Name: Porcalla, Veronica Dianne R.

DMD2G
August 28, 2024 DR. ROSS VALENTIN

MODULE 3 ASSIGNMENT: SKELETAL SYSTEM

GENERAL ANATOMY 1 (LECTURE)

A.Give your responses to the following:

a. Describe the structure of cartilage.

➢ Cartilage is a dense, flexible connective tissue. It forms the joints and is more softer and
flexible than bones. Also, it has a capacity for rapid interstitial and appositional growth in
young and growing tissues.

b. List and describe the components of cartilage

➢ Chondrocytes - secretes intercellular matrix
➢ Water - makes up the cartilages weight up to 80% and is a major component of cartilage
➢ Extracellular Matrix - composed primarily of the network type II collagen and an
interlocking mesh of fibrous proteins and proteoglycans, hyaluronic acid, and chondroitin
sulfate

c. Enumerate the types of cartilage, describe each and give examples of each.
➢ Hyaline cartilage - Hyaline cartilage has a homogeneous, opalescent appearance,
sometimes appearing bluish. It is firm and smooth to the touch and shows considerable
deformability. It is most commonly found in the body. Some examples of this are joints

➢ Fibrocartilage - Fibrocartilage is a dense, whitish tissue with a distinct fibrous texture. It

forms a versatile and tough material that combines considerable tensile strength with the
ability to resist high compressive forces and to distribute them evenly onto underlying
bone. Histologically, fibrocartilage is intermediate between dense fibrous connective
tissues such as tendon and ligaments, and hyaline cartilage. Some examples of this are
the intervertebral discs of the spine, menisci of the knee, smaller structures such as the
glenoid and acetabular labra, and the lining of bony grooves for tendons.

➢ Elastic cartilage - Elastic cartilage contains typical chondrocytes, either singly or in

small groups. It also contains collagen fibers along with a great number of elastic fibers.
Some examples of this are the external ear, corniculate cartilages, epiglottis and apices
of the arytenoids.

d. Describe the structure and functions of ligaments.

➢ Ligaments connect two bones together, particularly in the joints. They stabilize the joint
or hold the ends of two bones together. Their role is to make sure that the bones in the
joint don't twist too much or move too far apart and become dislocated.
e. Describe the macroscopic structure of the bone.
➢ Macroscopically, the living bone is white. Its texture is either dense like ivory, which is
compact bone, or honeycombed by large cavities, which is the trabecular, cancellous or
spongy bone, where the bony element is reduced to a latticework of bars and plates
known collectively as trabeculae.

f. Name the types of bones according to its texture and give examples of each
➢ Compact bone
Examples: Femur, Humerus & Skull bones
➢ Spongy(trabecular/cancellous)bone
Examples: Vertebrae, ends of long bones(epiphyses) & Pelvis

g. List and describe the types of bones according to shape and give examples of each
➢ Long bones
Examples: Femur, Humerus, Tibia & Radius
➢ Short bones
Examples: Carpals & Tarsals
➢ Flat bones
Examples: Skull bones, Ribs, Sternum & Scapula
➢ Irregular bones
Examples: Vertebrae, Pelvis & Ethmoid and Sphenoid
➢ Sesamoid bones
Examples: Patella & Pisiform

h.Describe the microscopic structure of the bone, their components / composition

➢ Bone contains a mineralized collagenous extracellular matrix surrounding a range of
specialized cells including osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. It also contains
organic and inorganic components. Organic components include collagen fibers,
proteoglycans, matrix proteins, and cytokine and growth factors. and inorganic
components. On the other hand, the inorganic components include various calcium
components/minerals.

i. Describe the structure of osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts.

➢ Osteoblasts - Osteoblasts are derived from osteoprogenitor cells of mesenchymal origin
present in bone marrow and other connective tissues. They proliferate and differentiate
into osteoblasts prior to bone formation, stimulated by bone morphogenetic proteins.
They are basophilic, roughly cuboidal mononuclear cells and contain prominent bundles
of actin, myosin and other cytoskeletal proteins associated with the maintenance of cell
shape, attachment and motility. They are typical protein-secreting cells and synthesize
and secrete collagens and a number of glycoproteins

➢ Osteocytes - Osteocytes are the major cell type of mature bone and are distributed
throughout its matrix, interconnected by numerous dendritic processes to form a
 complex cellular network. They are derived from osteoblasts that have become enclosed
within their rigid matrix and so have lost the ability to divide or to secrete new matrix.

➢ Osteoclasts - Osteoclasts are large polymorphic cells containing up to 20 oval, closely

packed nuclei. They lie in close contact with the bone surface in resorption bays. They
are responsible for the local removal of bone during bone growth and remodelling. They
dissolve bone minerals by proton release to create an acidic local environment, and they
remove organic matrix by secreting lysosomal and non-lysosomal enzymes.

j. List the bone minerals and their percentage distribution in bones.

➢ Water - 10-20%
➢ Organic elements - ⅓
➢ Inorganic elements - ⅔

k. Describe the microstructure of a) cortical bone and b) trabecular bone

➢ Cortical bone - Cortical bone is the denser variant of bone tissue and makes up the
shells and shafts of long bones as well as the external shells of short, flat, and irregular
bones. The internal microstructure of cortical bone is organized into concentrically
arranged cylindrical structures called osteons or Haversian systems.

➢ Trabecular bone - Trabecular bone is also called cancellous bone. Its porous bone is
composed of trabeculated bone tissue. It can be found at the ends of long bones like the
femur, where the bone is actually not solid but is full of holes connected by thin rods and
plates of bone tissue.

l. Describe the structure of the a.) periosteum, b.) endosteum and c) bone marrow
➢ Periosteum - The periosteum is composed of two layers which are the outer firm and a
fibrous layer made up of collagen and reticular fibers and an inner proliferative cambial
layer. It's made of thick collagen fibers. Most of the periosteum's blood vessels and
nerves are in the outer layer.

➢ Endosteum - Endosteum is a thin vascular membrane of connective tissue that lines

the inner surface of the bony tissue that forms the medullary cavity of long bones. It
covers the inside of bones, and surrounds the medullary cavity. It is lined by a single thin
layer of bone-lining cells) and osteoblasts which form a membrane over endocortical and
trabecular bone surfaces to enclose the bone marrow.

➢ Bone marrow - The bone marrow is found within the central cavities of axial and long
bones. It consists of hematopoietic tissue islands and adipose cells surrounded by
vascular sinuses interspersed within a meshwork of trabecular bone.
m. Describe the development of bones starting with mesenchyme

➢ Bone development begins with mesenchyme, an embryonic connective tissue made of

undifferentiated cells. These cells differentiate into bone-forming cells through two
primary processes which are Intramembranous ossification and Endochondral
ossification.

Intramembranous ossification - This is when Mesenchymal cells differentiate directly

into osteoblasts, forming ossification centers In this process, osteoblasts secrete bone
matrix, which mineralizes to create spongy bone. This process forms flat bones, like
those of the skull and clavicles.

Endochondral ossification - This is when mesenchymal cells first differentiate into

chondroblasts, forming a cartilage model. This model gradually calcifies, and blood
vessels invade, bringing osteoblasts that replace cartilage with bone. This process forms
most bones, including long bones like the femur.

Moreover, the postnatal growth and remodeling is the part when bones continue to grow
in length at the epiphyseal plates and in width through appositional growth. Throughout
life, bone is remodeled through the coordinated actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts,
maintaining bone structure and health.

n. Describe the structure of the axial skeleton.

➢ The axial skeleton primarily supports the weight of the torso and provides protection to
the major internal organs. It is made up of the 80 bones within the central core of the
body.

o. List the bones of the axial skeleton. How many bones make up the axial skeleton?
➢ The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones which are:
1. Cranial Bones
- Parietal (2)
- Temporal (2)
- Frontal (1)
- Occipital (1)
- Ethmoid (1)
- Sphenoid (1)
2. Facial Bones
- Maxilla (2)
- Zygomatic (2)
- Mandible (1)
- Nasal (2)
- Platine (2)
- Inferior nasal concha (2)
- Lacrimal (2)
 - Vomer (1)
3. Auditory Ossicles
- Malleus (2)
- Incus (2)
- Stapes (2)
4. Vertebral Column
- Cervical vertebrae (7)
- Thoracic vertebrae (12)
- Lumbar vertebrae (5)
- Sacrum (1)
- Coccyx (1)
5. Thoracic cage
- Sternum (1)
- Ribs (24)

p. Enumerate the skull bones. Which are paired/ unpaired?

➢ Cranial bones
Unpaired:
1. Frontal
2. Occipital
3. Sphenoid
4. Ethmoid
Paired:
1. Parietal Bones (2)
2. Temporal Bones (2)

➢ Facial bones
Unpaired:
1. Mandible
2. Vomer
Paired:
1. Maxillae (2)
2. Zygomatic Bones (2)
3. Nasal Bones (2)
4. Lacrimal Bones (2)
5. Palatine Bones (2)
6. Inferior Nasal Conchae (2)

q. List the bones of the face. Which are paired and unpaired?
➢ Unpaired:
1. Mandible
2. Vomer
➢ Paired:
 1. Maxilla
2. Zygomatic
3. Nasal
4. Platine
5. Inferior nasal concha
6. Lacrimal

r. Describe the structure of the pectoral girdle

➢ The pectoral girdle in humans comprises the clavicle, which is the collarbone, and the
scapula, which is the shoulder blade. Moreover, the girdles support the appendages to
the axial skeleton. The pectoral girdle is also a part of the appendicular skeleton, which
connects the upper limbs to the axial skeleton.

s. Enumerate the bony components of the thoracic cage

➢ Sternum
➢ Ribs (12 pairs)
➢ Thoracic Vertebrae(12 vertebrae)

t. Describe the structure of the sternum, its location, surface details (secondary markings),
features and its parts
➢ Structure/features: Sternum is also known as the breastbone, is a flat, elongated bone
located in the central part of the thoracic region which forms the anterior portion of the rib
cage, providing structural support and protection for the heart, lungs, and major blood
vessels.

➢ Location: Sternum is located in the midline of the anterior thoracic wall.

➢ Surface Details(secondary markings):

1. Anterior Surface - slightly convex and smooth, with the transverse ridges

2. Posterior Surface - slightly concave and also relatively smooth, providing an

area of attachment for muscles

3. Sternal Angle - most prominent surface marking on the sternum, where the
manubrium and body meet and used as a landmark to locate the second rib

4. Costal Notches - necessary surface features where the costal cartilages of the
ribs articulate with the sternum and these are visible as slight depressions along
the lateral borders of the sternum

➢ Parts: Manubrium, Body (Gladiolus), Xiphoid Process

u. Describe the structure of the typical rib, its location, surface details (secondary markings),
features and its parts
➢ Structure/features: Typical rib is a curved, flat bone that forms part of the rib cage. It
serves as a protection to the thoracic organs, including the heart and lungs. Moreover,
the rib cage also plays a crucial role in respiration which facilitates breathing.

➢ Location: Typical rib is located in the thoracic region of the vertebral column, extending
from the thoracic vertebrae at the back to the sternum at the front.

➢ Surface Details(secondary markings)

1. Articular Facets - two facets articulate with the thoracic vertebrae in the head of
the rib, forming the costovertebral joints

2. Crest of the Neck - small ridge on the neck of the rib that serves as an
attachment site for ligaments

3. Costal Groove - located in the inner surface of the rib that accommodates the
intercostal neurovascular bundle, providing a pathway for nerves and blood
vessels

4. Angle of the Rib - most curved part of the rib that serves as an attachment point
for various muscles and ligaments

➢ Parts: Head, Neck, Tubercle, Shaft(body), Costal Cartilage

v. Describe how each rib is attached to the sternum and to the vertebral column- which parts
attach where?
➢ The connection of the ribs to the sternum is because of the relatively pliable rib
cartilages. The small joints between the ribs and the vertebrae permit a gliding motion of
the ribs on the vertebrae during breathing and other activities. Also, ribs are attached to
the sternum by costal cartilages, which are bars of hyaline cartilage that provide flexibility
and allow for respiratory movement.

1. Vertebral Column Attachment:

➢ Costovertebral Joint - head of the rib to the vertebral bodies and intervertebral
discs
➢ Costotransverse Joint - tubercle of the rib to the transverse process of the
corresponding vertebra

2. Sternal Attachment:
➢ True Ribs (1-7) - attached directly to the sternum via their costal cartilages
➢ False Ribs (8-10) - attached indirectly to the sternum through the costal cartilage
of the rib above
➢ Floating Ribs (11-12) - doesn’t attach to the sternum or costal cartilage
w. Describe the structure of the clavicle, its surface details (secondary markings) features and
its parts
➢ Structure/features: Clavicle is commonly known as the collarbone. It is a long,
S-shaped bone that serves as a strut between the scapula and the sternum. It is an
essential part of the shoulder girdle, playing a crucial role in transmitting forces from the
upper limb to the axial skeleton and providing support for shoulder movement.

➢ Surface Details(secondary markings):

1. Sternal Facet - placed at the medial end and is necessary for the articulation
with the sternum

2. Acromial Facet: placed at the lateral end and is necessary for articulation with
the acromion of the scapula

3. Conoid Tubercle and Trapezoid Line - placed on the lateral, inferior aspect of
the clavicle which serves as attachment sites for the coracoclavicular ligaments

4. Subclavian Groove - placed on the inferior surface that takes place the
attachment of the subclavius muscle which helps stabilize the clavicle

5. Costal Tuberosity - roughened area near the sternal end which serves as an
attachment point for the costoclavicular ligament

➢ Parts: Medial (Sternal) End, Lateral (Acromial) End, Shaft (Body)

x. Describe the structure of the scapula, its surface details (secondary markings) and its parts
➢ Structure/features: Scapula is a large, flat, triangular bone located on the posterior
aspect of the thorax. It covers parts of the second to seventh ribs and is essential in
connecting the upper limb to the trunk.

➢ Surface Details(secondary markings):

1. Spine of the Scapula - ridge that divides the posterior surface into the
supraspinous and infraspinous fossae

2. Acromion - lateral extension of the spine that forms the tip of the shoulder

3. Coracoid Process - hook-like projection on the anterior surface

4. Supraglenoid and Infraglenoid Tubercles - bony prominences above and

below the glenoid cavity

5. Suprascapular Notch - notch on the superior border for the suprascapular nerve
 ➢ Parts: Body, Spine of the Scapula, Acromion, Coracoid Process, Glenoid Cavity(Fossa),
Borders and Angles

y. Describe the structure of the vertebral column. List the regions of the vertebral column.
➢ The Vertebral column, also known as the spine or backbone, is a flexible, bony structure
that forms the central axis of the human skeleton. It provides support for the body,
protects the spinal cord, and allows for a range of movements. It defines the animal
subphylum vertebra, or vertebrates, of the phylum Chordata. Along with the skull, ribs,
and sternum, it makes up the axial skeletal system.

Regions of vertebral column:

1. Cervical Region (C1-C7)
2. Thoracic Region (T1-T12)
3. Lumbar Region (L1-L5)
4. Sacral Region (S1-S5)
5. Coccygeal Region (Co1-Co4)

z. Enumerate the curvatures of the vertebral column. Which ones are primary, secondary?
➢ Primary Curvatures:
1. Thoracic Curvature
2. Sacral Curvature

➢ Secondary Curvatures:
1. Cervical Curvature
2. Lumbar Curvature

aa. Describe the distinguishing characteristics/feature of the vertebra of each vertebral region
➢ Cervical Region (C1-C7) - Small bodies, large foramina, bifid spinous processes,
transverse foramina.
➢ Thoracic Region (T1-T12) - Heart-shaped bodies, downward-sloping spinous
processes, costal facets, smaller foramina.
➢ Lumbar Region (L1-L5) - Large, kidney-shaped bodies, short, thick spinous processes,
large foramina, robust transverse processes.
➢ Sacral Region (S1-S5) - Fused to form the sacrum, sacral foramina, sacral promontory,
alae.
➢ Coccygeal Vertebrae (Co1-Co4) - Fused to form the coccyx, vestigial structure.

bb. Describe the structure of the intervertebral disc.

➢ Intervertebral discs are fibrocartilaginous structures located between the bodies of
adjacent vertebrae. They form a fibrocartilaginous joint between the vertebral bodies,
linking them together. Intervertebral discs also consist of a thick outer ring of fibrous
cartilage called the anulus fibrosus, which surrounds an inner gel-like center known as
the nucleus pulposus.
cc. Describe the structure of the appendicular skeleton. How many bones make up the
appendicular skeleton?
➢ The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the shoulder girdle, the upper limbs,
the pelvic girdle, and the lower limbs. There are 126 bones that make up the
appendicular skeleton.

dd. List the bones of the appendicular skeleton

➢ Pectoral Girdles
1. Clavicle (2)
2. Scapula (2)
➢ Upper Extremity
1. Humerus (2)
2. Radius (2)
3. Ulna (2)
4. Carpals (16)
5. Metacarpals (10)
6. Phalanges (28)
➢ Pelvic Girdle
1. Coxal/Hip bones (2)
➢ Lower Extremity
1. Femur (2)
2. Tibia (2)
3. Fibula (2)
4. Patella (2)
5. Tarsals (14)
6. Metatarsals (10)
7. Phalanges (28)

ee. Describe the structure of the humerus, its surface details (secondary markings), features
and its parts
➢ Structure/features: Humerus is a long bone of the upper arm which extends from the
shoulder to the elbow. It is an important component of the upper limb that is essential for
attachment points for muscles which form joints at the shoulder and elbow.

➢ Surface Details(secondary markings):

1. Head of the Humerus - smooth, spherical surface that articulates with the
glenoid cavity

2. Greater and Lesser Tubercles - protrusions providing muscle attachment sites

3. Intertubercular Groove - groove for the biceps tendon and muscle attachments

4. Deltoid Tuberosity - roughened area for the deltoid muscle attachment

 5. Radial Groove - groove for the radial nerve and deep brachial artery

6. Medial and Lateral Epicondyles - bony projections for muscle and ligament
attachment

7. Fossae (Olecranon, Coronoid, and Radial) - depressions that are essential for
the processes of the ulna and radius during elbow movement

➢ Parts: Proximal End, Shaft(Body), Distal End

ff. Describe the structure of the radius and the ulna, their surface details (secondary markings)
features and their parts
➢ Structure/features: Radius and ulna are two long bones that make up the forearm,
extending from the elbow to the wrist. These bones are parallel to one another and are
connected by an interosseous membrane. They are essential for the movements of the
wrist, elbow, and hand.

➢ Surface Details(secondary markings):

Radius
1. Radial Head - smooth and concave superior surface for articulation with the
humerus
2. Radial Tuberosity - roughened area for biceps brachii attachment
3. Interosseous Border - sharp ridge for interosseous membrane attachment
4. Styloid Process - pointed projection for ligament attachment
5. Dorsal Tubercle - bump for guiding tendons

Ulna
1. Olecranon Process - large prominence forming the elbow’s point
2. Coronoid Process - triangular projection for muscle attachment
3. Trochlear Notch - C-shaped depression for articulation with the humerus
4. Radial Notch - concave area for articulation with the radius
5. Styloid Process - pointed projection for ligament attachment

➢ Parts:
Radius
- Proximal End (Head and Neck of Radius & Radial Tuberosity)
- Shaft(Body) of the Radius
- Distal End (Ulnar notch, Radial Styloid Process, Dorsal Tubercle, Articular
Surface)

Ulna
- Proximal End(Olecranon Process, Coronoid Process, Trochlear Notch, Radial
Notch, Ulnar Tuberosity)
 - Shaft(Body)of Ulna
- Distal End (Head of the Ulna, Ulnar Styloid Process)

gg. Describe the structure of the wrist

➢ A wrist is a condyloid synovial joint of the distal upper limb that connects and serves as a
transition point between the forearm and hand. A condyloid joint is a modified ball and
socket joint that allows for flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction movements.

hh. List the bones of the wrist. Describe the structure of each, their surface details (secondary
markings) features and their parts. How are they attached to the radius and ulna?
➢ Bones of the wrist:

PROXIMAL ROW

1. Scaphoid
Structure/features - scaphoid is a boat-shaped bone located on the lateral side of the
wrist. It is the largest bone in the proximal row.

The scaphoid articulates directly with the distal end of the radius at the radiocarpal or
wrist joint. The proximal surface of the scaphoid is convex and fits into the concave
scaphoid fossa of the radius.

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Proximal Surface - articulates with the radius at the wrist joint
2. Distal Surface - articulates with the trapezium and trapezoid bones
3. Medial Surface - articulates with the lunate
4. Tubercle - projection on the palmar surface that provides attachment for the flexor
retinaculum and ligaments

Parts: Waist, Blood Supply

2. Lunate
Structure/features - crescent-shaped bone centrally located in the proximal row

The lunate articulates directly with the distal end of the radius at the radiocarpal joint
because lunate’s proximal surface is convex and fits into the concave lunate fossa of the
radius.

Surface details(secondary markings):

1.Proximal Surface - articulates with the radius
2. Distal Surface - articulates with the capitate
3. Lateral Surface - articulates with the scaphoid
4. Medial Surface - articulates with the triquetrum
 Parts: Convex Proximal Surface, Concave Distal Surface

3. Triquetrum
Structure/features -pyramid-shaped bone located on the medial side of the proximal
row

Triquetrum connects to the ulna via the triangular fibrocartilage complex which is a
structure composed of cartilage and ligaments.

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Proximal Surface - articulates with the triangular fibrocartilage complex
2. Distal Surface - articulates with the hamate
3. Lateral Surface - articulates with the lunate
4. Palmar Surface - articulates with the pisiform bone

Parts: Three articulating surfaces

4. Pisiform
Structure/features - small, pea-shaped sesamoid bone embedded within the tendon of
the flexor carpi ulnaris

The pisiform indirectly connects to the ulna through flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Palmar Surface - rough and provides attachment for the flexor retinaculum
2. Dorsal Surface - articulates with the triquetrum

Parts: Single articulating surface

DISTAL ROW:

1. Trapezium
Structure/features - saddle-shaped bone located on the lateral side of the distal row,
directly adjacent to the base of the thumb

Trapezium articulates with the scaphoid in the distal row of carpal bones which isn’t
directly connected to the radius or ulna.

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Proximal Surface - articulates with the scaphoid
2. Distal Surface - articulates with the first metacarpal
3. Medial Surface - articulates with the trapezoid
4. Tubercle - projection on the palmar surface that provides attachment for the flexor
retinaculum
2. Trapezoid
Structure/features - small, wedge-shaped bone located between the trapezium and
capitate

Same as the trapezium, it articulates with the distal end of the scaphoid and does not
directly attach to the radius or ulna.

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Proximal Surface - articulates with the scaphoid
2. Distal Surface - articulates with the second metacarpal
3. Lateral Surface - articulates with the trapezium
4. Medial Surface - articulates with the capitate

3. Capitate
Structure/features - largest carpal bone, centrally located in the distal row

Capitate articulates proximally with the lunate and indirectly with the radius through the
lunate.

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Proximal Surface - articulates with the lunate
2. Distal Surface - articulates with the third metacarpal
3. Medial Surface - articulates with the hamate
4. Lateral Surface - articulates with the trapezoid

Parts: Head, Central Location

4. Hamate
Structure/features - wedge-shaped bone located on the medial side of the distal row
and it forms joints with four different bones such as the triquetrum, capitate, and the
fourth and fifth metacarpals

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Proximal Surface - articulates with the triquetrum
2. Distal Surface - articulates with the fourth and fifth metacarpals
3. Lateral Surface - articulates with the capitate
4. Hook of Hamate - projection on the palmar surface that provides attachment for the
flexor retinaculum and various muscles

Parts: Hook of Hamate

ii. Describe the structure of the hip bone. What are the bones that make up the hip? Describe
the structure of each, their surface details (secondary markings) features and their parts
➢ Structure: Hip bone is a large, complex bone that forms the lateral part of the pelvis.
Each hip bone is composed of three bones that fuse together during late adolescence:
the ilium, ischium, and pubis.

➢ Bones that make up the hip:

1. Ilium
Structure/features: consists of a broad, fan-shaped wing called the ala and a
thicker, more solid body that contributes to the acetabulum

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Iliac Crest - superior border of the ilium, palpable under the skin, providing
attachment for various muscles
2. Anterior Superior Iliac Spine - bony projection at the anterior end of the iliac
crest, serving as an attachment for the inguinal ligament and sartorius muscle
3. Posterior Superior Iliac Spine - located at the posterior end of the iliac crest,
it serves as an attachment point for ligaments and muscles
4. Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine - providing attachment for the rectus femoris
muscle
5. Posterior Inferior Iliac Spine - marking the posterior boundary of the greater
sciatic notch
6. Greater Sciatic Notch: allows the passage of the sciatic nerve
7. Iliac Fossa - large, smooth, concave surface on the internal side of the ala,
providing attachment for the iliacus muscle
8. Auricular Surface - rough, ear-shaped area that articulates with the sacrum,
forming the sacroiliac joint
9. Arcuate Line - ridge on the internal surface that contributes to the pelvic brim

Parts: Ala(wing), Body

2. Ischium
Structure/features: thick body that forms the posterior portion of the acetabulum
and a thinner ramus that extends anteriorly to meet the pubis

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Ischial Spine - pointed projection that separates the greater sciatic notch
above from the lesser sciatic notch below
2. Lesser Sciatic Notch - smaller notch below the ischial spine, which the
tendon of the obturator internus and other structures pass
3. Ischial Tuberosity - large, roughened area on the inferior part of the ischium,
where the hamstring muscles attach and the body rests when sitting
 4. Ischial Ramus: thin, anterior extension of the ischium that joins the inferior
ramus of the pubis, forming part of the obturator foramen

Parts: Body, Ramus

3. Pubis
Structure/features: forms the anterior part of the hip bone and has a body that
lies medially and two rami that extend superiorly and inferiorly

Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Pubic Symphysis - cartilaginous joint where the bodies of the two pubic
bones meet in the midline
2. Superior Pubic Ramus - superior extension of the pubis that forms part of the
acetabulum
3. Inferior Pubic Ramus - inferior extension that joins the ischial ramus, forming
the lower boundary of the obturator foramen
4. Pubic Tubercle - small, prominent projection on the superior pubic ramus,
providing attachment for the inguinal ligament
5. Obturator Foramen - large opening formed by the pubis and ischium, covered
by the obturator membrane and allowing passage of the obturator nerve and
vessels

Parts: Body, Rami

jj. Describe the structure of the femur, its surface details (secondary markings), features and its
parts
➢ Structure/features: Femur is the longest, strongest, and heaviest bone in the human
body, extending from the hip to the knee. It plays a critical role in supporting the weight
of the body and facilitating movement.

Parts & Surface details(secondary markings):

1. Proximal End
- Head
Surface details(secondary markings):
Fovea Capitis - small, central depression on the head where the ligamentum
teres attaches

- Greater Trochanter
Surface details(secondary markings): large, palpable prominence that
provides attachment for the gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, and piriformis
muscles

- Lesser Trochanter
Surface details(secondary markings): smaller, conical projection providing
 attachment for the iliopsoas muscle

- Intertrochanteric Line
Surface details(secondary markings): provides attachment for the iliofemoral
ligament of the hip joint capsule

- Intertrochanteric Crest
Surface details(secondary markings): features the quadrate tubercle for the
attachment of the quadratus femoris muscle

2. Shaft (Body)
- Linea Aspera
Surface details(secondary markings): divides into medial and lateral lips,
providing attachment for various muscles including the adductor magnus, vastus
medialis, and vastus lateralis

- Gluteal Tuberosity
Surface details(secondary markings): provides attachment for the gluteus
maximus muscle

- Pectineal Line
Surface details(secondary markings): provides attachment for the pectineus
muscle

- Nutrient Foramen
Surface details(secondary markings): allows the passage of the nutrient artery
into the bone

3. Distal End
- Medial and Lateral Condyles
Surface details(secondary markings): covered with articular cartilage to
articulate with the tibia

- Medial and Lateral Epicondyles

Surface details(secondary markings): provide attachment for collateral
ligaments of the knee and several muscles

- Intercondylar Fossa
Surface details(secondary markings): provides space for the anterior and
posterior cruciate ligaments

- Patellar Surface
Surface details(secondary markings): articulates with the patella to form the
 patellofemoral joint

- Adductor Tubercle
Surface details(secondary markings): provides attachment for the adductor
magnus muscle

kk. Describe the tibia and fibula, their surface details (secondary markings), features and parts
➢ Structure/features: Tibia is larger and stronger of the two lower leg bones. It forms the
primary weight-bearing structure of the leg. Whereas, Fibula is the thinner, lateral bone
of the lower leg. It provides support and stability but does not bear significant weight.

Parts & Surface details(secondary markings) of Tibia:

PROXIMAL END:
1. Tibial Plateau
Surface details(secondary markings): larger and more prominent, articulates
with the medial femoral condyle

2. Intercondylar Eminence
Surface details(secondary markings): sites for attachment of the anterior
cruciate ligament and posterior cruciate ligament

3. Tibial Tuberosity
Surface details(secondary markings): provides an attachment point for the
quadriceps muscle through the patellar tendon

SHAFT(BODY):
1. Medial Surface
Surface details(secondary markings):
Anterior Border: A sharp ridge along the front of the tibia, palpable under the skin.

2. Fibular Notch
Surface details(secondary markings): receives the distal end of the fibula,
forming the distal tibiofibular joint

DISTAL END:
1. Medial Malleolus
Surface details(secondary markings): Forms the medial side of the ankle joins
and provides attachment for the deltoid ligament

2. Distal Tibiofibular Joint

Surface details(secondary markings): fibrous joint that allows minimal
movement
 Parts & Surface details(secondary markings) of Fibula:
PROXIMAL END:
1. Head of the Fibula
Surface details(secondary markings): articulates with the lateral condyle of the
tibia at the proximal tibiofibular joint

2. Neck
Surface details(secondary markings): provides attachment for several muscles

SHAFT(BODY)
1. Lateral Surface
Surface details(secondary markings): provides attachment for muscles
such as the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis

DISTAL END:
1. Lateral Malleolus
Surface details(secondary markings): forms the lateral side of the ankle joint
and provides attachment for the lateral collateral ligaments

2. Distal Tibiofibular Joint

Surface details(secondary markings):
Syndesmosis - fibrous joint that allows minimal movement

ll. Describe the structure of each of the bones of the feet and its parts
➢ Talus - serves as a connecting bone between the leg and the foot
Parts: Trochlea, Head, Neck.

➢ Calcaneus - known as the heel bone and is the largest bone in the foot and forms the
foundation of the rear part of the foot.
Parts: Heel, Sustentaculum Tali, Calcaneal Tuberosity.

➢ Navicular - small, boat-shaped bone in the midfoot and is essential in the arch structure
of the foot and serves as a key connecting element between the hindfoot and forefoot
Parts: Body, Medial Tuberosity.

➢ Cuboid - cube-like shape and has an essential role in the structure and function of the
lateral aspect of the foot for weight-bearing, stability, and movement
Parts: Cuboidal Shape, Groove for the Peroneus Longus Tendon.

➢ Cuneiform Bones - group of three wedge-shaped bones located in the midfoot and is
essential in the stability and function of the foot, especially in maintaining the arch and
facilitating movements
 Parts: Medial Cuneiform, Intermediate Cuneiform, Lateral Cuneiform

➢ Metatarsals - located in the midfoot that forms the skeletal framework of the forefoot and
are numbered from one to five, starting from the medial side of the foot
➢ Parts: Base, Shaft, Head.

➢ Phalanges - makes up the toes in the human foot and is similar to how they form the
fingers in the hand, which each toe consists of a series of phalanges, except for the big
toe, which has only two
Parts: Proximal, Middle, Distal.
TABLE SHOWING THE DIFFERENT LOCATIONS OF THE AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR
SKELETON AND THE CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF BONES

Locations Number of Bones

Axial Skeleton Sternum 1

Skull 22 (cranial 8,facial 14)

Vertebral column 33 (cervical 7, thoracic 12,

lumbar 5, sacral 5,
coccygeal 4)

Ribs 24 (12 pairs)

Appendicular Skeleton Pelvic Girdle Hip Bones 2

Pectoral Girdle 4 (clavicle 2, scapula 2)

Upper limb 60 (per limb 30)

Lower limb 60 (per limb 30)