Transducer & Sensors

ØA transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another.

Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy to a signal in
another.

ØTransducers are often employed at the boundaries of automation,

measurement, and control systems, where electrical signals are converted to
and from other physical quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion,
position, etc.).

ØThe process of converting one form of energy to another is known as

transduction.
 Transducers
Ø Generally, medical diagnostic instruments derive their information from sensors,
electrodes, or transducers.

Ø Medical instrumentation relies on analog electrical signals for an input.

Ø These signals can be acquired directly by biopotential electrodes—for example, in

monitoring the electrical signals generated by the heart, muscles or brain, or
indirectly by transducers that convert a nonelectrical physical variable such as
pressure, flow, or temperature, or biochemical variables, such as partial pressures
of gases or ionic concentrations, to an electrical signal.

Ø Since the process of measuring a biological variable is commonly referred to as

sensing, electrodes and transducers are often grouped together and are termed
sensors.
ØThe purpose of the transducer is to convert the biochemical reaction
into the form of an optical, electrical, or physical signal that is
proportional to the concentration of a specific chemical.

ØDepending on the specific needs, some sensors are used primarily in

clinical laboratories to measure in vitro physiological quantities such as
electrolytes, enzymes, and other biochemical metabolites in blood.

Ø Other biomedical sensors for measuring pressure, flow, and the

concentrations of gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, are used in
vivo to follow continuously (monitor) the condition of a patient.
Types of Electrical Transducers
Mainly, the electrical transducers can be classified into the following two types.
• Active Transducers
• Passive Transducers
Now, let us discuss about these two types of transducers briefly.

Active Transducers
Ø It is the type of transducer device that does not require any exterior power supply
for producing output and which is in function to convert physical signals into
electric powered signals by means of the ability of itself.

Ø It is also called self-generating transducer, since it doesn’t require any external

power supply.
Ø The transducer, which can produce one of the electrical quantities such as voltage
and current is known as active transducer.
Ø A thermocouple is an instance of an active transducer.
• The Passive transducer produces a change in some passive electrical
quantity, such as capacitance, resistance, or inductance, as a result of
stimulation.

• Passive transducers usually require additional electrical energy.

• It is an externally powered transducer and is a type of gadget that is
no longer in a position to convert physical signals into electric
powered signals through itself,
Strain gauges
• It converts signals by means of any other energy source i.e which
produces variation when comes in contact with any passive element.

• Example: Strain gauges, capacitive transducers, and thermistors are of

passive transducers.
• Its output form relies upon on variant in passive associated.
Ø As shown in the figure, passive transducer will produce variation in the passive
element in accordance with the variation in the non-electrical input quantity
(or signal).
Examples: Following are the examples of passive transducers.
• Resistive Transducer
• Inductive Transducer
• Capacitive Transducer
What is Sensor? What is Transducer?
Ø As per the definition of a sensor, it is a Ø As per the definition of a transducer, it
physical device that is useful for measuring is a physical device that alters the
the changes in the surroundings after physical attributes of given non-
measuring their physical quantities (light, electrical signals to form an electrical
heat, sound, etc.) and transforming them signal that can be measured easily.
into signals (current, voltage, etc.) that can
be easily read by users. Ø This process of conversion of energy in
Ø Sensors provide accurate readings if the the transducer is referred to as
calibration is done correctly. transduction. Transduction takes two
Ø For instance, mercury present in a steps to complete; firstly, it senses
thermometer transforms the body signals and then strengthens them for
temperature change into easily measured the cause of further processing.
reading that can be sighted through a
calibrated glass tube; it does so because of
its expansion and contraction courtesy
temperature changes.
Sensor Classifications
ØBiomedical sensors are usually classified according to the quantity to be measured and
are typically categorized as physical, electrical, or chemical, depending on their specific
applications.

ØBiosensors, which can be considered a special subclassification of biomedical sensors,

are a group of sensors that have two distinct components: a biological recognition
element, such as a purified enzyme, antibody, or receptor,

ØThat functions as a mediator and provides the selectivity that is needed to sense the
chemical component (usually referred to as the analyte) of interest, and

Øa supporting structure that also acts as a transducer and is in intimate contact with the
biological sensing sensed by the biological recognition element into a quantifiable
measurement, typically in the element.
Sensor Packaging
• Packaging of certain biomedical sensors, primarily sensors for in vivo applications, is an
important consideration during the design, fabrication, and use of the device.

• Obviously, the sensor must be safe and remain functionally reliable.

• In the development of implantable biosensors, an additional key issue is the long

operational lifetime and biocompatibility of the sensor.

• Whenever a sensor comes into contact with body fluids, the host itself may affect the
function of the sensor, or the sensor may affect the site in which it is implanted.
Sensor Specifications

• To understand sensor performance characteristics, it is important first to understand

some of the common terminology associated with sensor specifications.
• Sensitivity: Sensitivity is typically defined as the ratio of output change for a given change
in input.
• Range: The range of a sensor corresponds to the minimum and maximum operating
limits that the sensor is expected to measure accurately. For example, a temperature
sensor; operating range of -200 to +500 ⁰C.
• Accuracy: Accuracy refers to the difference between the true value and the actual value
measured by the sensor.
• Precision: Precision refers to the degree of measurement reproducibility. Very
reproducible readings indicate a high precision. Precision should not be confused with
accuracy.
• For example, measurements may be highly precise but not necessary accurate.
• Resolution: When the input quantity is increased from some arbitrary nonzero value, the
output of a sensor may not change until a certain input increment is exceeded.
Accordingly, resolution is defined as the smallest distinguishable input change that can
be detected with certainty.

• Reproducibility: Reproducibility describ

• es how close the measurements are when the same input is measured repeatedly over
time.
• Offset: Offset refers to the output value when the input is zero,
• Linearity: Linearity is a measure of the maximum deviation of any reading from a straight
calibration line.

• Response Time: The response time indicates the time it takes a sensor to reach a certain
percent (e.g., 95 percent) of its final steady-state value when the input is changed.
• Drift: Drift refers to the change in sensor reading when the input remains constant.
temerture trasducer temerture sensor

temerture trasducer
 Electrodes for biophysical sensing
(Biopotential Electrodes)

Ø Bioelectricity is a naturally occuring phenomenon that aries from the fact that living
organism composed of ions in different quantitites.
Ø Potential difference occurs when the concentration of ions is different between two
points. When dealing ioning conduction, it is very complex and non-linear phenomenon.

Ø Medical Electrodes: The medical electrode transfers the energy of ionic currents in the
body into electrical currents that can be amplified, studied, and used to help make
diagnoses.

Ø The porpose of bioelectrodes is to acquire medically significant bioelectric signals, such

as ECG, EMG and EEG.

Ø Bioelectrodes are class of sensors that trnasduce ionic conduction to electronics

conduction so that signal can be processed in electronic circuits.
Electrodes for biophysical sensing .......

Ø Biopotential measurements must be carried out using high-quality electrodes to

minimize motion artifacts so that the measured signal is accurate, stable, &
undistorted.

Ø Body fluids are very corrosive to metals, so not all metals are acceptable for
biopotential sensing. Furthermore, some materials are toxic to living tissues.

Ø For implantable applications, relatively strong metal electrodes are used.

Example: stainless steel or noble materials such as gold, or various alloys such as
platinum-tungsten, titanium-nitride, or iridium-oxide.

Ø It should not react chemically with tissue electrolytes, thus minimize tissue toxicity.

Ø Biopotential electrodes are classified either as noninvasive (skin surface) or invasive

(e.g., microelectrodes or wire electrodes).
Surface Electrodes (Floating, Metal Plate & Multipoint)

What is a Surface Electrode?

Ø Surface electrode measures the potential available from the surface of the skin. It
senses the signal from heart, brain and nerves.

Ø Larger surface electrodes sense the ECG signals. Smaller surface electrodes sense the
EMG and EEG signals.
Ø The types of surface electrodes are as follows:
1. Metal Plate Electrodes
Ø ECG measurement technique uses either rectangular or circular shaped plate
electrodes made of nickel, silver or German silver materials.

Ø Electrodes are pasted on the skin using electrolyte paste. The electrode slippage and
plate displacement are the two major disadvantages of this electrode type.

Ø They are very sensitive, leading to measurement errors.

Ø Since it is suitable for application on four limbs of the body, they called limb
electrodes.

Ø During surgical procedure since patient’s legs are immobile, limb electrodes are
preferred. Chest electrodes interfere with the surgery, so not used for ECG
measurement.

Ø At the same time for a long-term patient monitoring limb-electrodes are not used.
2. Suction Cup Electrodes
Ø To measure ECG from various positions on the chest, Suction cup electrodes are used.
It suits well to attach electrodes on flat surface of the body and on soft tissue regions.
They have a good contact surface.

Ø Physically they are large but the skin contacts only the electrode rim. It has high
contact impedance. They have a plastic syringe barrel, suction tube and cables.
3. Adhesive Type Electrodes
Ø In the surface electrode, the pressure of surface electrode against the skin squeezes
out the electrode paste. To avoid this problem, adhesive electrodes are used.
Ø It has a lightweight metallic screen, having a pad at behind for placing electrode paste.
Ø This adhesive backing hold the electrode on place and tight. It also helps to avoid
evaporation of electrolyte present in the electrode paste.
 EOG

ECG
EMG
• Needle electrodes or intramuscular wire electrodes are favored over surface electrodes
because they can enter the individual motor units straightaway and evaluate the coming
action potentials more precisely.
• The most widely employed needle electrode is the concentric ring needle with a
monopolar single electrode.
EEG Electrodes
Ø Electroencefalography (EEG) is a method to record brain activity throw the capture of
electric activation.
Ø EEG scans are performed by placing EEG sensors – small metal discs also called EEG
electrodes – on scalp.
Ø These electrodes pick up and record the electrical activity in your brain. The collected
EEG signals are amplified, digitized, and then sent to a computer or mobile device for
storage and data processing.
Brain areas and function

Ø Passive electrodes are usually made of silver/silver chloride (Ag–AgCl) and many
systems typically use electrodes attached to individual wires.
Ø These electrodes are applied to the scalp using a conductive gel or paste, usually after
preparing the scalp area by light abrasion to reduce electrode-scalp impedance.
v A brain–computer interface (BCI), sometimes called a brain–machine interface (BMI), is a
direct communication pathway between the brain's electrical activity and an external
device, most commonly a computer or robotic limb.
EMG Electrodes

Ø A number of different types of biopotential electrodes are used in recording

electromyographic (EMG) signals from different muscles in the body.

Ø The shape and size of the recorded EMG signals depend on the electrical
property of these electrodes and the recording location.

Ø For noninvasive recordings, proper skin preparation, which normally involves

cleansing the skin with alcohol or the application of a small amount of an
electrolyte paste, helps to minimize the impedance of the skin-electrode
interface and improve the quality of the recorded signal considerably.

Ø The most common electrodes used for surface EMG recording and nerve
conduction studies are circular discs, about 1 cm in diameter, that are made of
silver or platinum.
EEG Electrodes
• The most commonly used electrodes for recording electroencephalographic signals from
• the brain (EEG) are cup electrodes and subdermal needle electrodes. Cup electrodes are made
• of platinum or tin approximately 5–10 mm in diameter. These cup electrodes are filled with a
• conducting electrolyte gel and can be attached to the scalp with an adhesive tape.
• Recording of electrical potentials from the scalp is difficult because hair and oily skin
• impede good electrical contact. Therefore, clinicians sometimes prefer to use subdermal
• EEG electrodes instead of metal surface electrodes for EEG recording. These are basically
• fine platinum or stainless-steel needle electrodes about 10 mm long
Microelectrodes
Ø Microelectrodes are biopotential electrodes with an ultrafine tapered tip that
can be inserted into individual biological cells.
Ø These electrodes serve an important role in recording action potentials from
single cells and are commonly used in neurophysiological studies.
Ø The tip of these electrodes must be small with respect to the dimensions of
the biological cell to avoid cell damage and at the same time sufficiently
strong to penetrate the cell wall.

Figure 10.8 illustrates the construction of three typical types of microelectrodes:

glass micro_x0002_pipettes, metal microelectrodes, and solid-state microprobes.
In Figure 10.8a, a hollow glass capillary tube, typically 1 mm in diameter, is
heated and
softened in the middle inside a small furnace and then quickly pulled apart from
both ends.
Brain Computer Interface (BCI): Japanese robot 'wired to monkey's brain