Communication Technologies

About the Tutorial

Exchange of information through the use of speech, signs or symbols is called
communication. When early humans started speaking, some 5,00,000 years ago, that was
the first mode of communication. Communication over a long distance when people who
are communicating are not in direct line of each other’s site is called telecommunication.

Invention of telephone and establishment of commercial telephony in 1878 marked a

turnaround in communication systems and real telecommunication was born. Telephones
slowly gave way to television, videophone, satellite and finally computer networks.
Computer networks have revolutionized modern day communication and communication
technologies.

In this tutorial, we will discuss in detail how networks have evolved since the first network
known as ARPANET. We will also discuss the hardware and software components of
networking and the concept of global communication via Internet.

Audience
This tutorial is designed for anyone who wants to understand the basic concepts of
networking and how a network functions.

Prerequisites
There are no prerequisites for this course except an appetite for learning how networks in
general and Internet in particular operate.

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in this tutorial, please notify us at [email protected]

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Table of Contents
About the Tutorial .................................................................................................................................... i

Audience .................................................................................................................................................. i

Prerequisites ............................................................................................................................................ i

Copyright & Disclaimer............................................................................................................................. i

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... ii

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 1

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ HISTORY OF NETWORKING ....................................... 2

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ TERMINOLOGIES....................................................... 5

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ SWITCHING TECHNIQUES ......................................... 7

Circuit Switching ..................................................................................................................................... 7

Packet Switching ..................................................................................................................................... 8

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ TRANSMISSION MEDIA ............................................. 9

Twisted Pair Cable ................................................................................................................................... 9

Shielding twisted pair cable .................................................................................................................. 10

Coaxial Cable ......................................................................................................................................... 10

Optical Fibre .......................................................................................................................................... 12

Infrared ................................................................................................................................................. 13

Radio Wave ........................................................................................................................................... 14

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ NETWORK DEVICES................................................. 16

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ NETWORK TOPOLOGIES ......................................... 21

Bus Topology ......................................................................................................................................... 21

Ring Topology ....................................................................................................................................... 22

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Star Topology ........................................................................................................................................ 23

Tree Topology ....................................................................................................................................... 24

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ TYPES OF NETWORKS ............................................. 26

PAN ....................................................................................................................................................... 26

LAN ....................................................................................................................................................... 27

MAN...................................................................................................................................................... 28

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ NETWORK PROTOCOLS........................................... 29

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ MOBILE COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS ................ 34

GSM ...................................................................................................................................................... 35

CDMA .................................................................................................................................................... 35

WLL ....................................................................................................................................................... 35

GPRS ..................................................................................................................................................... 36

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ MOBILE COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES........... 37

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ EMAIL PROTOCOLS ................................................. 39

SMTP ..................................................................................................................................................... 39

POP3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 40

IMAP ..................................................................................................................................................... 40

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ VOIP ....................................................................... 41

H.323..................................................................................................................................................... 41

SIP ......................................................................................................................................................... 42

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES ...................................... 43

Wi-Fi...................................................................................................................................................... 43

WiMax .................................................................................................................................................. 44

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COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ NETWORK SECURITY ............................................... 45

Virus ...................................................................................................................................................... 46

Trojan Horse.......................................................................................................................................... 47

Worms .................................................................................................................................................. 47

Spams ................................................................................................................................................... 48

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ FIREWALL ............................................................... 49

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ COOKIES ................................................................. 51

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ HACKING ................................................................ 53

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ SECURITY ACTS & LAWS.......................................... 55

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES ─ WEB SERVICES ........................................................ 59

WWW ................................................................................................................................................... 59

HTML..................................................................................................................................................... 59

XML ....................................................................................................................................................... 59

HTTP...................................................................................................................................................... 61

Domain Names ...................................................................................................................................... 61

URL ....................................................................................................................................................... 63

Websites ............................................................................................................................................... 63

Web Browsers ....................................................................................................................................... 64

Web Servers .......................................................................................................................................... 65

Web Hosting ......................................................................................................................................... 65

Web Scripting ........................................................................................................................................ 65

Web 2.0 ................................................................................................................................................. 66

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 Communication TechnologiesCommunication Technologies
─ Introduction

Exchange of information through the use of speech, signs or symbols is called

communication. When early humans started speaking, some 5,00,000 years ago, that was
the first mode of communication. Before we dive into modern technologies that drive
communication in contemporary world, we need to know how humans developed better
communication techniques to share knowledge with each other.

History of Communication
Communicating with people over a distance is known as telecommunication. The first
forms of telecommunication were smoke signals, drums or fire torches. The major
disadvantage with these communication systems was that only a set of pre-determined
messages could be transmitted. This was overcome in the 18th and 19th century through
development of telegraphy and Morse code.

Invention of telephone and establishment of commercial telephony in 1878 marked a

turnaround in communication systems and real telecommunication was born. International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) defines telecommunication as transmission, emission and
reception of any signs, signals or messages by electromagnetic systems. Now we had the
communication technology to connect with people physically located thousands of
kilometers away.

Telephones slowly gave way to television, videophone, satellite and finally computer
networks. Computer networks have revolutionized modern day communication and
communication technologies. That will be the subject of our in-depth study in subsequent
chapters.

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Communication Technologies ─ History of Networking

ARPANET – the First Network

ARPANET – Advanced Research Projects Agency Network – the granddad of Internet
was a network established by the US Department of Defense (DOD). The work for
establishing the network started in the early 1960s and DOD sponsored major research
work, which resulted in development on initial protocols, languages and frameworks for
network communication.

It had four nodes at University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Stanford Research
Institute (SRI), University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) and University of Utah.
On October 29, 1969, the first message was exchanged between UCLA and SRI. E-mail
was created by Roy Tomlinson in 1972 at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN) after
UCLA was connected to BBN.

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Internet
ARPANET expanded to connect DOD with those universities of the US that were carrying
out defense-related research. It covered most of the major universities across the country.
The concept of networking got a boost when University College of London (UK) and Royal
Radar Network (Norway) connected to the ARPANET and a network of networks was
formed.

The term Internet was coined by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine of Stanford
University to describe this network of networks. Together they also developed protocols
to facilitate information exchange over the Internet. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
still forms the backbone of networking.

Telenet
Telenet was the first commercial adaptation of ARPANET introduced in 1974. With this the
concept of Internet Service Provider (ISP) was also introduced. The main function of an
ISP is to provide uninterrupted Internet connection to its customers at affordable rates.

World Wide Web

With commercialization of internet, more and more networks were developed in different
part of the world. Each network used different protocols for communicating over the
network. This prevented different networks from connecting together seamlessly. In the
1980s, Tim Berners-Lee led a group of Computer scientists at CERN, Switzerland, to create
a seamless network of varied networks, called the World Wide Web (WWW).

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World Wide Web is a complex web of websites and web pages connected together through
hypertexts. Hypertext is a word or group of words linking to another web page of the same
or different website. When the hypertext is clicked, another web page opens.

The evolution from ARPANET to WWW was possible due to many new achievements by
researchers and computer scientists all over the world. Here are some of those
developments:

Year Milestone

1957 Advanced Research Project Agency formed by US

1969 ARPANET became functional

1970 ARPANET connected to BBN

1972 Roy Tomlinson develops network messaging or E-mail. Symbol @

comes to mean "at"

1973 APRANET connected to Royal Radar Network of Norway

1974 Term Internet coined

First commercial use of ARPANET, Telenet, is approved

1982 TCP/IP introduced as standard protocol on ARPANET

1983 Domain Name System introduced

1986 National Science Foundation brings connectivity to more people with its
NSFNET program

ARPANET decommissioned
1990 First web browser Nexus developed
HTML developed

2002-2004 Web 2.0 is born

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Terminologies

Before we dive into details of networking, let us discuss some common terms associated
with data communication.

Channel
Physical medium like cables over which information is exchanged is called channel.
Transmission channel may be analog or digital. As the name suggests, analog channels
transmit data using analog signals while digital channels transmit data using digital
signals.

In popular network terminology, path over which data is sent or received is called data
channel. This data channel may be a tangible medium like copper wire cables or
broadcast medium like radio waves.

Data Transfer Rate

The speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel, measured per unit
time, is called data transfer rate. The smallest unit of measurement is bits per second
(bps). 1 bps means 1 bit (0 or 1) of data is transferred in 1 second.

Here are some commonly used data transfer rates:

 1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second

 1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
 1Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
 1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps

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Bandwidth
Data transfer rates that can be supported by a network is called its bandwidth. It is
measured in bits per second (bps). Modern day networks provide bandwidth in Kbps, Mbps
and Gbps. Some of the factors affecting a network’s bandwidth include:

 Network devices used

 Protocols used
 Number of users connected
 Network overheads like collision, errors, etc.

Throughput
Throughput is the actual speed with which data gets transferred over the network. Besides
transmitting the actual data, network bandwidth is used for transmitting error messages,
acknowledgement frames, etc.

Throughput is a better measurement of network speed, efficiency and capacity utilization

rather than bandwidth.

Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules and regulations used by devices to communicate over the network.
Just like humans, computers also need rules to ensure successful communication. If two
people start speaking at the same time or in different languages when no interpreter is
present, no meaningful exchange of information can occur.

Similarly, devices connected on the network need to follow rules defining situations like
when and how to transmit data, when to receive data, how to give error-free message,
etc.

Some common protocols used over the Internet are:

 Transmission Control Protocol

 Internet Protocol
 Point to Point Protocol
 File Transfer Protocol
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 Internet Message Access Protocol

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Communication Technologies ─ Switching Techniques

In large networks, there may be more than one paths for transmitting data from sender
to receiver. Selecting a path that data must take out of the available options is called
switching. There are two popular switching techniques – circuit switching and packet
switching.

Circuit Switching
When a dedicated path is established for data transmission between sender and receiver,
it is called circuit switching. When any network node wants to send data, be it audio, video,
text or any other type of information, a call request signal is sent to the receiver and
acknowledged back to ensure availability of dedicated path. This dedicated path is then
used to send data. ARPANET used circuit switching for communication over the network.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching provides these advantages over other switching techniques:

 Once path is set up, the only delay is in data transmission speed
 No problem of congestion or garbled message

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Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching has its disadvantages too:

 Long set up time is required

 A request token must travel to the receiver and then acknowledged before any
transmission can happen

 Line may be held up for a long time

Packet Switching
As we discussed, the major problem with circuit switching is that it needs a dedicated line
for transmission. In packet switching, data is broken down into small packets with each
packet having source and destination addresses, travelling from one router to the next
router.

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Communication Technologies ─ Transmission Media

For any networking to be effective, raw stream of data is to be transported from one device
to other over some medium. Various transmission media can be used for transfer of data.
These transmission media may be of two types:

 Guided: In guided media, transmitted data travels through cabling system that
has a fixed path. For example, copper wires, fibre optic wires, etc.

 Unguided: In unguided media, transmitted data travels through free space in form
of electromagnetic signal. For example, radio waves, lasers, etc.

Each transmission media has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of
bandwidth, speed, delay, cost per bit, ease of installation and maintenance, etc. Let’s
discuss some of the most commonly used media in detail.

Twisted Pair Cable

Copper wires are the most common wires used for transmitting signals because of good
performance at low costs. They are most commonly used in telephone lines. However, if
two or more wires are lying together, they can interfere with each other’s signals. To
reduce this electromagnetic interference, pair of copper wires are twisted together in
helical shape like a DNA molecule. Such twisted copper wires are called twisted pair. To
reduce interference between nearby twisted pairs, the twist rates are different for each
pair.

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Up to 25 twisted pair are put together in a protective covering to form twisted pair cables
that are the backbone of telephone systems and Ethernet networks.

Advantages of twisted pair cable

Twisted pair cable are the oldest and most popular cables all over the world. This is due
to the many advantages that they offer:

 Trained personnel easily available due to shallow learning curve

 Can be used for both analog and digital transmissions
 Least expensive for short distances
 Entire network does not go down if a part of network is damaged

Disadvantages of twisted pair cable

With its many advantages, twisted pair cables offer some disadvantages too:

 Signal cannot travel long distances without repeaters

 High error rate for distances greater than 100m
 Very thin and hence breaks easily
 Not suitable for broadband connections

Shielding twisted pair cable

To counter the tendency of twisted pair cables to pick up noise signals, wires are shielded
in the following three ways:

 Each twisted pair is shielded.

 Set of multiple twisted pairs in the cable is shielded.
 Each twisted pair and then all the pairs are shielded.

Such twisted pairs are called shielded twisted pair (STP) cables. The wires that are
not shielded but simply bundled together in a protective sheath are called unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) cables. These cables can have maximum length of 100 metres.

Shielding makes the cable bulky, so UTP are more popular than STP. UTP cables are used
as the last mile network connection in homes and offices.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are copper cables with better shielding than twisted pair cables, so that
transmitted signals may travel longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists
of these layers, starting from the innermost:

 Stiff copper wire as core

 Insulating material surrounding the core

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 Closely woven braided mesh of conducting material surrounding the insulator

 Protective plastic sheath encasing the wire

Coaxial cables are widely used for cable TV connections and LANs.

Advantages of Coaxial Cables

These are the advantages of coaxial cables:

 Excellent noise immunity

 Signals can travel longer distances at higher speeds, e.g. 1 to 2 Gbps for 1 Km
cable

 Can be used for both analog and digital signals

 Inexpensive as compared to fibre optic cables
 Easy to install and maintain

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cables

These are some of the disadvantages of coaxial cables:

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 Expensive as compared to twisted pair cables

 Not compatible with twisted pair cables

Optical Fibre
Thin glass or plastic threads used to transmit data using light waves are called optical
fibre. Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Laser Diodes (LDs) emit light waves at the source,
which is read by a detector at the other end. Optical fibre cable has a bundle of such
threads or fibres bundled together in a protective covering. Each fibre is made up of these
three layers, starting with the innermost layer:

 Core made of high quality silica glass or plastic

 Cladding made of high quality silica glass or plastic, with a lower refractive index
than the core

 Protective outer covering called buffer

Note that both core and cladding are made of similar material. However, as refractive
index of the cladding is lower, any stray light wave trying to escape the core is reflected
back due to total internal reflection.

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Optical fibre is rapidly replacing copper wires in telephone lines, internet communication
and even cable TV connections because transmitted data can travel very long distances
without weakening. Single node fibre optic cable can have maximum segment length of
2 kms and bandwidth of up to 100 Mbps. Multi-node fibre optic cable can have maximum
segment length of 100 kms and bandwidth up to 2 Gbps.

Advantages of Optical Fibre

Optical fibre is fast replacing copper wires because of these advantages that it offers:

 High bandwidth
 Immune to electromagnetic interference
 Suitable for industrial and noisy areas
 Signals carrying data can travel long distances without weakening

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre

Despite long segment lengths and high bandwidth, using optical fibre may not be a viable
option for every one due to these disadvantages:

 Optical fibre cables are expensive

 Sophisticated technology required for manufacturing, installing and maintaining
optical fibre cables

 Light waves are unidirectional, so two frequencies are required for full duplex
transmission

Infrared
Low frequency infrared waves are used for very short distance communication like TV
remote, wireless speakers, automatic doors, hand held devices etc. Infrared signals can
propagate within a room but cannot penetrate walls. However, due to such short range, it
is considered to be one of the most secure transmission modes.

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Radio Wave
Transmission of data using radio frequencies is called radio-wave transmission. We all
are familiar with radio channels that broadcast entertainment programs. Radio stations
transmit radio waves using transmitters, which are received by the receiver installed in
our devices.

Both transmitters and receivers use antennas to radiate or capture radio signals. These
radio frequencies can also be used for direct voice communication within the allocated
range. This range is usually 10 miles.

Advantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the advantages of radio wave transmissions:

 Inexpensive mode of information exchange

 No land needs to be acquired for laying cables
 Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap

Disadvantages of Radio Wave

These are some of the disadvantages of radio wave transmissions:

 Insecure communication medium

 Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

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 Communication Technologies ─ Communication Technologies
Network Devices

Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other
electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data
in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different networks. Network devices may
be inter-network or intra-network. Some devices are installed on the device, like NIC card
or RJ45 connector, whereas some are part of the network, like router, switch, etc. Let us
explore some of these devices in greater detail.

Modem
Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data over telephone or cable
lines. The data stored on the computer is digital whereas a telephone line or cable wire
can transmit only analog data.

The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog and vice versa.
Modem is a combination of two devices – modulator and demodulator. The modulator
converts digital data into analog data when the data is being sent by the computer. The
demodulator converts analog data signals into digital data when it is being received by
the computer.

Types of Modem
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data, type
of connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.

Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types:

1. Simplex: A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from digital
device to network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator).

2. Half duplex: A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the
directions but only one at a time.

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3. Full duplex: A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions
simultaneously.

RJ45 Connector
RJ45 is the acronym for Registered Jack 45. RJ45 connector is an 8-pin jack used by
devices to physically connect to Ethernet based local area networks (LANs). Ethernet
is a technology that defines protocols for establishing a LAN. The cable used for Ethernet
LANs are twisted pair ones and have RJ45 connector pins at both ends. These pins go
into the corresponding socket on devices and connect the device to the network.

Ethernet Card
Ethernet card, also known as network interface card (NIC), is a hardware component
used by computers to connect to Ethernet LAN and communicate with other devices on
the LAN. The earliest Ethernet cards were external to the system and needed to be
installed manually. In modern computer systems, it is an internal hardware component.
The NIC has RJ45 socket where network cable is physically plugged in.

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Ethernet card speeds may vary depending upon the protocols it supports. Old Ethernet
cards had maximum speed of 10 Mbps. However, modern cards support fast Ethernets
up to a speed of 100 Mbps. Some cards even have capacity of 1 Gbps.

Router
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another
if both networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically connected to
at least two LANs and the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its data in the
form of packets, which are data frames with their destination address added. Router
also strengthens the signals before transmitting them. That is why it is also called
repeater.

Routing Table
A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can take to
reach its destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of these two types:

 Static: In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only
for very small networks that have maximum two to three routers.

 Dynamic: In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers
through protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger
networks where manual feeding may not be feasible due to large number of
routers.

Switch

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Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks through
twisted pair cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward
data packets on the network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the
devices connected to it.

On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to the
correct port. Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network
errors. The data is transmitted in full duplex mode.

Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices like hubs
used for networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the devices
connected to it. This helps in maintaining network speed even during high traffic. In fact,
higher data speeds are achieved on networks through use of multiple switches.

Gateway
Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. In
networking parlance, networks that use different protocols are dissimilar networks. A
gateway usually is a computer with multiple NICs connected to different networks. A
gateway can also be configured completely using software. As networks connect to a
different network through gateways, these gateways are usually hosts or end points of the
network.

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Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to
another. In this way it is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit
data only over networks that use same protocols.

Wi-Fi Card
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve
wireless connection to any network. Wi-Fi card is a card used to connect any device
to the local network wirelessly. The physical area of the network which provides internet
access through Wi-Fi is called Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or
any public space. Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.

A Wi-Fi card is used to add capabilities like teleconferencing, downloading digital

camera images, video chat, etc. to old devices. Modern devices come with their in-built
wireless network adapter.

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Communication Technologies ─ Network Topologies

The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network topology.
Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a network are:

 Cost: Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an

infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc.
have to be considered when designing a network.

 Flexibility: Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow

reconfiguration of office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing
nodes.

 Reliability: Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down
time. Failure of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole
network useless.

 Scalability: Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load of

new devices and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.

 Ease of installation: Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware,

software and technical personnel requirements.

 Ease of maintenance: Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be

easy.

Bus Topology
Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial, to
which many network devices and workstations are attached along the length. Server
is at one end of the bus. When a workstation has to send data, it transmits packets with
destination address in its header along the bus.

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The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal sees
the data, it copies it to the local disk.

Advantages of Bus Topology

These are the advantages of using bus topology:

 Easy to install and maintain

 Can be extended easily
 Very reliable because of single transmission line

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

These are some disadvantages of using bus topology:

 Troubleshooting is difficult as there is no single point of control

 One faulty node can bring the whole network down
 Dumb terminals cannot be connected to the bus

Ring Topology
In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the network a
circular shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.

When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which transmits
it to the next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In this way, data

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traverses the network and reaches the destination node, which removes it from the
network. If the data reaches the sender, it removes the data and resends it later.

Advantages of Ring Topology

These are the advantages of using ring topology:

 Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

 Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in only one direction
 Very high transmission speeds possible

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

These are some the disadvantages of using ring topology:

 Failure of single node brings down the whole network

 Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty
one is identified

 Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact

Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called the
central node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the
server. It is the most popular topology for information and voice networks as central node
can process data received from source node before sending it to the destination node.

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Advantages of Star Topology

These are the advantages of using star topology:

 Failure of one node does not affect the network

 Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node

immediately

 Simple access protocols required as one of the communicating nodes is always the
central node

Disadvantages of Star Topology

These are the disadvantages of using star topology:

 Long cables may be required to connect each node to the server

 Failure of central node brings down the whole network

Tree Topology
Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable. It
incorporates features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called
hierarchical topology.

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Advantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the advantages of using tree topology:

 Existing network can be easily expanded

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means easier installation and

maintenance

 Well suited for temporary networks

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the disadvantages of using tree topology:

 Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology

 Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network
 Insecure network
 Maintenance difficult for large networks

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Communication Technologies ─ Types of Networks

Networks can be categorized depending on size, complexity, level of security, or

geographical range. We will discuss some of the most popular topologies based on
geographical spread.

PAN
PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the interconnection between devices
within the range of a person’s private space, typically within a range of 10 metres. If you
have transferred images or songs from your laptop to mobile or from mobile to your
friend’s mobile using Bluetooth, you have set up and used a personal area network.

A person can connect her laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant and portable
printer in a network at home. This network could be fully Wi-Fi or a combination of wired
and wireless.

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LAN
LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single site like an office,
building or manufacturing unit. LAN is set up to when team members need to share
software and hardware resources with each other but not with the outside world. Typical
software resources include official documents, user manuals, employee handbook, etc.
Hardware resources that can be easily shared over the network include printer, fax
machines, modems, memory space, etc. This decreases infrastructure costs for the
organization drastically.

A LAN may be set up using wired or wireless connections. A LAN that is completely wireless
is called Wireless LAN or WLAN.

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MAN
MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a network spread over a city,
college campus or a small region. MAN is larger than a LAN and typically spread over
several kilometres. Objective of MAN is to share hardware and software resources, thereby
decreasing infrastructure costs. MAN can be built by connecting several LANs.

The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.

WAN
WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many countries. WAN is typically
a network of many LANs, MANs and WANs. Network is set up using wired or wireless
connections, depending on availability and reliability.

The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

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Communication Technologies ─ Network Protocols

Network Protocols are a set of rules governing exchange of information in an easy,

reliable and secure way. Before we discuss the most common protocols used to transmit
and receive data over a network, we need to understand how a network is logically
organized or designed. The most popular model used to establish open communication
between two systems is the Open Systems Interface (OSI) model proposed by ISO.

OSI Model
OSI model is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact services
and protocols for each layer. It simply tells what each layer should do by defining its input
and output data. It is up to network architects to implement the layers according to their
needs and resources available.

These are the seven layers of the OSI model:

 Physical layer: It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that
need to communicate. It transmits data in bits and manages simplex or duplex
transmission by modem. It also manages Network Interface Card’s hardware
interface to the network, like cabling, cable terminators, topography, voltage
levels, etc.

 Data link layer: It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles
datagrams into frames and adds start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves
problems caused by damaged, lost or duplicate frames.

 Network layer: It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of

information between the workstations. It also breaks down transport layer
datagrams into smaller datagrams.

 Transport layer: Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer
breaks it down into data frames, provides error checking at network segment level
and prevents a fast host from overrunning a slower one. Transport layer isolates
the upper layers from network hardware.

 Session layer: This layer is responsible for establishing a session between two
workstations that want to exchange data.

 Presentation layer: This layer is concerned with correct representation of data,

i.e. syntax and semantics of information. It controls file level security and is also
responsible for converting data to network standards.

 Application layer: It is the topmost layer of the network that is responsible for
sending application requests by the user to the lower levels. Typical applications
include file transfer, E-mail, remote logon, data entry, etc.

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It is not necessary for every network to have all the layers. For example, network layer is
not there in broadcast networks.

When a system wants to share data with another workstation or send a request over the
network, it is received by the application layer. Data then proceeds to lower layers after
processing till it reaches the physical layer.

At the physical layer, the data is actually transferred and received by the physical layer of
the destination workstation. There, the data proceeds to upper layers after processing till
it reaches application layer.

At the application layer, data or request is shared with the workstation. So each layer has
opposite functions for source and destination workstations. For example, data link layer of
the source workstation adds start and stop flags to the frames but the same layer of the
destination workstation will remove the start and stop flags from the frames.

Let us now see some of the protocols used by different layers to accomplish user requests.

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TCP/IP
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. TCP/IP is a set
of layered protocols used for communication over the Internet. The communication model
of this suite is client-server model. A computer that sends a request is the client and a
computer to which the request is sent is the server.

TCP/IP has four layers:

 Application layer: Application layer protocols like HTTP and FTP are used.

 Transport layer: Data is transmitted in form of datagrams using the Transmission

Control Protocol (TCP). TCP is responsible for breaking up data at the client side
and then reassembling it on the server side.

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 Network layer: Network layer connection is established using Internet Protocol

(IP) at the network layer. Every machine connected to the Internet is assigned an
address called IP address by the protocol to easily identify source and destination
machines.

 Data link layer: Actual data transmission in bits occurs at the data link layer using
the destination address provided by network layer.

TCP/IP is widely used in many communication networks other than the Internet.

FTP
As we have seen, the need for network came up primarily to facilitate sharing of files
between researchers. And to this day, file transfer remains one of the most used facilities.
The protocol that handles these requests is File Transfer Protocol or FTP.

Using FTP to transfer files is helpful in these ways:

 Easily transfers files between two different networks

 Can resume file transfer sessions even if connection is dropped, if protocol is

configure appropriately

 Enables collaboration between geographically separated teams

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PPP
Point to Point Protocol or PPP is a data link layer protocol that enables transmission of
TCP/IP traffic over serial connection, like telephone line.

To do this, PPP defines these three things:

 A framing method to clearly define end of one frame and start of another,
incorporating errors detection as well.

 Link control protocol (LCP) for bringing communication lines up, authenticating and
bringing them down when no longer needed.

 Network control protocol (NCP) for each network layer protocol supported by other
networks.

Using PPP, home users can avail Internet connection over telephone lines.

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Communication Technologies ─ Mobile
Communication Protocols

Any device that does not need to remain at one place to carry out its functions is a mobile
device. So laptops, smartphones and personal digital assistants are some examples of
mobile devices. Due to their portable nature, mobile devices connect to networks
wirelessly. Mobile devices typically use radio waves to communicate with other devices
and networks. Here we will discuss the protocols used to carry out mobile communication.

Mobile communication protocols use multiplexing to send information. Multiplexing is a

method to combine multiple digital or analog signals into one signal over the data channel.
This ensures optimum utilization of expensive resource and time. At the destination these
signals are de-multiplexed to recover individual signals.

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These are the types of multiplexing options available to communication channels:

 FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing): Here each user is assigned a different

frequency from the complete spectrum. All the frequencies can then
simultaneously travel on the data channel.

 TDM (Time Division Multiplexing): A single radio frequency is divided into

multiple slots and each slot is assigned to a different user. So multiple users can
be supported simultaneously.

 CDMA (Code Division Multiplexing): Here several users share the same
frequency spectrum simultaneously. They are differentiated by assigning unique
codes to them. The receiver has the unique key to identify the individual calls.

GSM
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communications. GSM is one of the most widely
used digital wireless telephony system. It was developed in Europe in 1980s and is now
international standard in Europe, Australia, Asia and Africa. Any GSM handset with a SIM
(Subscriber Identity Module) card can be used in any country that uses this standard.
Every SIM card has a unique identification number. It has memory to store applications
and data like phone numbers, processor to carry out its functions and software to send
and receive messages.

GSM technology uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) to support up to eight calls
simultaneously. It also uses encryption to make the data more secure.

The frequencies used by the international standard is 900 MHz to 1800 MHz However, GSM
phones used in the US use 1900 MHz frequency and hence are not compatible with the
international system.

CDMA
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It was first used by the British military
during World War II. After the war its use spread to civilian areas due to high service
quality. As each user gets the entire spectrum all the time, voice quality is very high. Also,
it is automatically encrypted and hence provides high security against signal interception
and eavesdropping.

WLL
WLL stands for Wireless in Local Loop. It is a wireless local telephone service that can be
provided in homes or offices. The subscribers connect to their local exchange instead of
the central exchange wirelessly. Using wireless link eliminates last mile or first mile
construction of network connection, thereby reducing cost and set up time. As data is
transferred over very short range, it is more secure than wired networks.

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WLL system consists of user handsets and a base station. The base station is connected
to the central exchange as well as an antenna. The antenna transmits to and receives calls
from users through terrestrial microwave links. Each base station can support multiple
handsets depending on its capacity.

GPRS
GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Services. It is a packet based wireless
communication technology that charges users based on the volume of data they send
rather than the time duration for which they are using the service. This is possible because
GPRS sends data over the network in packets and its throughput depends on network
traffic. As traffic increases, service quality may go down due to congestion, hence it is
logical to charge the users as per data volume transmitted.

GPRS is the mobile communication protocol used by second (2G) and third generation
(3G) of mobile telephony. It pledges a speed of 56 kbps to 114 kbps, however the actual
speed may vary depending on network load.

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Communication Technologies ─ Mobile
Communication Technologies

Since the introduction of first commercial mobile phone in 1983 by Motorola, mobile
technology has come a long way. Be it technology, protocols, services offered or speed,
the changes in mobile telephony have been recorded as generation of mobile
communication. Here we will discuss the basic features of these generations that
differentiate it from the previous generations.

1G Technology
1G refers to the first generation of wireless mobile communication where analog signals
were used to transmit data. It was introduced in the US in early 1980s and designed
exclusively for voice communication. Some characteristics of 1G communication are:

 Speeds up to 2.4 kbps

 Poor voice quality
 Large phones with limited battery life
 No data security

2G Technology
2G refers to the second generation of mobile telephony which used digital signals for the
first time. It was launched in Finland in 1991 and used GSM technology. Some prominent
characteristics of 2G communication are:

 Data speeds up to 64 kbps

 Text and multimedia messaging possible
 Better quality than 1G

When GPRS technology was introduced, it enabled web browsing, e-mail services and fast
upload/download speeds. 2G with GPRS is also referred as 2.5G, a step short of next
mobile generation.

3G Technology
Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony began with the start of the new millennium and
offered major advancement over previous generations. Some of the characteristics of this
generation are:

 Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps

 High speed web browsing
 Running web based applications like video conferencing, multimedia e-mails, etc.
 Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files
 3D gaming

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Every coin has two sides. Here are some downsides of 3G technology:

 Expensive mobile phones

 High infrastructure costs like licensing fees and mobile towers
 Trained personnel required for infrastructure set up

The intermediate generation, 3.5G grouped together dissimilar mobile telephony and data
technologies and paved way for the next generation of mobile communication.

4G Technology
Keeping up the trend of a new mobile generation every decade, fourth generation (4G) of
mobile communication was introduced in 2011. Its major characteristics are:

 Speeds of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps

 Mobile web access
 High definition mobile TV
 Cloud computing
 IP telephony

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 Communication TechnologiesCommunication Technologies
─ Email Protocols

Email is one of the most popular uses of Internet world wide. As per a 2015 study, there
are 2.6 billion email users worldwide who send some 205 billion email messages per day.
With email accounting for so much traffic on the Internet, email protocols need to be very
robust. Here we discuss some of the most popular email protocols used worldwide.

SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It is connection oriented application
layer protocol that is widely used to send and receive email messages. It was introduced
in 1982 by RFC 821 and last updated in 2008 by RFC 5321. The updated version is most
widely used email protocol.

Mail servers and mail transfer agents use SMTP to both send and receive messages.
However, user level applications use it only for sending messages. For retrieving they use
IMAP or POP3 because they provide mail box management.

RFC or Request for Comments is a peer reviewed document jointly published by Internet
Engineering Task Force and the Internet Society. It is written by researchers and computer
scientists describing how the Internet should work and protocols and systems supporting
them.

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POP3
POP3 or Post Office Protocol Version 3 is an application layer protocol used by email
clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over TCP/IP network. POP was
designed to move the messages from server to local disk but version 3 has the option of
leaving a copy on the server.

POP3 is a very simple protocol to implement but that limits its usage. For example, POP3
supports only one mail server for each mailbox. It has now has been made obsolete by
modern protocols like IMAP.

IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP was defined by RFC 3501
to enable email clients to retrieve email messages from mail servers over a TCP/IP
connection. IMAP is designed to retrieve messages from multiple mail servers and
consolidate them all in the user’s mailbox. A typical example is a corporate client handling
multiple corporate accounts through a local mailbox located on her system.

All modern email clients and servers like Gmail, Outlook and Yahoo Mail support IMAP or
POP3 protocol. These are some advantages that IMAP offers over POP3:

 Faster response time than POP3

 Multiple mail clients connected to a single mailbox simultaneously
 Keep track of message state like read, deleted, starred, replied, etc.
 Search for messages on the server

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Communication Technologies ─ VoIP

VoIP is the acronym for Voice over Internet Protocol. It means telephone services over
Internet. Traditionally Internet had been used for exchanging messages but due to
advancement in technology, its service quality has increased manifold. It is now possible
to deliver voice communication over IP networks by converting voce data into packets.
VoIP is a set of protocols and systems developed to provide this service seamlessly.

Here are some of the protocols used for VoIP:

 H.323
 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
 Session Description Protocol (SDP)
 Media Gateway Control Protocol (MGCP)
 Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 Skype Protocol

We will discuss two of the most fundamental protocols – H.323 and SIP – here.

H.323
H.323 is a VoIP standard for defining the components, protocols and procedures to provide
real-time multimedia sessions including audio, video and data transmissions over packet-
switched networks. Some of the services facilitated by H.323 include:

 IP telephony
 Video telephony
 Simultaneous audio, video and data communications

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SIP
SIP is an acronym for Session Initiation Protocol. SIP is a protocol to establish, modify and
terminate multimedia sessions like IP telephony. All systems that need multimedia
sessions are registered and provided SIP address, much like IP address. Using this
address, caller can check callee’s availability and invite it for a VoIP session accordingly.

SIP facilitates multiparty multimedia sessions like video conferencing involving three or
more people. In a short span of time SIP has become integral to VoIP and largely replaced
H.323.

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Communication Technologies ─ Wireless
Technologies

Wireless connection to internet is very common these days. Often an external modem is
connected to the Internet and other devices connect to it wirelessly. This eliminated the
need for last mile or first mile wiring. There are two ways of connecting to the Internet
wirelessly – Wi-Fi and WiMAx.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is the acronym for wireless fidelity. Wi-Fi technology is used to achieve
connection to the Internet without a direct cable between device and Internet Service
Provider. Wi-Fi enabled device and wireless router are required for setting up a Wi-Fi
connection. These are some characteristics of wireless Internet connection:

 Range of 100 yards

 Insecure connection
 Throughput of 10-12 Mbps

If a PC or laptop does not have Wi-Fi capacity, it can be added using a Wi-Fi card.

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The physical area of the network which provides Internet access through Wi-Fi is called
Wi-Fi hotspot. Hotspots can be set up at home, office or any public space like airport,
railway stations, etc. Hotspots themselves are connected to the network through wires.

WiMax
To overcome the drawback of Wi-Fi connections, WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability
for Microwave Access) was developed. WiMax is a collection of wireless communication
standards based on IEEE 802.16. WiMax provides multiple physical layer and media
access control (MAC) options.

WiMax Forum, established in 2001, is the principal body responsible to ensure conformity
and interoperability among various commercial vendors. These are some of the
characteristics of WiMax:

 Broadband wireless access

 Range of 6 miles
 Multilevel encryption available
 Throughput of 72 Mbps

The main components of a WiMax unit are:

 WiMax Base Station: It is a tower similar to mobile towers and connected to

Internet through high speed wired connection.

 WiMax Subscriber Unit (SU): It is a WiMax version of wireless modem. The only
difference is that modem is connected to the Internet through cable connection
whereas WiMax SU receives Internet connection wirelessly through microwaves.

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 Communication TechnologiesCommunication
─ Network Technologies
Security

Computer networks are an integral part of our personal and professional lives because we
carry out lots of day-to-day activities through the Internet or local organizational network.
The downside of this is that huge amount of data, from official documents to personal
details, gets shared over the network. So it becomes necessary to ensure that the data is
not accessed by unauthorized people.

Practices adopted to monitor and prevent unauthorized access and misuse of network
resources and data on them is called network security.

A network has two components – hardware and software. Both these components have
their own vulnerability to threats. Threat is a possible risk that might exploit a network
weakness to breach security and cause harm. Examples of hardware threats include:

 Improper installation
 Use of unsecure components
 Electromagnetic interference from external sources
 Extreme weather conditions
 Lack of disaster planning

Hardware threats form only 10% of network security threats worldwide because the
components need to be accessed physically. 90% threats are through software
vulnerabilities. Here we discuss the major types of software security threats.

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Virus
A virus is a malicious program or malware that attaches itself to a host and makes
multiple copies of itself (like a real virus!), slowing down, corrupting or destroying the
system.

Some harmful activities that can be undertaken by a virus are:

 Taking up memory space

 Accessing private information like credit card details
 Flashing unwanted messages on user screen
 Corrupting data
 Spamming e-mail contacts

Viruses mostly attack Windows systems. Till a few years ago, Mac systems were deemed
immune from viruses, however now a handful of viruses for them exist as well.

Viruses spread through e-mails and need a host program to function. Whenever a new
program runs on the infected system, the virus attaches itself to that program. If you are
an expert who tinkers with the OS files, they can get infected too.

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Trojan Horse
Trojan horse is a malware that hides itself within another program like games or
documents and harms the system. As it is masked within another program that appears
harmless, the user is not aware of the threat. It functions in a way similar to viruses in
that it needs a host program to attach itself and harms systems in the same ways.

Trojan horses spread through emails and exchange of data through hard drives or pen
drives. Even worms could spread Trojan horses.

Worms
Worms are autonomous programs sent by the attacker to infect a system by replicating
itself. They usually infect multitasking systems that are connected to a network. Some of
the harmful activities undertaken by worms include:

 Accessing and relaying back passwords stored on the system

 Interrupt OS functioning
 Disrupt services provided by the system
 Install viruses or Trojan horses

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Spams
Electronic junk mail, unsolicited mail or junk newsroom postings are called spam. Sending
multiple unsolicited mails simultaneously is called spamming. Spamming is usually done
as part of marketing tactics to announce a product or share political or social views with a
wide base of people.

The first spam mail was sent by Gary Thuerk on ARPANET in 1978 to announce launch of
new model of Digital Equipment Corporation computers. It was sent to 393 recipients and
together with lots of hue and cry it generated sales for the company as well.

Almost all mail servers give you the option of stopping spams by marking a received mail
as junk. You should take care to share your email ID only with trusted people or websites,
who will not sell them to spammers.

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Communication Technologies ─ Firewall

There exist multiple approaches to counter or at least reduce security threats. Some of
these are:

 Authenticating users accessing a service

 Providing access to authorized users
 Using encrypted passwords for remote log on
 Using biometric authorization parameters
 Restricting traffic to and from

Firewalls are the first line of defense against unauthorized access to private networks.
They can be used effectively against virus, Trojan or worm attacks.

How Firewalls Work

Dictionary defines firewall as a wall or partition designed to inhibit or prevent spread of
fire. In networks, a system designed to protect an intranet from unauthorized access is
called firewall. A private network created using World Wide Web software is called an
intranet. Firewall may be implemented in both hardware and software.

All traffic to and from the network is routed through the firewall. The firewall examines
each message and blocks those that does not meet the pre-defined security criteria.

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These are some of the prevalent techniques used by firewalls:

 Packet level filtering: Here each packet is examined depending on user-defined

rules. It is very effective and transparent to users, but difficult to configure. Also,
as IP address is used to identify users, IP spoofing by malicious parties can prove
counterproductive.

 Circuit level filtering: Like good old telephone connections, circuit level filtering
applies security mechanisms while connection between two systems is being
established. Once the connection is deemed secure, data transmission can take
place for that session.

 Application level filtering: Here, security mechanisms are applied to commonly

used applications like Telnet, FTP servers, storage servers, etc. This is very
effective but slows down performance of the applications.

 Proxy server: As the name suggests, proxy server is used to interrupt all incoming
and outgoing messages and mask the true server address.

A firewall may use a combination of two or more techniques to secure the network,
depending on extent of security required.

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Communication Technologies ─ Cookies

Cookies are small text files with their unique ID stored on your system by a website.
The website stores your browsing details like preferences, customizations, login ID, pages
clicked, etc. specific to that website. Storing this information enables the website to
provide you with a customized experience the next time you visit it.

How Cookies Work

When you visit a website through your browser, the website creates and stores a cookie
file in your browser or program data folder/sub-folder. This cookie may be of two types:

 Session cookie: It is valid only till the session lasts. Once you exit the website the
cookie is automatically deleted.

 Persistent cookie: It is valid beyond your current session. Its expiration date is
mentioned within the cookie itself.

A cookie stores these information:

 Name of website server

 Cookie expiration date/time
 Unique ID

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A cookie is meaningless by itself. It can be read only by the server that stored it. When
you visit the website subsequently, its server matches cookie ID with its own database of
cookies and loads webpages according to your browsing history.

Handling Cookies
Cookies were initially designed to enhance user’s web browsing experience. However, in
the current aggressive marketing scenario, rogue cookies are being used to create your
profile based on your browsing patterns without consent. So you need to be wary of
cookies if you care about your privacy and security.

Almost all modern-day browsers give you options to allow, disallow or limit cookies on
your system. You can view the cookies active on your computer and make decisions
accordingly.

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Communication Technologies ─ Hacking

Unauthorized access to data in a device, system or network is called hacking. A person

hacking another person’s system is called hacker. A hacker is a highly accomplished
computer expert who can exploit the smallest of vulnerabilities in your system or network
to hack it.

A hacker may hack due to any of the following reasons:

 Steal sensitive data

 Take control of a website or network
 Test potential security threats
 Just for fun
 Broadcast personal views to a large audience

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Types of Hacking
Depending on the application or system being broken into, these are some categories of
hacking common in the cyber world:

 Website hacking
 Network hacking
 Email hacking
 Password hacking
 Online banking hacking

Ethical Hacking
As iron sharpens iron, hacking counters hacking. Using hacking techniques to identify
potential threats to a system or network is called ethical hacking. For a hacking activity
to be termed ethical, it must adhere to these criteria:

 Hacker must have written permission to identify potential security threats

 Individual’s or company’s privacy must be maintained
 Possible security breaches discovered must be intimated to the concerned
authorities

 At a later date, no one should be able to exploit ethical hacker’s inroads into the
network

Cracking
A term that goes hand in glove with hacking is cracking. Gaining unauthorized access to a
system or network with malicious intent is called cracking. Cracking is a crime and it may
have devastating impact on its victims. Crackers are criminals and strong cyber laws have
been put into place to tackle them.

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 Communication Technologies ─Communication
Security ActsTechnologies
& Laws

Cyber Crimes
Any unlawful activity involving or related to computer and networks is called cybercrime.
Dr. K. Jaishankar, Professor and Head of the Department of Criminology, Raksha Shakti
University, and Dr. Debarati Halder, lawyer and legal researcher, define cybercrime thus:

Offences that are committed against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal
motive to intentionally harm the reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm,
or loss, to the victim directly or indirectly, using modern telecommunication networks such
as Internet (networks including but not limited to Chat rooms, emails, notice boards and
groups) and mobile phones (Bluetooth/SMS/MMS).

This definition implies that any crime perpetrated on the Internet or using computers is a
cybercrime.

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Examples of cybercrimes include:

 Cracking
 Identity theft
 Hate crime
 E-commerce fraud
 Credit card account theft
 Publishing obscene content
 Child pornography
 Online stalking
 Copyright infringement
 Mass surveillance
 Cyber terrorism
 Cyber warfare

Cyber Law
Cyber law is a term that encompasses legal issues related to use of Internet and
cyberspace. It is a broad term that covers varied issues like freedom of expression,
internet usage, online privacy, child abuse, etc. Most of the countries have one or the
other form of cyber law in place to tackle the growing menace of cybercrimes.

A major issue here is that in any crime perpetrator, victim and instruments used might be
spread across multiple locations nationally as well as internationally. So investigating the
crime needs close collaboration between computer experts and multiple government
authorities, sometimes in more than one country.

Indian IT Act
Information Technology Act, 2000 is the primary Indian law dealing with cybercrime and
e-commerce. The law, also called ITA-2000 or IT Act, was notified on 17th October
2000 and is based on the United Nations Model Law on Electronic Commerce
1996recommended by the UN General Assembly on 30th January 1997.

The IT Act covers whole of India and recognizes electronic records and digital signatures.
Some of its prominent features include:

 Formation of Controller of Certifying Authorities to regulate issuance of digital

signatures

 Establishment of Cyber Appellate Tribunal to resolve disputes due to the new law

 Amendment in sections of Indian Penal Code, Indian Evidence Act, Banker’s Book
Evidence Act and RBI Act to make them technology compliant

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The IT Act was framed to originally to provide legal infrastructure for e-commerce in India.
However, major amendments were made in 2008 to address issues like cyber terrorism,
data protection, child pornography, stalking, etc. It also gave authorities the power to
intercept, monitor or decrypt any information through computer resources.

IPR Issues
IPR stands for Intellectual Property Rights. IPR is legal protection provided to creators
of Intellectual Property (IP). IP is any creation of the intellect or mind, like art, music,
literature, inventions, logo, symbols, tag lines, etc. Protecting the rights of intellectual
property creators is essentially a moral issue. However, law of the land does provide legal
protection in case of violation of these rights.

Intellectual Property Rights include:

 Patents
 Copyrights
 Industrial design rights
 Trademarks
 Plant variety rights

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 Trade dress
 Geographical indications
 Trade secrets

Violation of Intellectual Property Rights is called infringement in case of patents,

copyrights and trademarks, and misappropriation in case of trade secrets. Any published
material that you view or read on the Internet is copyright of its creator and hence
protected by IPR. You are legally and morally obliged not to use it and pass it off as your
own. That would be infringement of creator’s copyright and you may incur legal action.

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Communication Technologies ─ Web Services

Let us discuss some terms commonly used with regard to the Internet.

WWW
WWW is the acronym for World Wide Web. WWW is an information space inhabited by
interlinked documents and other media that can be accessed via the Internet. WWW was
invented by British scientist Tim Berners-Lee in
1989 and developed the first web browser in
1990 to facilitate exchange of information
through the use of interlinked hypertexts.

A text that contains link to another piece of text

is called hypertext. The web resources were
identified by a unique name called URL to
avoid confusion.

World Wide Web has revolutionized the way we

create, store and exchange information. Success of WWW can be attributed to these
factors:

 User friendly
 Use of multimedia
 Interlinking of pages through hypertexts
 Interactive

HTML
HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language. A language designed such that parts of
text can be marked to specify its structure, layout and style in context of the whole page
is called a markup language. Its primary function is defining, processing and presenting
text.

HTML is the standard language for creating web pages and web applications, and loading
them in web browsers. Like WWW it was created by Time Berners-Lee to enable users
to access pages from any page easily.

When you send request for a page, the web server sends file in HTML form. This HTML file
is interpreted by the web browser and displayed.

XML
XML stands for eXtensible Markup Language. It is a markup language designed to store
and transport data in safe, secure and correct way. As the word extensible indicates, XML
provides users with a tool to define their own language, especially to display documents
on the Internet.

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Any XML document has two parts – structure and content. Let’s take an example to
understand this. Suppose your school library wants to create a database of magazines it
subscribes to. This is the CATALOG XML file that needs to be created.

<CATALOG>
<MAGAZINE>
<TITLE>Magic Pot</TITLE>
<PUBLISHER>MM Publications</PUBLISHER>
<FREQUENCY>Weekly</FREQUENCY>
<PRICE>15</PRICE>
</MAGAZINE>

<MAGAZINE>
<TITLE>Competition Refresher</TITLE>
<PUBLISHER>Bright Publications</PUBLISHER>
<FREQUENCY>Monthly</FREQUENCY>
<PRICE>100</PRICE>
</MAGAZINE>
</CATALOG>

Each magazine has title, publisher, frequency and price information stored about it. This
is the structure of catalog. Values like Magic Pot, MM Publication, Monthly, Weekly, etc.
are the content.

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This XML file has information about all the magazines available in the library. Remember
that this file will not do anything on its own. But another piece of code can be easily written
to extract, analyze and present data stored here.

HTTP
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is the most fundamental protocol used
for transferring text, graphics, image, video and other multimedia files on the World Wide
Web. HTTP is an application layer protocol of the TCP/IP suite in client-server
networking model and was outlined for the first
time by Time Berners-Lee, father of World
Wide Web.

HTTP is a request-response protocol. Here is

how it functions:

 Client submits request to HTTP.

 TCP connection is established with the
server.

 After necessary processing server sends

back status request as well as a message. The message may have the requested
content or an error message.

An HTTP request is called method. Some of the most popular methods are GET, PUT,
POST, CONNECT, etc. Methods that have in-built security mechanisms are called safe
methods while others are called unsafe. The version of HTTP that is completely secure
is HTTPS where S stands for secure. Here all methods are secure.

An example of use of HTTP protocol is:

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/videotutorials/index.htm

The user is requesting (by clicking on a link) the index page of video tutorials on the
tutorialspoint.com website. Other parts of the request are discussed later in the chapter.

Domain Names
Domain name is a unique name given to a server to identify it on the World Wide Web.
In the example request given earlier:

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/videotutorials/index.htm

tutorialspoint.com is the domain name. Domain name has multiple parts called labels
separated by dots. Let us discuss the labels of this domain name. The right most label
.com is called top level domain (TLD). Other examples of TLDs include .net, .org, .co,
.au, etc.

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The label left to the TLD, i.e. tutorialspoint, is the second level domain. In the above
image, .co label in .co.uk is second level domain and .uk is the TLD. www is simply a
label used to create the subdomain of tutorialspoint.com. Another label could be ftp to
create the subdomain ftp.tutorialspoint.com.

This logical tree structure of domain names, starting from top level domain to lower level
domain names is called domain name hierarchy. Root of the domain name hierarchy is
nameless. The maximum length of complete domain name is 253 ASCII characters.

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URL
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. URL refers to the location of a web resource
on computer network and mechanism for retrieving it. Let us continue with the above
example:

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/videotutorials/index.htm

This complete string is a URL. Let’s discuss its parts:

 index.htm is the resource (web page in this case) that needs to be retrieved
 www.tutorialspoint.com is the server on which this page is located
 videotutorials is the folder on server where the resource is located
 www.tutorialspoint.com/videotutorials is the complete pathname of the
resource

 https is the protocol to be used to retrieve the resource

URL is displayed in the address bar of the web browser.

Websites
Website is a set of web pages under a single domain name. Web page is a text
document located on a server and connected to the World Wide Web through hypertexts.
Using the image depicting domain name hierarchy, these are the websites that can be
constructed:

 www.tutorialspoint.com
 ftp.tutorialspoint.com
 indianrail.gov.in
 cbse.nic.in

Note that there is no protocol associated with websites 3 and 4 but they will still load,
using their default protocol.

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Web Browsers
Web browser is an application software for accessing, retrieving, presenting and
traversing any resource identified by a URL on the World Wide Web. Most popular web
browsers include:

 Chrome
 Internet Explorer
 Firefox
 Apple Safari
 Opera

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Web Servers
Web server is any software application, computer or networked device that serves
files to the users as per their request. These requests are sent by client devices through
HTTP or HTTPS requests. Popular web server software include Apache, Microsoft IIS,
and Nginx.

Web Hosting
Web hosting is an Internet service that enables individuals, organizations or businesses
to store web pages that can be accessed on the Internet. Web hosting service
providers have web servers on which they host web sites and their pages. They also
provide the technologies necessary for making a web page available upon client request,
as discussed in HTTP above.

Web Scripting
Script is a set of instructions written using any programming language and
interpreted (rather than compiled) by another program. Embedding scripts within web
pages to make them dynamic is called web scripting.

As you know, web pages are created using

HTML, stored on the server and then loaded
into web browsers upon client’s request.
Earlier these web pages were static in nature,
i.e. what was once created was the only version
displayed to the users. However, modern users
as well as website owners demand some
interaction with the web pages.

Examples of interaction includes validating

online forms filled by users, showing messages
after user has registered a choice, etc. All this
can be achieved by web scripting. Web scripting is of two types:

 Client side scripting: Here the scripts embedded in a page are executed by the
client computer itself using web browser. Most popular client side scripting
languages are JavaScript, VBScript, AJAX, etc.

 Server side scripting: Here scripts are run on the server. Web page requested
by the client is generated and sent after the scripts are run. Most popular server
side scripting languages are PHP, Python, ASP .Net, etc.

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Web 2.0
Web 2.0 is the second stage of development in World Wide Web where the emphasis is
on dynamic and user generated content rather than static content. As discussed above,
World Wide Web initially supported creation and presentation of static content using HTML.
However, as the users evolved, demand for interactive content grew and web scripting
was used to add this dynamism to content.

In 1999, Darcy DiNucci coined the term Web 2.0 to emphasize the paradigm shift in the
way web pages were being designed and presented to the user. It became popularity
around 2004.

Examples of user generated content in Web 2.0 include social media websites, virtual
communities, live chats, etc. These have revolutionized the way we experience and use
the Internet.

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