energy for proper mixing of air and fuel. Natural-draft burners are usually capable of
an air-side turndown of 2 or 3 to 1. Air-side turndown of most forced-draft burners is limited by a minimum air pressure of 1 to 2
in. of water (0.25 to 0.5 kPa-g).

NOISE TREATMENT
Most burner systems require some degree of noise treatment to meet ExxonMobil Global Practice noise limitations. These
requirements are covered under Noise Control in DP Section XVIII-C2. The following is a summary of acoustical treatment
requirements for various burners.
Natural-Draft Burners
1. Premix Gas Burners - Due to the high exit velocity of the fuel gas from the inspirator, these burners usually require primary
air mufflers. (The small radiant wall burners do not normally require these mufflers.) These burners may also require
secondary air plenum chambers to attenuate the noise, largely depending upon the fuels burned.
2. Other Natural Draft Burners - When acoustic treatment is necessary, plenums are normally used for raw gas, liquid and
combination fired natural draft burners.
Oil-fired burners mounted in common plenums have severe disadvantages, due to operating and maintenance problems that can
be caused by residual fuel spills. To eliminate some of the problems associated with plenum mounted burners, the burners can
be specified with individual windboxes. Highly volatile fuels such as liquid naphtha should not be burned in plenum mounted
burners due to the high explosive potential that would result in the event of a fuel spill. Acoustical shrouds which are open at the
bottom have been developed for use in this service. (For further details refer to R&D Report No. EE.32E.74.)
Forced-Draft Burners
Due to their closed designs, most forced draft burners normally do not require acoustical treatment. Fans, drivers and forced
draft system ductwork may require some treatment, as discussed in Section VIII-G.

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS (CFD) MODELING:

➧ Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling is a numerical tool for combustion, heat transfer and fluid flow analysis. CFD is
often used in developmental design of equipment and diagnosis of problems. CFD modeling is particularly gaining importance in
low NOx burner installations where several factors can affect performance in field.
Low NOx burners in actual operation have been known to have resulted in flame leaning, bending and impingement on tubes
resulting in operation at reduced throughput, unplanned shut down. Typically all low NOx burner development and testing have
been limited to single, small and simple test furnace settings where performance of multi-burner, large and complex furnaces is
often difficult to predict. This necessitates understanding of interaction between burner flames, prediction of temperature and heat
flux profile, etc. in actual applications.
CFD Modeling provides results that can diagnose such problems and when detected changes to burner (or heater, at times)
design and arrangement can be implemented to resolve these problems. CFD modeling provides information on:
• Effect of furnace gas re-circulation on the burner flame envelope
• Flame interaction between burners
• Temperature and heat flux profile with new burners
• Tube metal temperature profile

There are a few companies who have competent experience in carrying out CFD's in this field. However, this is still an emerging
field. For the latest on acceptable service providers, please contact Heat Transfer Equipment section of EETD.
Sample figures 15 and 16 show two different cases of CFD results. Figure 15 shows unacceptable flame leaning towards furnace
walls. Figure-16 is a sample predicted heat flux profile as a function of radiant box elevation, where a high heat flux problem was
identified.

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DESIGN PRACTICES
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FUEL SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Refinery fuels are often low quality streams which may contain contaminants that can cause safety and/or operational problems if
they are not properly treated and handled prior to being injected into the burners.

GAS FUELS
Fuel gases vary from clean, dry, relatively constant molecular weight streams to dirty, wet mixtures of process waste gases that
can fluctuate significantly in composition and molecular weight. In the first case, the fuel should cause very few problems; but for
the latter, safety and maintenance problems can occur unless the gas is thoroughly cleaned and dried. Both solids and liquids
can plug fuel ports in the burner gun, thus restricting burner capacity and causing poor combustion and possible flame
impingement. Low NOx burners are particularly susceptible to fuelorifice blockages due to the small sizes necessary to provide
fuel staging.
➧ To protect against wet or dirty gas, knockout drums are a minimum requirement for all fuel gas systems. However, in some
instances where the fuel is very dirty or wet, knockout drums cannot do an adequate job of cleaning the fuel. In locations where
past experience has demonstrated this situation to exist, more efficient gas cleaning equipment such as coalescing filters should
be specified downstream of the knockout drum if liquid and solid particulate removal is required. As a minimum, in all cases,
strainers or filters for removal of particulate matter should be specified for all fuel gases, including pilot gas (GP 3-4-1).
Knockout drums should be located as close to the heater as allowed, but no closer than 50 ft (15 m) (Section XV). The intent of
the knockout drum is to provide an opportunity for vapor to condense, and therefore it should not be heat traced. In cold
climates, the drains and blowdown valves, only, are to be winterized. Piping downstream of the knockout facilities should be
steam traced, insulated and drained if condensation of the gas is possible (GP 3-4-1). Stainsteel fuel gas piping downstream of
main fuel gas filters should be considered for low NOx burners where clean fuel gas orifices are absolutely required to meet NOx
emission limits.
Pressure - The fuel pressure when firing gas will determine the burner turndown. Gas burners typically have a turndown
capability of about 5 to 1 or greater provided the fuel pressure available at maximum rate is 30 psig (210 kPa-g) or higher [i.e.,
fuel gas pressure at minimum burner capacity is about 1 to 2 psig (7 to 14 kPa-g)]. Lower design fuel pressures will limit the
turndown.
In situations where the fuel gas varies considerably in molecular weight, burner turndown will be limited as the gas deviates from
the molecular weight for which the burner was designed: increasing density will restrict the lower capacity limit, and decreasing
density will lower the burner's upper capacity limit unless sufficient gas pressure is available to overcome the increased pressure
drop. Therefore, since turndown of the total heat fired can be controlled by turning off burners on most heaters, fuel gas guns
usually should be designed for the gas with the lowest molecular weight. In addition to specifying the expected molecular weight
range, the designer should provide the burner vendor with the expected fuel composition range. The burners can be operated
satisfactorily with gas pressures up to about 40 psig (280 kPa-g). Higher burner fuel gas pressures could produce noise
problems.
For very low pressure gases [maximum available pressure of about 3 psig (21 kPa-g) at the burner], a special premix burner with
steam eductor can be used. This burner is often used to combust waste gas streams, such as vacuum pipestill noncondensibles.
Typical steam consumption of 0.3 pounds per pound (kg/kg) of fuel should be considered for supply to the burner at a pressure of
30 psig (210 kPa). A typical specification for this burner would be: “John Zink PM 16-5 Burner with 25 Cr-12 Ni alloy gas tips,
waste gas eductor, primary air muffler, and pilot."
➧ Distribution of Vent/Waste Gases - Vent or waste gases are sometimes routed to furnace for firing/disposal. These gases may
have high mass flow (with low heating value), or low mass flow (with high heating value). If the quantity (mass or energy) of such
gas is high (greater than about 10% of total combustion air mass or total heat fired), the gas should be distributed uniformly to all
burners.
Heater Control - When dual firing is called for, one of the two fuels is normally base-loaded, while the other is varied for coil
outlet temperature control. Normally fuel oil would be the base-loaded fuel with fuel gas in control. Sometimes, however,
maximum gas firing is desired, for fuel gas header pressure control, in which case fuel oil is used as the coil outlet temperature
control fuel. The designer should consider the realistic possibilities of firing either fuel, alone, since this will cause guns, valving,
etc., to be sized for 100%, yet normal firing of each fuel will be at reduced rates. In many cases, oil guns of lower firing duty are
specified, recognizing that 100% oil firing may not be a realistic operating case. This will allow maximum fuel gas firing as the
base-loaded fuel for fuel gas header pressure control, while still allowing the fuel oil firing safely above its minimum stable
turndown.

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DESIGN PRACTICES
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FUEL SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (CONT)

LIQUID FUELS
Liquid fuels range from highly volatile streams, such as naphtha, to very viscous and/or dirty fuels such as vacuum residuals and
cracked tars. Regardless of quality, liquid fuels must arrive at the burner gun under the following conditions:
1. At a viscosity that will insure good atomization and combustion.
2. In liquid phase only.
3. Free of solids that can plug the small atomizer holes.
Fuel Viscosity - For good atomization, the fuel should be supplied to the burner at a viscosity of 25 cSt or less (preferably at 15
cST). This may require heating the fuel oil. Lower viscosity ensures that the fuel can be atomized into small, fine droplets,
allowing them to combust easily. At higher viscosities, the droplet sizes of the atomized fuel may become so large that
combustion is incomplete. As a result, burner flames can become unacceptably large, and smoky. .
The temperature of residual and tar type fuels must be maintained high enough to meet this viscosity requirement. Experience
has shown that 350°F (175°C) is the minimum temperature which gives good atomization characteristics of heavy fuels, even if a
lower temperature would meet the viscosity requirements. More generally, the temperature of blends of residual or tar type fuels
must be high enough to insure the viscosity of the heaviest component is 25 cSt or less.
Volatile Fuels - With volatile fuels such as naphtha, flashing (partial vaporization) of the fuel must not take place upstream of the
fuel gun. This condition would result in severe burner instabilities (pulsation) and a potential cause for burner flame out. This
potential can be minimized by specifying the proper burner gun type and tip (see Atomizers below).
Naphtha type fuels also present unique safety problems due to their high volatility which require special attention. These are:
1. High fire risk in the event of fuel spills (or explosion in the case of natural draft burners with acoustical plenums). Therefore,
these fuels should not be burned with acoustical plenums present. Safety interlocks should be specified to prevent removal
of a burner gun without complete shutoff of the fuel.
2. Leakage of naphtha into heated fuel oil systems, particularly of the circulating type, would result in flashing of these fuel lines
and/or surge drums and hold up tanks. Therefore, the naphtha system must be segregated from the fuel oil system by
physical separation. Severe plugging can also be experienced if naphtha and heavy fuels are alternatively used in the same
piping system. The naphtha will act as a solvent and tend to wash the sediments left behind from the heavier fuel into the
burners, causing sudden blocking of the small burner parts.
Atomizers - These are probably the most critical pieces of hardware in the liquid fuel system. If they are not correctly designed
and sized, or if they become dirty or excessively worn during use, they will not atomize the fuel into sufficiently small droplets for
rapid and complete combustion. Consequently, smoky combustion and/or flame impingement on process tubes and other
surfaces in the heaters could result. Also, large fuel droplets can drip back into the burner resulting in serious maintenance and
operating problems as well as a safety hazard.
1. Types of Atomizers - Three basic types of atomizers are used:
a. Steam Atomizer - This is the most basic type, and the most common in refinery service. This atomizer utilizes the
kinetic energy of steam to break the oil down into small droplets. The steam then acts as a carrier to convey the
atomized fuel “fog" into the burner's ignition zone. For the steam's energy to be used effectively, its pressure must be
higher than the pressure of the oil. Most manufacturers of steam atomizers recommend a steam-to-oil pressure
differential of 20 to 30 psig (140 to 210 kPa). For good burner performance and turndown, the fuel oil pressure should
be as high as possible, while still providing this differential. Hence, oil pressures of about 60 to 100 psig (420 to 700
kPa-g) are preferred.
Each burner manufacturer has a steam atomizer that he would provide as his standard. Some are greater steam
consumers than others, and some are more prone to plugging than others depending on the burner heat release which
determines the gun tip hole size.
The basic steam atomizer will typically consume up to 0.3 to 0.5 pounds of steam per pound of fuel oil fired (kg per kg).
The designer should use 0.5 pounds per pound (kg per kg) for line sizing. In larger burners, the Y-Jet, or Skew-Jet,
atomizers are used, which are lower steam consumers, typically about 0.1 to 0.3 pounds per pound (kg per kg).
b. Mechanical Atomizer (Pressure Jet Atomizer) - This type has very limited application in refinery service and is only used
where steam availability is limited. It uses the energy in the fluid itself for atomization, and thus high fuel pressures, 350
psig (2500 kPa), are required. These atomizers are highly susceptible to plugging because of the smaller orifice sizes,
and, therefore, the fuel must be well filtered.

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FUEL SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (CONT)

c. Combination Mechanical / Steam Assisted Atomizer - This type of atomizer achieves as good fuel atomization as either
of the other two types (or better) while providing the dual advantage of usually requiring less steam than steam
atomizers and less fuel pressure than mechanical atomizers. A constant steam pressure is maintained at the burner,
while the fuel pressure is allowed to vary. Some of the fuel oil pressure energy is consumed in the atomizer before
being mixed with the steam, thus a differential pressure will exist for the steam kinetic energy to be effective. For good
performance, the recommended fuel and steam pressures to the burner should be about 100 to 125 psig (700 to 875
kPa-g) each. The fuel must be free of most solids to prevent plugging. Steam consumption for this type of atomizer is
typically 0.25 to 0.6 pound of steam per pound of fuel (kg per kg).
2. Atomizer Selection
The burner vendor has responsibility for properly designing and sizing the atomizers for all burners firing liquid-fuel. The
type of atomizer used is determined by the type of burner and the fuel characteristics and availability of steam. For this
reason, it is important that the designer provide these information when preparing a specification.
a. Vendors normally equip natural draft burners with steam atomizers. However, for special cases they will supply
mechanical/steam assisted (or mechanical) atomizers at the purchaser's request.
b. Commercial forced-draft burners usually are equipped with special atomizers which have been designed specifically for
these burners.
c. Burners firing volatile fuels, such as naphtha, will require special twin-tube atomizers, which keep the hot atomizing
steam from heating and pre-flashing the light oil.

Fuel System - For heavy fuels such as vacuum or atmospheric reduced crudes, tars or other low pour point fuels, a circulating
fuel system should be used. This system reduces the inherent problems associated with dead-ended systems, such as cold
startup and plugged lines. Figure 11 shows typical main and heater fuel loops. Refer also to Offsites DP Section XXV.
Important design points to be considered are:
1. Selection of a hot source of fuel to eliminate the need for fuel heat exchangers by, for example, routing the fuel directly from
tower bottom circuits.
2. Designing the return leg of the main fuel loop so that it will operate at a pressure lower than any of the heater loops in the
circuit. Usually a pressure of 50 psig (350 kPa-g) or less in the main return line is adequate.
3. Providing small flow-limiting orifices (usually gate valves with an orifice drilled in the gate) in the return lines of the individual
units to prevent no-flow situations.
4. Designing the system components to allow for adequate fuel flow rates. Fuel return rates are dictated by fuel characteristics,
size and length of return line(s), ambient weather conditions, etc., and are set to maintain adequate fuel temperatures
throughout the system. Care should be taken to size pumps, control valves, etc., accordingly.
5. Insulating and heat tracing all lines. The tracing and insulation is usually specified to provide for 2 to 3 hours of lead time in
the event of a no-flow situation. Tracing temperature does not necessarily have to be higher than the normal fuel
temperature.
In some cases contractors will insulate both oil and atomizing steam piping together to save space and materials. This
should be avoided as the oil will absorb heat from the atomizing steam, causing atomizing steam to lose some of its
superheat and possibly become saturated. Wet steam does not atomize oil well. Conversely, if the fuel oil is very light, the
heat from the atomizing steam can cause pre-flashing of the oil. This can cause pulsation and flame instability.
6. Providing a relatively light back-up fuel source to facilitate clearing the main fuel system. Provide steam-out connections at
each end of the individual heater loops to permit clearing these lines. These steam-out connections are to be a minimum
distance from the main fuel loop.
7. Providing automatic shut-off valves in the return lines of the individual heater loops. These valves are to activate
simultaneously with the fuel control valve upon signal from the heater emergency shutdown system and are intended to
prevent back-flow of fuel to the burners when a fuel tip is initiated.
8. Providing local temperature indicators in the return lines of the main fuel loop and each of the individual heater loops.
9. Providing flow meters in both the feed line and return line from each heater.

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DESIGN PRACTICES
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FUEL SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (CONT)

Fuel Cleaning - Fine mesh strainers, designed to be cleaned without interrupting the fuel flow, should be installed in all liquid fuel
and atomizing steam systems per GP 3-4-1. For residual and tar type fuels, strainers of the self-cleaning (motor driven) type
should be supplied. Backup strainers, to allow for maintenance of the self-cleaning ones, can be the more conventional
removable basket screen type. Two reliable sources of self-cleaning strainers are:
1. Auto-Klean Strainers Limited
Laskar Works
Hounslow, Middlesex
TW3 3JL, England
2. Cuno Incorporated
400 Research Parkway
Meriden, Connecticut 06450 U.S.A.

The self-cleaning strainers should be equipped with two stationary cleaning blades and have a mesh size equal to 25% or less of
the smallest diameter hole in the oil atomizer. Typical mesh size is 0.02 in. (0.5 mm). Maximum allowable pressure drop in the
dirty condition should be no greater than 10 psi (70 kPa). Strainers should be heat traced and insulated to maintain operating
temperature. The following fuel and flow characteristics must be included in strainer specifications.
1. Operating temperatures.
2. Design temperature.
3. Specific gravity at operating temperature.
4. Viscosity at operating temperature.
5. Maximum sulfur content, including H2S wt%.
6. Upstream operating pressure.
7. Design pressure.
8. Flow rate.
9. Quantity and size of particulates, if known

Self-cleaning strainer systems can be very costly. In grassroots installations, the designer should consider specifying a centrally-
located self-cleaning strainer station, and conventional fine-mesh basket strainers located close to each heater.

PILOTS
➧ Safety considerations require that flameout protection be provided for each burner in a heater. This is usually accomplished by
means of gas-fired continuous pilots. Use of flame scanner for main flame is also acceptable. The main function of a continuous
pilot is to provide a safe source of ignition and reignition for the main burner flame. In addition, the pilot's function is to maintain
the firebox in a safe condition following a furnace trip. The pilot's function is not to provide stability to the burner. This is one of
the functions of the burner design itself. Typical pilot assemblies with flame rods are shown in Figures 8, 9 and 10. Individual
flame scanners, which send signal to shut off the flow of fuel to the burner upon loss of flame, may be used in lieu of pilots if
requested by the owner. This approach is usually limited to single burner heaters because of the expense of scanner systems
and the difficulty in maintaining them.

Criteria for choosing between the two systems are covered in Design Practice Section XV. Pilot system piping design
requirements are covered in GP 3-4-1 and GP 15-1-1. Additional considerations are:
Capacity - Pilot for most burners operate with a nominal capacity of about 100,000 Btu/hr (30 kW) and gas pressures of 5 to 15
psig (35 to 100 kPa-g).

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FUEL SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (CONT)

Fuel - Only clean dry gas may be used. The gas can be supplied either from the main heater fuel gas system or, preferably, from
a reliable independent source such as a natural gas pipeline. If the fuel gas comes from the main system, the pilot gas must
come from upstream of the heater fuel control and shutoff valves.
The fuel flow orifices in all pilots are quite small and necessitate installing a filter in the pilot gas system with a mesh size equal to
25% or less of the pilot gas orifice diameter. Typical mesh size is 0.01 in. (0.25 mm) opening. Low pilot gas pressure alarms
should be set for 2 psig (14 kPa-g), and the low pilot gas pressure cutout should activate at 1 psig (7 kPa-g) and is confirmed with
the burner vendor during burner selection and testing.
Air - Pilots are predominantly the self-inspirating type, which use the kinetic energy of the expanding pilot gas jet to educt some
of its required combustion air. The self-inspirating pilot is capable of educting near 90% of its required stoichiometric air. The
remainder of the air comes from the main burner air supply.
Some existing heaters have been equipped with forced-air pilots, utilizing the main combustion air blower, instrument/utility air, or
separate dedicated blowers. None of these are cost-effective, nor do they provided added fired heater safety.
Forced-draft heaters can reach fire-box pressures which will cause an inspirating pilot to lose its ability to inspirate sufficient air
and will become extinguished. For most pilots this back-pressure is in the order of 1.5 in. WG (38 mm). For this reason forced
draft furnaces are specified with High Pressure Cutouts (PHCOs) which shuts down all fuels, including pilot gas.
GP 15-1-1 requires that all new pilot installations (with more than one burner) be equipped with an ionization flame rod to provide
flame verification. Some vendors also offer a dual-purpose flame rod which also functions as an electric ignitor. Although not
required by the GPs, it is fairly standard to specify this electric ignition feature, whether via a dual purpose flame rod or as a
separate item.
In some cases the burner vendor's pilot has been substituted with one preferred by the Owner and supplied locally. For example,
in Europe and Asia many new burners have been installed with Model J250E pilots supplied by Igniters Combustion Engineering,
Ltd. (ICEL), located in the U.K. This pilot has given improved performance over some vendors standard pilot and may be
specified as an alternative.

BURNER PIPING
Figure 12 shows a typical burner piping system for burners. This system permits lighting the burner from the platform.

BURNER SELECTION

TYPE OF BURNER
Pyrolysis Heaters - ExxonMobil steam reforming heaters are gas-fired and use floor-fired pencil flame burners. A row of wall-
mounted radiant burners is also installed in some steam reformers. Selection and sizing of these burners is covered in Section
VIII-E.
Process Heaters - The type of burner required will depend on the fuels to be burned, the total heat fired, environmental
constraints, and the availability of preheated combustion air. Usually forced draft burners are required where burner uses
preheated air. The following table summarizes the recommended burner applications, as discussed below:

HEATER DUTY FIRED

MBtu/hr
FUEL (MW) RECOMMENDED BURNER TYPE
Gas All Natural-Draft Raw Gas
(Preferred) or Premix
Liquid or Combination < 50 (15) Natural-Draft
Liquid or Combination 50 - 100 (15 - 30) Forced-Draft or Natural-Draft
Liquid or Combination > 100 (30) Forced-Draft

➧ Specific burner types should generally be selected from Table 1, which lists the most frequently used burners by type, model and
make. These burners have established their proven performance. Lately, there are new generations of burners being made
available (mostly lower NOx emission models) in the market, theseburners may be specified, provided they have been proven in
similar applications or have been demonstrated in simulated ways to the owner's satisfaction. An acceptance test may be

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BURNER SELECTION (CONT)

required in cases where there is no previously demonstrated experience with the specific application (i.e., fuel type, degree of air
or fuel preheat, turndown expectations, emissions, noise, etc.). This test requirement should be made clear in the design
specification as it will probably impact on cost and schedule and will require input from the Owner's Engineer.
In cases where satisfactory burners are available for more than one vendor (such as gas-fired natural-draft burners) and there is
no stated Owner's preference, it is preferable to specify a choice of burners in the design.
1. Gas Fired - When only gaseous fuels are to be fired in process heaters, natural-draft gas burners are normally specified.
The raw gas type burner is preferred while premix burners are used for special applications such as radiant-wall or long-
flame (pencil) burners. Depending on NOx emission requirements, a conventional or low NOx burner model is selected.
Usually primary air mufflers will satisfactorily attenuate premix burner noise. Under certain conditions, premix burners may
also require acoustical plenum chambers. Raw gas burners are usually specified with an acoustical plenum chamber or
individual burner windbox for noise control.
2. Liquid or Combination Fired - The same types of burners are used in heaters firing liquid fuels only, or a combination of liquid
and gas fuels. Only the burner gun equipment supplied will vary. This type of burner should also be specified for gas-fired
heaters where provisions are to be made for future firing of liquid fuels.
a. Low Duty Heaters - For heaters with a firing rate of less than about 50 MBtu/hr (15 MW), natural-draft burners with an
acoustical plenum chamber or individual burner windboxes are normally specified. It is not usually practical to install
forced-draft burners in these small heaters.
b. Medium Duty Heaters - For heaters with firing rates of about 50 to 100 MBtu/hr (15 to 30 MW), forced-draft burners
should normally be specified, although natural-draft burners may also be used. Natural-draft burners are less
expensive, but the forced-draft burners require less operator attention and maintenance, as well as providing better
control of excess air.
c. High Duty Heaters - Forced-draft burners are normally specified for heaters with over about 100 MBtu/hr (30 MW) heat
fired.
3. Preheated Air - Most forced-draft and natural-draft burners can be adapted for preheated air service. See Section VIII-K for
details of preheated air systems.

NUMBER OF BURNERS
At least three burners should be used in any liquid-firing heater that is essential to the uninterrupted operation of a process unit.
Use of a single burner is acceptable in dual-fuel burners, or heaters in non-critical services where a shutdown for burner
maintenance is considered acceptable, or in services with clean gas fuels since burner maintenance in these cases should be
negligible.

BURNER CAPACITY
Burner maximum design capacity depends upon the type and number of burners in the heater.
Burners - It is desirable for the maximum design capacity to be as close the manufacturer's rated maximum burner capacity at
the available draft as practical (at least 90%) without exceeding it. Excessive oversizing of the burner reduces its ability to
operate efficiently at normal design and turndown conditions because of low air velocities and poor mixing. Maximum Design
Capacity is as follows:

% OF NORMAL DESIGN CAPACITY

Up to 5 burners 110
6 or more burners 105

Capacities of natural and forced draft burners can be found in burner vendor's catalogs. The designer should keep in mind that
the available draft for the burner equals the specified draft at the heater floor minus the plenum chamber pressure drop (which is
usually about 0.075 to 0.10 in. of water [0.020 to 0.025 kPa-g]).

BURNER SPACING
Pyrolysis Heaters - Burner-to-tube, burner-to-refractory and burner-to-burner clearances are given in Section VIII-E.
Process Heaters - Burner-to-tube and burner-to-refractory clearances are given in Section VIII-B.
Burner-to-burner spacings for natural-draft burners depend upon burner size as determined from Figure 13 (Customary Units) or
Figure 14 (Metric Units) and the following:

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BURNER SELECTION (CONT)

Minimum burner spacing is 1 in. (25 mm) greater than the maximum burner diameter. The controlling dimensions are usually the
burner tile diameter for burners without plenums, and the bottom plate diameter for plenum-mounted burners.
Increased spacing may be required for burners mounted in plenum chambers and receiving all the combustion air from one side
of the burner (for example, a ring of burners in a vertical cylindrical heater). This increased space is necessary to insure
adequate distribution of air flow around the burner.
Many low NOx burners inspirate oxygen-depleted heater flue gas from the heater floor level (hearth gases) as a means of cooling
the flame to minimize NOx formation. The burner vendors generally recommend the minimum clearance between burner tiles be
no less than 1/2 tile OD.

Air Pressure Drop - The burners should be spaced so that the maximum velocity head of the air passing to the back side of the
burner does not exceed 10% of the burner pressure drop. Figure 13 (or Figure 14) gives information to assist in determining
minimum burner spacing. Also see the Sample Problem.
In addition to the clearances listed above, external clearances around the burners (including heater structure, piping, foundations
and forced-draft ducting) must permit fuel gun and complete burner (including forced-draft burner plenums) to be removed for
maintenance without interfering with the operation of any other burner. This is required by GP 7-1-1 and is mainly a concern of
the contractor and vendor. However, the heater designer should keep these considerations in mind, particularly when
determining the likely arrangement of forced-draft ducting.

PREPARATION OF BURNER DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

Burner specifications should be included in the Design Specification for all heaters. This information should include the following:
maximum and normal design capacities, and available draft or combustion air pressure at the burner. The Design Specification
should also specify the fuel properties, composition, and pressures available at the burner.

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SAMPLE PROBLEM (CUSTOMARY UNITS)

Given: Vertical cylinder heater with 8 combination gas/liquid natural-draft burners mounted in plenum chamber
Maximum design capacity per burner = 8 MBtu/hr
Available draft at heater floor = 0.45 in. of water
Pressure drop through plenum (allow.) = 0.10 in. of water
Find: Minimum burner spacing

Solution:
Determine Air Required Between Burners
Air flow:
Use 15% excess air
Maximum air flow per burner = (8 MBtu/hr) (2.9 ft3/s per MBtu/hr) x (1.15 excess air factor) = 26.7 ft3/s (Fig. 13)
Fraction of air flow to back side of burner = 0.38 for 8 burners in circle (Fig. 13)
Air flow to back side = (0.38) (26.7) = 10.1 ft3/s
Pressure drop through burner:
Available draft at heater floor = 0.45 in. of H2O
Pressure drop through plenum = 0.10
Burner pressure drop available = 0.35 in. of H2O
Flow around burner:
Maximum velocity head past burner = 10% of burner pressure drop
= 0.035 in. of water
Maximum air velocity past burner = 12.7 ft/s (Fig. 13)
3
10.1 ft / s
Required area between burners = = 0.80 ft 2 = 115 in.2
12.7 ft / s

The following typical burner can be used:

Burner Dimension (From Vendor Catalogs), in.

D = REGISTER DEPTH C, REGISTER DIA. B, BOTTOM PLATE DIA.

John Zink MAE-18 18 22 26
JZ MAE-18
Area between burners 115
Required clearance between registers = = = 6.4 in.
Register depth 18
Register Diameter C = 22 in.
Minimum spacing for air flow = 28.4 in.
Minimum physical burner spacing = B + 1 in. = 27 in.
Minimum burner center to center spacing = 28.4 in.

If possible, the heater should be designed for burner center to center spacing of at least 28.4 in. to permit use of either burner.
Register depth should be minimized to that required for noise suppression. In the case of a low NOx burner installation utilizing
flue gas recirculation, the burner-to-burner spacing would be set by the required clearance between tile OD (usually 1/2 OD).

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SAMPLE PROBLEM (METRIC UNITS)

Given: Vertical cylinder heater with 8 combination gas/liquid natural-draft burners mounted in plenum chamber
Maximum design capacity per burner = 2.3 MW
Available draft at heater floor = 0.11 kPa
Pressure drop through plenum (allow.) = 0.024 kPa
Find: Minimum burner spacing

Solution:
Determine Air Required Between Burners
Air flow:
Use 15% excess air
Maximum air flow per burner = (2.3 MW) (0.280 m3/s per MW) x (1.15 excess air factor) = 0.741 m3/s (Fig. 14)
Fraction of air flow to back side of burner = 0.38 for 8 burners in circle (Fig. 14)
Air flow to back side = (0.38) (0.741) = 0.282 m3/s
Pressure drop through burner:
Available draft at heater floor = 0.11 kPa
Pressure drop through plenum = 0.025 kPa
Burner pressure drop available = 0.085 kPa
Flow around burner:
Maximum velocity head past burner = 10% of burner pressure drop
= 0.0085 kPa
Maximum air velocity past burner = 3.87 m/s (Fig. 14)
3
0.282 m / s
Required area between burners = = 0.073 m2 = 73,000 mm 2
38.7 m / s

The following typical burner can be used:

Burner Dimension (From Vendor Catalogs), mm

D = REGISTER DEPTH C, REGISTER DIA. B, BOTTOM PLATE DIA.

John Zink MAE-18 457 559 660
JZ MAE-18
Area between burners 73,000
Required clearance between registers = = = 160 mm
Register depth 457
Register Diameter C = 559 mm
Minimum spacing for air flow = 719 mm
Minimum physical burner spacing = B + 1 in. = 685 mm
Minimum burner center to center spacing = 719 mm

If possible, the heater should be designed for burner center to center spacing of at least 719 mm to permit use of either burner.
Register depth should be minimized to that required for noise suppression. In the case of a low NOx burner installation utilizing
flue gas recirculation, the burner-to-burner spacing would be set by the required clearance between tile OD (usually 1/2 OD).

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Table 1
Burner Selection Guide

MANUFACTURER MODEL FUEL COMMENTS

PROCESS HEATERS - NATURAL DRAFT

John Zink VYD Fuel Gas Only
MA Liquid or Gas
LNC Liquid or Gas Utilizes staged air to minimize NOx production.
SFG Fuel Gas Only Utilizes staged fuel gas to minimize NOx production (incompatible with
future installation of external flue gas recirculation).
SFR Fuel Gas Only Similar to SFG, but intended for the addition of external flue gas
recirculation.
SMR Fuel Gas Only Utilizes staged fuel plus internal flue gas recirculation to minimize NOx
production.
DFR Fuel Gas Only Basically, a modified VYD with staged-fuel centrally-located fuel gas gun
for modest NOx reduction.
EFX Low Btu Gas Designed to fire low calorific gas with liquid and/or gas as support fuel(s).
QMR Fuel Gas Only Utilizes staged fuel plus internal flue gas recirculation producing better
NOx reduction than SMR.
LM 300 Fuel Gas Only Utilizes staged (three) fuel plus internal flue gas recirculation producing
better NOx reduction than QMR.
Airoil (Hamworthy) Unimax Liquid Gas Utilizes radial-vane register to impart spin to air, for flame shaping.
Environmix Liquid or Gas Uses staged air to minimize NOx production.
Callidus Technologies CRG or LE- Fuel Gas Only Utilizes internal flue gas recirculation to minimize NOx production.
CRG
CSG or Fuel Gas Only Utilizes staged fuel gas plus internal flue gas recirculation producing
LE-CSG slightly better NOx reduction than CRG.
CUB Fuel Gas Only Utilizes staged fuel gas plus internal flue gas recirculation producing
(Callidus better NOx reduction than LE-CSG.
Ultra Blue)
Zeeco GLSF Fuel Gas Only Utilizes staged fuel gas plus internal flue gas recirculation
Free Jet

PROCESS HEATERS - FORCED DRAFT

Peabody (Hamworthy) LNOG Liquid or gas A combination of air and fuel staging is used to minimize NOx
production.
Airoil (Hamworthy) Axiflo 6000 Liquid or Gas Conventional swirl stabilized burner with no means for reduction of NOx.
Enviromix Liquid or Gas Uses staged air to minimize NOx production.
John Zink FMR Liquid or Gas Uses staged air and internal flue gas recirculation to to minimize NOx
production

PYROLYSIS HEATERS - NATURAL DRAFT

John Zink PM-H Premix Gas Same as PM, except for special tips. See Section VIII-E for capacity
PM-ZH (Pencil flame) information.

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Figure 1
Typical Natural-Draft Burners

A. Center Fired Raw Gas Burner B. Pre-Mix Short flame Burner

Spider Head
Stabilizer Cone
Gas Gun Tip Refractory
Burner Tile

Heater
Floor

Secondary
Air Register
Secondary
Air Register
Register
Handle

Pilot
Pilot
Fuel/Primary Air
Pre-Mix Assembly
Fuel Gas Connection
Fuel Gas Connection

C. Combination Gas/Liquid Burner

Refractory
Secondary Tile

Multiple Expansion Joint

Fuel Gas Tips

Heater Floor

Refractory Secondary Air Register

Primary
Tile
Fuel Gas Manifold

Fuel Gas Connection

Oil Gun Primary Air Register (Note
Oil and Steam 4)
Connections

Notes:
(1) Pilot is not shown; usually located near the gas tips.
(2) Delete fuel oil gun for multiple gun raw gas burner.
(3) Delete gas gun for liquid fuel burner.
DP8FF01
(4) In some burners, the primary tile is shortened and the primary airregister is located below this tile, inside the burner.

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Figure 2
Typical Low NOX Burner Utilizing Staged-Fuel Combustion

Secondary Fuel High Air-To-Fuel Ration in

Primary Zone Results in
Combustion at Low Flame
Temperatures. This Helps
Reduce the Formation of NOx.

Combustion Air

Primary Fuel Secondary Fuel

Connection Connection DP8FF02

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Figure 3
Typical Low NOX Burner Utilizing Staged-Air Combustion

Secondary Air Outlet

Heater Floor

Pressure
Connections Secondary
Air Inlet

Primary
Air Inlet

Fuel Gas Poker Fuel

Gas
Inlet

Oil Gun
DP8FF03

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Figure 5
ULTRA Low NOX Burner Utilizing Staged-Fuel and Furnace Gas Recirculation

Primary Fuel
Gas Tips

Secondary Fuel
Gas Tips
Pilot

Pilot

Flame Retention Ledge

Furnace Gas Recirculation
Heater
Floor

Primary & Secondary

Fuel Gas Risers Air Register
Doors

Combustion Combustion
Air Air

Fuel Gas Manifold DP8FF05

CALLIDUS LE-CSG BURNER

NOTE: A more recent version of this burner is the Callidus CUB (Callidus Ultra Blue) burner
which uses eight primary and secondary gas tips to induce more flue gas and achieve lower
NOx emission.

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Figure 6
Typical Axial-Flow Burner Forced Draft Combination Gas/Oil Burner

Multiple
Fuel Gas Refractory
Tips Burner Tile

Swirler

Axial
Throat

Pressure
Connection

Air Inlet

Combustion Air
Fuel Gas
Manifold

Fuel Gas
Connection

Oil & Steam

Connection
DP8FF06A

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Figure 7
3D View of Same Burner as Shown in Figure 6

Swirler

Steam & Oil

Inlets

Steam/Oil
Interlock Device

Venturi

Gas Inlets DP8FF06B

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Figure 8
John Zink ST-1-SE Pilot Assembly with Flame Rod

Pilot Tip

Flame Rod
Replaceable Tip

Insulating/
Support Clips

Pilot Tube
Flame Rod
Assembly
(Gayesco Motor
GFR-2)

Ignitor Rod
(Optional Not I.P. Requirement)

Flame Rod
Guide Tube

Ignitor Connection
Mounting Plate

Air Inspirator

Air Flow

Pilot Gas
Connection
Flame Rod
Connection

DP8FF7A

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Figure 9
Callidus Std-1412 Pilot Assembly With Flame Rod

Flame Rod
Replaceable Tip

Insulating/Support
Clips

Pilot Tube

Flame Rod Assembly

Ignitor Rod
(Optional not
I.P. Requirement)

Mounting Plate

Ignitor Connection

Flame Rod Air Inspirator

Connection

Air Flow

Pilot Gas Conn.

DP8FF7b (Female NPT)

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Figure 10
Igniters Combustion Engineering Ltd. J250e Pilot Assembly With
Dual Function Ignitor/Flame Rod

Pilot Tip

Dual Function
Ignitor and Flame Rod

Pilot Tube

Mounting Collar

Insulating/Support
Low Tension to Device
High Tension Coil
Flame Rod and
Ignitor Connection

Air Inspirator

Air Flow

DP8FF7c Pilot Gas Connection

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Figure 11
Typical Fuel Oil Circulation System

Fuel Oil
Supply Header
PIC

From Fuel min.

Oil Source

Drain

min.
TI
Fuel Oil Drain
Return Header To Heater
F Return From Heater
I
TI
Globe Valve, to Pass
20% of Design Flow A B Strainer and Spare
F
I
Fuel Shut-Off Valve
(On-Off Service)
Fuel Control Valve

Block Valve at
Firing Platform

Heater

To Burners

Typical Heater Loop DP8FF08

Notes:
(1) This sketch is a schematic of a typical fuel oil recirculating system. Not included are bypasses, block valves, bleeders,
etc., around control valves, etc.
(2) The pressure control valve should be sized to permit flow in the fuel oil supply header at all times, equal to a minimum of
120% of the total design firing rate. Additional flow may be required if the fuel viscosity is extremely sensitive to
temperature changes.
➧ (3) Additional information on fuels systems can be found in Design Practice Section XXV, Fuels Systems

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Figure 12
Typical Burner Piping Arrangement for Burners

From
Headers

Burner
Observation
Door

Platform

Burner
Pilot Gas

Reciever
Manifold PI
Fuel
Gas

Drain
Steam
Min.

Drain
Fuel Oil
Min.

Drain
Min. DP8FF09

Notes:
(1) Burner isolation valves located adjacent to observation doors is recommended. This permits burner light-off to be made
while the flame is being observed.
(2) Fuel gas, fuel oil, and pilot gas headers and lines should be heat traced and insulated as required per GP 3-4-1.
Atomizing steam and fuel oil lines should not be insulated together.
(3) Oil and steam piping at the receiver manifold must provide flexibility for 2 in. (50 mm) vertical movement. Gas piping at
burner must provide ± 0.5 in. (12 mm) vertical movement.
(4) Provide flanges in all piping so that the burner can be dropped for maintenance. Locate the flanges approximately 2 ft
(600 mm) from the burner. Steam tracing lines shall have compression fittings at piping flanges to facilitate dismantling.
(5) Plug valves are required for valves used for lighting off pilot and main burner.
(6) Drains are required on fuel oil and atomizing steam lines, optional for fuel gas.

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Figure 13
Spacing of Plenum-Mounted Burners (Customary Units)

The following information can be used to assist in determining the required spacing of plenum-mounted natural-draft burners.
This is necessary to assure proper distribution of air flow into the burner register. The maximum velocity head of air passing to
the back side of the burner should not exceed 10% of the burner pressure drop.

a. Typical Air Flow Pattern for Plenum-mounted Burners

The fraction of flow passing to the “back side" of the burner will depend upon the location of the air control inlet. The figure
below shows two alternate arrangements of air control inlet, at center or at periphery. If the air control dampers are located
at the outer periphery of the plenum, the air must penetrate into the burner circle to reach the back side of the burner. If the
plenum air entrance is in the center, the air must leave the burner circle to reach the back side of the burner. The following
table shows the fraction of the total air flow passing to the back side of the burner in each case. The example burner circle
plan view is based upon a peripheral air control damper system.

Clearance Between
Burner Registers

Peripheral Heater
Air Inlet(s) Burners

le
Heater

irc
C
er
rn
Air Air

Bu
Air Flow to "Front"
Side of Burners

Control
Plenum Damper Air Flow to "Back"
Side of Burners
Central Air Inlet DP8FF10A

b. Total Air Flow to Burner

2.9 x (1 + EA) = ft3/sec per million Btu/hr (of any fuel)
where: EA = Percent excess air, expressed as a decimal fraction, e.g., 10% excess air: 2.9 x (1 + 0.10)
= 3.19 ft3/sec per million Btu/hr
c. Fraction of Air Flow Passing to Back Side of Burner

Number of burners in circle 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 18 Straight row

Fraction of total air flow passing to 0.17 0.25 0.30 0.33 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.50
back side (outer peripheral air entry)
Fraction of total air flow passing to 0.83 0.75 0.70 0.67 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.50
back side (central air entry)

➧ Note: Velocities in all the sections (ie. flow areas) of the common plenum, except air inlet sections, should not exceed velocity
between burners. Air inlet sections having control dampers are normally sized for velocity of 15 to 20 ft/sec at design rates to
provide good damper control capability.

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Figure 13 (Cont)
Spacing Of Plenum-Mounted Burners (Customary Units)

d. Velocity Head vs. Air Velocity

30
V2
Velocity Head = 0.1186
T
20 20
Air Velocity, ft/s

15 V = Velocity, ft/s
T = Air Temperature °R

10 10
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.10
Velocity Head, Inches of Water DP8FF10AC

Note: Air flow (b) and velocity head (d) are based on 80°F ambient air. This is recommended as the basis for calculating burner
spacing. Variations in ambient air temperature have an insignificant effect on these calculations.

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Figure 14
Spacing Of Plenum-Mounted Burners (Metric Units)

The following information can be used to assist in determining the required spacing of plenum-mounted natural-draft burners.
This is necessary to assure proper distribution of air flow into the burner register. The maximum velocity head of air passing to
the back side of the burner should not exceed 10% of the burner pressure drop.

a. Typical Air Flow Pattern for Plenum-mounted Burners

The fraction of flow passing to the “back side" of the burner will depend upon the location of the air control inlet. The figure
below shows two alternate arrangements of air control inlet, at center or at periphery. If the air control dampers are located
at the outer periphery of the plenum, the air must penetrate into the burner circle to reach the back side of the burner. If the
plenum air entrance is in the center, the air must leave the burner circle to reach the back side of the burner. The following
table shows the fraction of the total air flow passing to the back side of the burner in each case. The example burner circle
plan view is based upon a peripheral air control damper system.

Clearance Between
Burner Registers

Peripheral Heater
Air Inlet(s) Burners

le
Heater

irc
C
er
rn
Air Air

Bu
Air Flow to "Front"
Side of Burners

Control
Plenum Damper
Air Flow to "Back"
Side of Burners
Central Air Inlet DP8FF10B

b. Total Air Flow to Burner

280 x (1 + EA) = dm3/sec per MW (of any fuel)
where: EA = Percent excess air, expressed as a decimal fraction, e.g., 10% excess air: 280 x (1.10) =
308 dm3/sec MW

c. Fraction of Air Flow Passing to Back Side of Burner

Number of burners in circle 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 18 Straight row

Fraction of total air flow passing to 0.17 0.25 0.30 0.33 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.50
back side (outer peripheral air entry)
Fraction of total air flow passing to 0.83 0.75 0.70 0.67 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.50
back side (central air entry)

➧ Note: Velocities in all the sections (ie. flow areas) of the common plenum, except air inlet sections, should not exceed velocity
between burners. Air inlet sections having control dampers are normally sized for velocity of 4.6 to 6.1 m/sec at design rates to
provide good damper control capability.

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Figure-14 (Contd)
Spacing Of Plenum-Mounted Burners (Metric Units)

d. Velocity Head vs. Air Velocity

10
9
8 2
7 Velocity Head = 0.1766 V
T
Air Velocity, m/s

6
5
V = Velocity, m/s
T = Air Temperature K
4

2
.0026

.003

.004

.005
.006
.007
.008
.009

.025
.01

.02

Velocity Head, kPa DP8FF10BC

Note: Air flow (b) and velocity head (d) are based on 80°F ambient air. This is recommended as the basis for calculating burner
spacing. Variations in ambient air temperature have an insignificant effect on these calculations.

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Figure 15
Sample CFD results: Burner Flames Leaning Towards Furnace Wall

Figure 16
Sample CFD results: Normalized Heat Flux At Various Radiant Box Height

40

NORMALIZED HEAT FLUX VS. ELEVATION

35
(Plotted along a vertical line passing through the
point of maximum heat flux value)

30
Elevation above Furnace Floor (ft)

25

20

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Normalized Heat Flux

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