Improved dynamic range

A preselector improves dynamic range if the signals in question have sufficient frequency
separation. The discussion of dynamic range in Chapter 6 assumed that both the
large and small signals were always present at the mixer and their amplitudes did not
change during the course of the measurement. But as we have seen, if signals are far
enough apart, a preselector allows one to reach the mixer while rejecting the others. For
example, if we were to test a microwave oscillator for harmonics, a preselector would
reject the fundamental when we tuned the analyzer to one of the harmonics.

Let’s look at the dynamic range of a second-harmonic test of a 3-GHz oscillator. Using
the example from Chapter 6, suppose that a –40-dBm signal at the mixer produces
a second harmonic product of –75 dBc. We also know, from our discussion, that for
every 1 dB the level of the fundamental changes at the mixer, measurement range also
changes by 1 dB. The second-harmonic distortion curve is shown in Figure 7-12. For
this example, we assume plenty of power from the oscillator and set the input attenuator
so that when we measure the oscillator fundamental, the level at the mixer is –10 dBm,
below the 1-dB compression point.

From the graph, we see that a –10-dBm signal at the mixer produces a second-
harmonic distortion component of –45 dBc. Now we tune the analyzer to the 6-GHz
second harmonic. If the preselector has 70-dB rejection, the fundamental at the mixer
has dropped to –80 dBm. Figure 7-12 indicates that for a signal of –80 dBm at the
mixer, the internally generated distortion is –115 dBc, meaning 115 dB below the
new fundamental level of –80 dBm. This puts the absolute level of the harmonic at
–195 dBm. So the difference between the fundamental we tuned to and the internally
generated second harmonic we tuned to is 185 dB!

–45
–50

–60
Internal distortion (dBc)

–70

–80

–90

–100

–110
–115
–120
–90 –80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0
Mixed level (dBm)

Figure 7-12. Second-order distortion graph

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Clearly, for harmonic distortion, dynamic range is limited on the low-level (harmonic) end
only by the noise floor (sensitivity) of the analyzer. What about the upper, high-level end?
When measuring the oscillator fundamental, we must limit power at the mixer to get an
accurate reading of the level. We can use either internal or external attenuation to limit
the level of the fundamental at the mixer to something less than the 1-dB compression
point. However, the preselector highly attenuates the fundamental when we are tuned to
the second harmonic, so we can remove some attenuation if we need better sensitivity
to measure the harmonic. A fundamental level of +20 dBm at the preselector should not
affect our ability to measure the harmonic.

Any improvement in dynamic range for third-order intermodulation measurements depends

upon separation of the test tones versus preselector bandwidth. As we noted, typical
preselector bandwidth is about 35 MHz at the low end and 80 MHz at the high end.

As a conservative figure, we might use 18 dB per octave of bandwidth roll-off of a

typical YIG preselector filter beyond the 3 dB point. So to determine the improvement
in dynamic range, we must determine to what extent each of the fundamental tones is
attenuated and how that affects internally generated distortion. From the expressions in
Chapter 6 for third-order intermodulation, we have:

(k4 /8)VLOV 12 V2 cos[ωLO– (2ω1 – ω2)]t

and

(k4 /8)VLOV 1V22 cos[ω LO – (2ω2 – ω1)]t

Looking at these expressions, we see that the amplitude of the lower distortion
component (2ω 1 – ω2) varies as the square of V1 and linearly with V2. On the other side,
the amplitude of the upper distortion component (2ω 2 – ω 1) varies linearly with V1 and
as the square of V2. However, depending on the signal frequencies and separation, the
preselector may not attenuate the two fundamental tones equally.

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Consider the situation shown in Figure 7-13 in which we are tuned to the lower
distortion component, and the two fundamental tones are separated by half the
preselector bandwidth. In this case, the lower-frequency test tone lies at the edge of
the preselector pass band and is attenuated 3 dB. The upper test tone lies above the
lower distortion component by an amount equal to the full preselector bandwidth. It is
attenuated approximately 21 dB. Since we are tuned to the lower distortion component,
internally generated distortion at this frequency drops by a factor of two relative to
the attenuation of V1 (2 times 3 dB = 6 dB) and equally as fast as the attenuation of
V2 (21 dB). The improvement in dynamic range is the sum of 6 dB + 21 dB, or 27 dB.
As in the case of second harmonic distortion, the noise floor of the analyzer must
be considered, too. For very closely spaced test tones, the preselector provides no
improvement, and we determine dynamic range as if the preselector was not there.

3 dB

21 dB

27 dB

Figure 7-13. Improved third-order intermodulation distortion; test

tone separation is significant relative to preselector bandwidth

The discussion of dynamic range in Chapter 6 applies to the low-pass-filtered low band.
The only exceptions occur when a particular harmonic of a low-band signal falls within
the preselected range. For example, if we measure the second harmonic of a 2.5-GHz
fundamental, we get the benefit of the preselector when we tune to the 5-GHz harmonic.

Pluses and minuses of preselection

We have seen the pluses of preselection: simpler analyzer operation, uncluttered
displays, improved dynamic range and wide spans. But there are also some
disadvantages relative to an unpreselected analyzer.

First of all, the preselector has insertion loss, typically 6 to 8 dB. This loss comes
prior to the first stage of gain, so system sensitivity is degraded by the full loss. In
addition, when a preselector is connected directly to a mixer, the interaction of the
mismatch of the preselector with that of the input mixer can cause a degradation of
frequency response.

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You must use proper calibration techniques to compensate for this ripple. Another
approach to minimize this interaction would be to insert a matching pad (fixed
attenuator) or isolator between the preselector and mixer. In this case, sensitivity
would be degraded by the full value of the pad or isolator.

Some spectrum analyzer architectures eliminate the need for the matching pad or
isolator. As the electrical length between the preselector and mixer increases, the rate
of change of phase of the reflected and re-reflected signals becomes more rapid for
a given change in input frequency. The result is a more exaggerated ripple effect on
flatness. Architectures such as those used in PSA Series analyzers include the mixer
diodes as an integral part of the preselector/mixer assembly. In such an assembly, there
is minimal electrical length between the preselector and mixer. This architecture thus
removes the ripple effect on frequency response and improves sensitivity by eliminating
the matching pad or isolator.

Even aside from its interaction with the mixer, a preselector causes some degradation
of frequency response.

The preselector filter pass band is never perfectly flat, but rather exhibits a certain
amount of ripple. In most configurations, the tuning ramp for the preselector and local
oscillator come from the same source, but there is no feedback mechanism to ensure
the preselector exactly tracks the tuning of the analyzer. Another source of post-tuning
drift is the self-heating caused by current flowing in the preselector circuitry. The center
of the preselector pass band will depend on its temperature and temperature gradients,
which depend on the history of the preselector tuning. As a result, you obtain the best
flatness by centering the preselector at each signal. The centering function is typically
built into the spectrum analyzer firmware and is selected either by a front-panel key
in manual measurement applications or programmatically in automated test systems.
When activated, the centering function adjusts the preselector tuning DAC to center
the preselector pass band on the signal. The frequency response specification for most
microwave analyzers applies only after centering the preselector, and it is generally a
best practice to perform this function (to mitigate the effects of post-tuning drift) before
making amplitude measurements of microwave signals.

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In our discussion of sweep time, we found that analyzers such as X-Series signal
analyzers use FFTs when the narrower resolution bandwidths are selected. Because
the LO is stepped and fixed for each FFT segment, the preseletor must be stepped
and fixed as well. Since the preselector takes several milliseconds to tune and stabilize,
sweep time may be negatively impacted relative to similar settings in the low band. The
X-Series signal analyzers allow you to select the width of each step to minimize the
number of steps. (For details, see the operating manual for your particular analyzer.) If
your analyzer has Option MPB, you may bypass the preselector to eliminate its impact
on sweep time. However, be sure your signal is such that no images or multiples can
cause confusion.

External harmonic mixing

We have discussed tuning to higher frequencies within the signal analyzer. For internal
harmonic mixing, the X-Series signal analyzers use the second harmonic (N=2–) to
tune to 17.1 GHz and the second harmonic (N=2–), with the LO doubled, to tune to
26.5 GHz. However, what if you want to test outside the upper frequency range of the
signal analyzer? Some analyzers provide the ability to use an external mixer to make
high-frequency measurements, where the external mixer becomes the front end of
the analyzer, bypassing the input attenuator, the preselector and the first mixers. The
external mixer uses higher harmonics of the analyzer’s first LO, and in some cases,
the first LO frequency is doubled before being sent to the external mixer. Higher
fundamental LO frequencies allow for lower mixer conversion loss. Typically, a spectrum
analyzer that supports external mixing has one or two additional connectors on the front
panel. Early analyzers had two connectors. An LO “out” port routes the analyzer’s internal
first LO signal to the external mixer, which uses the higher harmonics to mix with the
high-frequency signals.

The external mixer’s IF output connects to the analyzer’s IF “in” port. The latest analyzers
have only one front-panel port, and this is possible because the LO frequency supplied
from the analyzer is between 3 and 14 GHz, while the IF output frequency from the
external mixer to the analyzer is 322.5 MHz. Because of the wide frequency difference
between the LO and IF signals, both signals can exist on the same coaxial interconnect
cable that attaches the analyzer and the mixer. As long as the external mixer uses the
same IF as the spectrum analyzer, the signal can be processed and displayed internally,
just like any signal that came from the internal first mixer. Figure 7-14 illustrates the
block diagram of an external mixer used in conjunction with a spectrum analyzer.

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 External mixer
Waveguide IF out
input
IF in

Low
band path Analog or
3.6 GHz 5.1225 GHz 322.5 MHz 22.5 MHz digital IF

Analyzer
input

LO
High 3.8 to 8.7 GHz
band
path To external
mixer
4.8 GHz 300 MHz

322.5 MHz

Preselector

Sweep generator
Display

Figure 7-14. Spectrum analyzer and external mixer block diagram

Band Keysight 11970 Series Keysight M1970 Series Other manufacturer’s Other manufacturer’s
mixers (LO range mixers (LO range mixers (LO range mixers (LO range
3–7 GHz) 6–14 GHz) 3–7 GHz) 6–14 GHz)
A (26.5 to 40.0 GHz) 6− and 8−
Q (33.0 to 50.0 GHz) 8− and 10−
U (40.0 to 60.0 GHz) 10−
V (50.0 to 75.0 GHz) 12− and 14− 6−
E (60.0 to 90.0 GHz) N.A. 6− and 8−
W (75.0 to 110.0 GHz) 18− 8−
F (90.0 to 140.0 GHz) 16− 10−
D (110.0 to 170.0 GHz) 20− 14−
G (140.0 to 220.0 GHz) 26− 18−
Y (170.0 to 260.0 GHz ) 30− 20−
J (220.0 to 325.0 GHz) 38− 24−
(325.0 to 500.0 GHz) 58− 36−
(500.0 to 750.0 GHz) 86− 54−
(750.0 to 1,100.0 GHz) 80−

Table 7-1. Harmonic mixing modes used by X-Series analyzers with external mixers

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Table 7-1 shows the harmonic mixing modes used by the X-Series analyzers at various
millimeter-wave bands for both the Keysight M1970 Series and the earlier 11970 Series
external mixers. For ease of use and low conversion loss, the M1970 Series mixers
provide a USB connection that is used to automatically identify the mixer model number
and serial number, perform an LO adjustment to optimize performance, and download
the mixer conversion loss table into the analyzer memory. You also can use external
mixers from other manufactures if you know the mixer’s conversion loss with frequency.
Some external mixers from other manufacturers require a bias current to set the mixer
diodes to the proper operating point. The X-Series analyzers can provide up to ± 10 mA
of DC current through the front-panel external mixer port to provide this bias and keep
the measurement setup as simple as possible.

Whether you perform harmonic mixing with an internal or an external mixer, the issues
are similar. The LO and its harmonics mix not only with the desired input signal, but also
with any other signal, including out-of-band signals, that may be present at the input.
This produces mixing products that can be processed through the IF just like any other
valid signals.

A tunable filter that performs preselection of the signals reaching the first mixer in
the internal signal path is common in most signal analyzers. External mixers that are
unpreselected will produce unwanted responses on screen that are not true signals.
A way to deal with these unwanted signals has been designed into the signal analyzer.
This function is called “signal identification.”

Signal identification
It is quite possible that the particular response we have tuned onto the display has been
generated on an LO harmonic or mixing mode other than the one for which the display
is calibrated. So our analyzer must have some way to tell us whether or not the display
is calibrated for the signal response in question. For this example, assume we are using
a Keysight M1970V 50- to 75-GHz unpreselected mixer, which uses the 6− mixing mode.
The full V-Band measurement can be seen in Figure 7-15.

Keysight X-Series signal analyzers offer two different identification methods: image shift
and image suppress. Let’s first explore the image shift method. Looking at Figure 7-15,
let’s assume we have tuned the analyzer to a frequency of 50 GHz. The 6th harmonic of
the LO produces a pair of responses, where the 6− mixing product appears on screen
at the correct frequency of 50 GHz, while the 6+ mixing product produces a response
with an indicated frequency of 49.355 GHz, which is 2 times fIF below the real response.
The X-Series analyzer has an IF frequency of 322.5 MHz, so the pair of responses is
separated by 645 MHz.

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Figure 7-15. Which ones are the real signals?

Harmonic mixing tuning lines

80
8+

IF frequency = 322.5 MHz 8-

75

70
Signal frequency (GHz)

Input Image RF 6-

RF 6+ RF 8- RF 8+ 6+
65

6-
62.500
61.855

60

55

10.36

10.47
50
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11
LO frequency (GHz)

Figure 7-16 Harmonic tuning lines for the X-Series analyzers using the M1970 Series mixers

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Let’s assume we have some idea of the characteristics of our signal, but we do not
know its exact frequency. How do we determine which is the real signal? The image-
shift process retunes the LO fundamental frequency by an amount equal to 2fI F /N. This
causes the Nth harmonic to shift by 2fI F.

If we are tuned to a real signal, its corresponding pair will now appear at the same
position on screen that the real signal occupied in the first sweep. If we are tuned to
another multiple pair created by some other incorrect harmonic, the signal will appear to
shift in frequency on the display. The X-Series signal analyzer shifts the LO on alternate
sweeps, creating the two displays show in Figures 7-17a and 7-17b. In Figure 7-17a,
the real signal (the 6− mixing product) is tuned to the center of the screen. Figure 7-17b
shows how the image shift function moves the corresponding pair (the 6+ mixing
product) to the center of the screen.

Figures 7-17a and 7-17b display alternate sweeps taken with the image shift function.

Figure 7-17a: 6− centered (yellow trace)

Figure 7-17b: 6+ centered (blue trace)

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Let’s examine the second method of signal identification, image suppression. In this
mode, two sweeps are taken using the minimum hold function, which saves the
smaller value of each display point, or bucket, from the two sweeps. The first sweep
is done using normal LO tuning values. The second sweep offsets the LO fundamental
frequency by 2f IF /N. As we saw in the first signal ID method, the image product
generated by the correct harmonic will land at the same point on the display as the
real signal did on the first sweep. Therefore, the trace retains a high amplitude value.
Any false response that shifts in frequency will have its trace data replaced by a lower
value. Thus, all image and incorrect multiple responses will appear as noise, as shown
in Figure 7-18.

Figure 7-18. The image suppress function displays only real signals

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Note that both signal identification methods are used for identifying correct frequencies
only. You should not attempt to make amplitude measurements while the signal
identification function is turned on. Once we have identified the real signal of interest,
we turn off the signal ID function and zoom in on it by reducing the span. We can then
measure the signal’s amplitude and frequency. See Figure 7-19.

To make an accurate amplitude measurement, it is important that you first enter the
calibration data for your external mixer. This data is normally supplied by the mixer
manufacturer, and it is typically presented as a table of mixer conversion loss, in
dB, at a number of frequency points across the band. This data is entered into a
correction table on the signal analyzer, and the analyzer uses this data to compensate
for the mixer conversion loss. If you are using the M1970 Series harmonic mixers,
the mixer conversion loss is automatically transferred from the mixer memory to the
X-Series signal analyzer memory, which eliminates manual entry into a correction file.
The spectrum analyzer reference level is now calibrated for signals at the input to the
external mixer.

Figure 7-19. Measurement of a positively identified signal

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Chapter 8. Modern Signal Analyzers
In the previous chapters of this application note, we have looked at the fundamental
architecture of spectrum analyzers and basic considerations for making frequency-
domain measurements. On a practical level, modern spectrum or signal analyzers must
also handle many other tasks to help you meet your measurement requirements. These
tasks include:

• Providing application-specific measurements, such as adjacent channel power (ACP),

noise figure, and phase noise
• Providing digital modulation analysis measurements defined by industry or regulatory
standards, such as LTE, GSM, cdma2000®, 802.11, or Bluetooth®
• Performing vector signal analysis
• Saving, printing or transferring data
• Offering remote control and operation over GPIB, LAN or the Internet
• Allowing you to update instrument firmware to add new features and capabilities,
as well as to repair defects
• Making provisions for self-calibration, troubleshooting, diagnostics and repair
• Recognizing and operating with optional hardware or firmware to add new capabilities
• Allowing you to make measurements in the field with a rugged, battery-powered
handheld spectrum analyzer that correlate with data taken with high-performance
bench-top equipment

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Application-specific measurements
In addition to measuring general signal characteristics like frequency and amplitude,
you often need to make specific measurements of certain signal parameters.
Examples include channel power measurements and adjacent channel power (ACP)
measurements, which we described in Chapter 6. Many signal analyzers now have these
built-in functions available. You simply specify the channel bandwidth and spacing, then
press a button to activate the automatic measurement.

The complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF), which shows power

statistics, is another measurement capability increasingly found in modern signal
analyzers, as you can see in Figure 8-1.

CCDF measurements provide statistical information showing the percent of time the
instantaneous power of the signal exceeds the average power by a certain number
of dB. This information is important in power amplifier design, for example, where
it is important to handle instantaneous signal peaks with minimum distortion while
minimizing cost, weight and power consumption of the device.

Other examples of built-in measurement functions include occupied bandwidth, TOI,

harmonic distortion, and spurious emissions measurements. The instrument settings
– such as center frequency, span and resolution bandwidth – for these measurements
depend on the specific radio standard to which the device is being tested.

Figure 8-1. CCDF measurement

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Most modern signal analyzers have these instrument settings stored in memory so you
can select the desired radio standard (LTE, MSR, GSM/EDGE, cdma2000, W-CDMA,
802.11a/b/g/n/ac and so on) to make the measurements properly.

RF designers are often concerned with the noise figure of their devices, as noise figure
directly affects the sensitivity of receivers and other systems. Some signal analyzers,
such as the X-Series, have optional noise figure measurement capabilities available.
This option provides control for the noise source needed to drive the input of the device
under test (DUT) as well as firmware to automate the measurement process and display
the results. Figure 8-2 shows a typical measurement result, with DUT noise figure (upper
trace) and gain (lower trace) displayed as a function of frequency.

Figure 8-2. Noise figure measurement

The need for phase information

Phase noise is a common measure of oscillator performance. In digitally modulated
communication systems, phase noise can negatively impact bit error rates. Phase noise
can also degrade the ability of Doppler radar systems to capture the return pulses
from targets. The X-Series signal analyzers offer optional phase noise measurement
capabilities. These options provide firmware to control the measurement and display the
phase noise as a function of frequency offset from the carrier, as shown in Figure 8-3.

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Figure 8-3. Phase noise measurement

Today’s digital modulation techniques use amplitude and phase information to carry
more baseband data in limited spectrum and time. Therefore, it is essential for a signal
analyzer to handle amplitude and phase in an appropriate manner. QPSK (Quadrature
Phase-Shift Keying) is one of the simple examples of digital modulation techniques,
with which two bits of digital data are transmitted at once, or two bits per symbol.
Figure 8-4 shows an example of QPSK demodulation analysis with 89601B option AYA.
Remember you need four (2 2 ) states to transmit 2 bits at once.

As an easy and intuitive way to understand what’s going on the digital radio transmission,
use an I/Q plane, which is a two dimensional chart comprising in-phase and quadrature
components of the demodulated signal on the horizontal axis and the vertical axis,
respectively. An example of the chart is again shown on the top left window of Figure
8-4. The yellow trace called trajectory shows a vector combining phase and amplitude
moves around as time goes while red points indicates the instantaneous position of
trajectory at the time of decision when a receiver actually judges the symbol value.
Essentially, for digital radios, vectors at these decision points are most important for
modulation quality. As you can see on the bottom left window of Figure 8-4, a “scalar”
analyzer meaning traditional spectrum analyzer may be able to show the modulated
signal in frequency domain so that you can see whether the signal is properly modulated
in power wise to some extent, and you can also make sure that there is no unwanted
emission or leakage power to the adjacent channels. You need, however, some sort of
“vector” analyzer to perform meaningful analysis of modulation quality for digital data
transmission where phase information is involved.

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Figure 8-4. Modulation analysis of a QPSK signal measured with Keysight’s 89600 VSA software

Figure 8-5. Modulation analysis of WLAN 802.11ac signal using Keysight 89600 VSA software

A newer and much more complicated system is 802.11ac, which uses 256QAM
(quadrature-amplitude modulation). See Figure 8-5. The maximum power is limited,
so the data points are much closer in both phase and magnitude than for QPSK.

The analyzer you use to evaluate the transmitted signal must be sufficiently accurate
that it does not lead you to a false conclusion about the quality of the transmission.
Pure amplitude measurements are also required to determine signal attributes such
as flatness, adjacent-channel power levels and distortion.

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Digital modulation analysis
The common wireless communication systems used throughout the world today all have
prescribed measurement techniques defined by standards-development organizations
and governmental regulatory bodies. Optional measurement personalities are available
on the X-Series signal analyzers to perform the key tests defined for a particular wireless
communication format. For example, if we need to test a transmitter to the Bluetooth
wireless communication standard, we must measure parameters such as:

• Average/peak output power

• Modulation characteristics
• Initial carrier frequency tolerance
• Carrier frequency drift
• Monitor band/channel
• Modulation overview
• Output spectrum
• 20-dB bandwidth
• Adjacent channel power

These measurements are available on the Keysight X-Series signal analyzers with
appropriate options.

Other optional measurement capabilities for a wide variety of wireless communications

standards that are available on the X-Series signal analyzers:

• LTE/LTE-Advanced
• WLAN
• Multi-standard radio (MSR)
• GSM/EDGE
• W-CDMA
• HSDPA
• cdma2000
• 1xEV-DO
• 1xEV-DV
• cdmaOne
• NADC and PDC
• TD-SCDMA

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Figure 8-6 illustrates an error vector magnitude (EVM) measurement performed on a
LTE FDD downlink signal. This test helps you diagnose modulation or amplification
distortions that lead to bit errors in the receiver.
More information
Not all digital communication systems are based on well-defined industry standards. If Additional information is
you are working on nonstandard proprietary systems or the early stages of proposed available on the following:
industry-standard formats, you need more flexibility to analyze vector-modulated signals Noise figure measure-
under varying conditions. You can achieve that flexibility two ways. First, modulation ments, see Keysight Noise
analysis personalities are available on the X-Series signal analyzers. Alternatively, you Figure Measurements of
Frequency Converting
can perform more extensive analysis with software running on an external computer.
Devices Using the
For example, you can use Keysight 89600 VSA software with X-Series signal analyzers Keysight NFA Series
to provide flexible vector signal analysis. In this case, the signal analyzer acts as an RF Noise Figure Analyzer −
downconverter and digitizer. Application Note, literature
number 5989-0400EN.
The software can run internally on the signal analyzer or communicate with the analyzer
Measurements involv-
over a GPIB or LAN connection. IQ data is transferred to the computer, where it performs ing phase, see Vector
the vector signal analysis. Signal Analysis Basics –
Application Note, literature
Measurement settings, such as modulation type, symbol rate, filtering, triggering and number 5989-1121EN.
record length, can be varied as necessary for the particular signal you are analyzing.
Bluetooth measurements,
see Performing Bluetooth
RF Measurements Today –
Application Note, literature
number 5968-7746E.

Figure 8-6. EVM measurement of LTE FDD downlink signal

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Real-time spectrum analysis
For the capable RF engineer, continuous-wave (CW) and predictably-repeating signals
are no great challenge – but today’s complex and agile signals and multi-signal More information
environments are proving to be another matter. To keep up with evolving analysis needs, For additional information
new types of signal analyzers and application software have emerged in recent years. on measurements involv-
ing real-time spectrum
High-performance X-Series signal analyzers now offer a combination of swept spectrum,
analysis, see Measuring
real-time and vector signal analysis capability – all in one instrument. Agile Signals and Dynamic
Signal Environments
Design and troubleshooting tasks are much more difficult when dealing with agile
– Application Note,
signals, and the challenges are often made more difficult when these signals are in literature number
an environment of other agile signals. Even the analysis of a single signal can be a 5991-2119EN.
challenge when that signal is very agile or complex. You can use a high-performance
X-Series signal analyzer with real-time spectrum analysis capability to capture the
behavior of dynamic and elusive signals with true gap-free spectrum analysis.

An example of a complex signal is two frequency agile C-band acquisition radars—one

is a linearly chirped pulse for better range resolution and the other is a simple pulsed
Doppler radar. The signal at the receiver varies widely in amplitude over a period of
several seconds, and this long-duration characteristic, combined with the short-duration
characteristics of its pulse length and repetition interval (and therefore short duty cycle)
make it agile and difficult to measure well. A basic spectrum analysis of this signal with
a swept spectrum analyzer shows the measurement difficulty it poses, as illustrated in
Figure 8-7. Even after many sweeps and the use of a max hold function, the signal is
not clearly represented.

Figure 8-7 . Even when you use fast sweeps and max hold over a period of many
seconds, the swept spectrum analyzer view of the radar signal is not very informative

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The real-time spectrum analyzer screen shown in Figure 8-8, in contrast with the
swept spectrum screen, readily shows the main characteristics of the signal using
the density or histogram display. The density or histogram display collects a large
More information
amount of real-time spectrum data into a single display that shows both rare and
For additional information
frequent events, with an indication of relative frequency of occurrence. The X-Series on measurements involv-
signal analyzer real-time analyzer mode and density display provide a fast and ing real-time spectrum
insight-producing representation of this wideband, dynamic and agile signal. analysis, see Measuring
Agile Signals and Dynamic
The blue color of all but the noise floor indicates that the pulses, while prominent, have Signal Environments –
a very low frequency-of-occurrence. This is the principal characteristic that makes Application Note, literature
number 5991-2119EN.
it difficult to measure (or even to rapidly and reliably find) this signal with a swept
spectrum analyzer.

Figure 8-8. Real-time capture of two C-band acquisition radar signals.

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Chapter 9. Control and Data Transfer
Saving and printing data
After making a measurement, we normally want to keep a record of the test data.
We might simply want to make a quick printout of the instrument display. Depending
on the particular analyzer and printer model, we might use the USB or LAN ports to
connect the two units.

Very often, we may want to save measurement data as a file, either in the spectrum
analyzer’s internal memory or on a USB mass-storage device. There are several
different kinds of data we can save this way:

An image of the display: Preferably in a popular file format, such as bitmap, GIF, PNG
or Windows metafile.

Trace data: Saved as X-Y data pairs representing frequency and amplitude points on
the screen. The number of data pairs can vary. Modern spectrum analyzers such as
the X-Series allow you to select the desired display resolution by setting a minimum of
1 up to a maximum of 40,001 frequency sweep points (buckets) on the screen. This
data format is well suited for transfer to a spreadsheet program on a computer.

Instrument state: To keep a record of the spectrum analyzer settings, such as

center frequency, span, reference level and so on, used in the measurement. This
information is useful for documenting test setups used for making measurements.
Consistent test setups are essential for maintaining repeatable measurements
over time.

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Data transfer and remote instrument control
In 1977, Hewlett-Packard’s electronic test and measurement division (now Keysight
Technologies) introduced the world’s first GPIB-controllable spectrum analyzer, the
8568A. The GPIB interface (also known as HP-IB or IEEE-488) made it possible to
control all major functions of the analyzer from an external computer and transfer trace
data to an external computer. This innovation paved the way for a wide variety of
automated spectrum analyzer measurements that were faster and more repeatable
than manual measurements. By transferring the raw data to a computer, it could be
saved on disk, analyzed, corrected and operated on in a variety of ways.

Today, automated test and measurement equipment has become the norm, and nearly
all modern spectrum analyzers come with a variety of standard interfaces, including
LAN, USB 2.0 and GPIB. LAN connectivity is the most commonly used interface, as
it can provide high data-transfer rates over long distances and integrates easily into
networked environments such as a factory floor. Other standard interfaces used widely
in the computer industry are likely to become available on spectrum analyzers in the
future to simplify connectivity between instruments and computers.

Keysight’s X-Series signal analyzers literally have computer firmware running USB
ports and a Windows operating system. These features greatly simplify control and
data transfer. In addition, the X-Series analyzers can be operated remotely, and the
analyzer’s display appears on the remote computer. Details are beyond the scope of
this application note; see the operating manual for your particular analyzer.

A variety of commercial software products are available to control spectrum analyzers

remotely over an I/O bus. Also, you can write your own software to control spectrum
analyzers in a number of different ways. One method is to directly send programming
commands to the instrument. Older spectrum analyzers typically used proprietary
command sets, but newer instruments, such as Keysight’s X-Series signal analyzers,
use industry-standard SCPI (standard commands for programmable instrumentation)
commands. A more common method is to use standard software drivers, such as VXI
plug&play drivers, which enable higher-level functional commands to the instrument
without the need for detailed knowledge of the SCPI commands. Most recently, a new
generation of language-independent instrument drivers, known as “interchangeable
virtual instrument,” or IVI-COM drivers, has become available for the X-Series signal
analyzers. The IVI-COM drivers are based on the Microsoft Component Object Model
standard and work in a variety of PC application development environments, such as
the Keysight T&M Programmers Toolkit and Microsoft’s Visual Studio .NET.

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Some applications require you to control the spectrum analyzer and collect measurement
data from a very long distance. For example, you may want to monitor satellite signals
from a central control room, collecting data from remote tracking stations located
hundreds or even thousands of kilometers from the central site. The X-Series signal
analyzers have software available to control these units, capture screen images and
transfer trace data over the Internet using a standard Web browser.

Firmware updates
Modern spectrum analyzers have much more software inside them than do instruments
from just a few years ago. As new features are added to the software and defects repaired,
it becomes highly desirable to update the spectrum analyzer’s firmware to take advantage
of the improved performance.

The latest revisions of spectrum and signal analyzer firmware can be found on the
Keysight Technologies website. You can download this firmware to a file on your local
computer. A common method to transfer new firmware into the spectrum analyzer
is to copy the firmware onto a USB drive and then insert it into one of the spectrum
analyzer’s USB ports. Some models, such as the X-Series, allow you to transfer the new
firmware directly into the spectrum analyzer using the instrument’s Ethernet LAN port.

It is a good practice to periodically check your spectrum analyzer model’s Web page
to see if updated firmware is available.

Calibration, troubleshooting, diagnostics and repair

Spectrum analyzers must be periodically calibrated to insure the instrument performance
meets all published specifications. Typically, this is done once a year. However, between
these annual calibrations, the spectrum analyzer must be aligned periodically to
compensate for thermal drift and aging effects. Modern spectrum analyzers such
as the X-Series have built-in alignment routines that operate when the instrument
is first turned on and during retrace (between sweeps) at predetermined intervals.
The alignment routines also operate if the internal temperature of the instrument
changes. These alignment routines continuously adjust the instrument to maintain
specified performance.

Modern spectrum analyzers usually have a service menu available. In this area, you can
perform useful diagnostic functions, such as a test of the front-panel keys. You also can
display more details of the alignment process, as well as a list of all optional hardware
and measurement personalities installed in the instrument. When you upgrade a spectrum
analyzer with a new measurement personality, Keysight provides a unique license key
tied to the serial number of the instrument. You install this license key through the USB
port or enter it on the front-panel keypad to activate the measurement capabilities of
the personality.

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Summary
This application note has provided a broad survey of basic spectrum analyzer concepts.
However, you may wish to learn more about many other topics related to spectrum
analysis. An excellent place to start is to visit the Keysight Technologies Web site at
www.keysight.com and search for signal or spectrum analyzer.

Glossary of Terms
Absolute amplitude accuracy: The uncertainty of an amplitude measurement in
absolute terms, either volts or power. Includes relative uncertainties (see Relative
amplitude accuracy) plus calibrator uncertainty. For improved accuracy, some spectrum
analyzers have frequency response specified relative to the calibrator as well as relative
to the midpoint between peak-to-peak extremes.

ACPR: Adjacent channel power ratio is a measure of how much signal energy from
one communication channel spills over or leaks into an adjacent channel. This is an
important metric in digital communication components and systems, as too much
leakage will cause interference on adjacent channels. It is sometimes also described
as ACLR, or adjacent channel leakage ratio.

Amplitude accuracy: The uncertainty of an amplitude measurement. It can be

expressed either as an absolute term or relative to another reference point.

Amplitude reference signal: A signal of precise frequency and amplitude that the
analyzer uses for self-calibration.

Analog display: A display technology where analog signal information (from the envelope
detector) is written directly to an instrument’s display, typically implemented on a cathode
ray tube (CRT). Analog displays were once the standard method of displaying information
on spectrum analyzers. However, modern spectrum analyzers no longer use this
technology; instead, they now use digital displays.

Average detection: A method of detection that sums power across a frequency

interval. It is often used for measuring complex, digitally modulated signals and other
types of signals with noise-like characteristics. Modern Keysight spectrum analyzers
typically offer three types of average detection: power (rms) averaging, which measures
the true average power over a bucket interval; voltage averaging, which measures the
average voltage data over a bucket interval; and log-power (video) averaging, which
measures the logarithmic amplitude in dB of the envelope of the signal during the
bucket interval.

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Average noise level: See Displayed average noise level.

Bandwidth selectivity: A measure of an analyzer’s ability to resolve signals unequal

in amplitude. Also called shape factor, bandwidth selectivity is the ratio of the 60-dB
bandwidth to the 3-dB bandwidth for a given resolution (IF) filter. For some analyzers,
the 6-dB bandwidth is used in lieu of the 3-dB bandwidth. In either case, bandwidth
selectivity tells us how steep the filter skirts are.

Blocking capacitor: A filter that keeps unwanted low-frequency signals (including DC)
from damaging circuitry. A blocking capacitor limits the lowest frequency that can be
measured accurately.

CDMA: Code division multiple access is a method of digital communication in which

multiple communication streams are orthogonally coded, enabling them to share a
common frequency channel. It is a popular technique used in a number of widely used
mobile communication systems.

Constellation diagram: A display type commonly used when analyzing digitally

modulated signals in which the detected symbol points are plotted on an IQ graph.

Delta marker: A mode in which a fixed, reference marker has been established and a
second, active marker is available that we can place anywhere on the displayed trace.
A read-out indicates the relative frequency separation and amplitude difference between
the reference marker and the active marker.

Digital display: A display technology where digitized trace information, stored in memory,
is displayed on an instrument’s screen. The displayed trace is a series of points designed
to present a continuous-looking trace. While the default number of display points
varies between different models, most modern spectrum analyzers allow the user
to choose the desired resolution by controlling the number of points displayed. The
display is refreshed (rewritten from data in memory) at a flicker-free rate; the data in
memory is updated at the sweep rate. Nearly all modern spectrum analyzers have
digital flat-panel LCD displays, rather than CRT-based analog displays that were used
in earlier analyzers.

Display detector mode: The manner in which the signal information is processed prior
to being displayed on screen. See Neg peak, Pos peak, Normal, Average and Sample.

Digital IF: An architecture found in modern spectrum analyzers in which the signal is
digitized soon after it has been downconverted from an RF frequency to an intermediate
frequency (IF). At that point, all further signal processing is done using digital signal
processing (DSP) techniques.

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Display dynamic range: The maximum dynamic range for which both the larger and
smaller signal may be viewed simultaneously on the spectrum analyzer display. For
analyzers with a maximum logarithmic display of 10 dB/div, the actual dynamic range
(see Dynamic range) may be greater than the display dynamic range.

Display scale fidelity: The degree of uncertainty in measuring relative differences

in amplitude on a spectrum analyzer. The logarithmic and linear IF amplifiers found in
analyzers with analog IF sections never have perfect logarithmic or linear responses,
and therefore they introduce uncertainty. Modern analyzers with digital IF sections have
significantly better display scale fidelity.

Display range: The calibrated range of the display for the particular display mode and
scale factor. See Linear and Log display and Scale factor.

Displayed average noise level: The noise level as seen on the analyzer’s display
after setting the video bandwidth narrow enough to reduce the peak-to-peak noise
fluctuations such that the displayed noise is essentially seen as a straight line. Usually
refers to the analyzer’s own internally generated noise as a measure of sensitivity and
is typically specified in dBm under conditions of minimum resolution bandwidth and
minimum input attenuation.

Drift: The very slow (relative to sweep time) change of signal position on the display
as a result of a change in LO frequency versus sweep voltage. The primary sources
of drift are the temperature stability and aging rate of the frequency reference in the
spectrum analyzer.

Dynamic range: The ratio, in dB, between the largest and smallest signals simultaneously
present at the spectrum analyzer input that can be measured to a given degree of accuracy.
Dynamic range generally refers to measurement of distortion or intermodulation products.

Envelope detector: A circuit element whose output follows the envelope, but not the
instantaneous variation, of its input signal. In a superheterodyne spectrum analyzer, the
input to the envelope detector comes from the final IF, and the output is a video signal.
When we put our analyzer in zero span, the envelope detector demodulates the input
signal, and we can observe the modulating signal as a function of time on the display.

Error vector magnitude (EVM): A quality metric in digital communication systems.

EVM is the magnitude of the vector difference at a given instant in time between the
ideal reference signal and the measured signal.

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External mixer: An independent mixer, usually with a waveguide input port, used
to extend the frequency range of spectrum analyzers that use external mixers. The
analyzer provides the LO signal and, if needed, mixer bias. Mixing products are returned
to the analyzer’s IF input.

FFT (fast Fourier transform): A mathematical operation performed on a time-domain

signal to yield the individual spectral components that constitute the signal. See Spectrum.

Fast sweep: A digital signal processing technique that implements complex-valued

resolution bandwidth filtering for a sweeping spectrum analyzer, allowing faster sweep
rates than a traditional analog or digital resolution bandwidth filter would allow.

Flatness: See Frequency response.

Frequency accuracy: The degree of uncertainty with which the frequency of a signal
or spectral component is indicated, either in an absolute sense or relative to some
other signal or spectral component. Absolute and relative frequency accuracies are
specified independently.

Frequency range: The minimum to maximum frequencies over which a spectrum

analyzer can tune. While the maximum frequency is generally thought of in terms of
an analyzer’s coaxial input, the range of many microwave analyzers can be extended
through use of external waveguide mixers.

Frequency resolution: The ability of a spectrum analyzer to separate closely spaced

spectral components and display them individually. Resolution of equal amplitude
components is determined by resolution bandwidth. The ability to resolve unequal
amplitude signals is a function of both resolution bandwidth and bandwidth selectivity.

Frequency response: Variation in the displayed amplitude of a signal as a function of

frequency (flatness). Typically specified in terms of ± dB relative to the value midway
between the extremes. Also may be specified relative to the calibrator signal.

Frequency span: The frequency range represented by the horizontal axis of the display.
Generally, frequency span is given as the total span across the full display. Some earlier
analyzers indicate frequency span (scan width) on a per-division basis.

Frequency stability: A general phrase that covers both short- and long-term LO
instability. The sweep ramp that tunes the LO also determines where a signal should
appear on the display. Any long term variation in LO frequency (drift) with respect to
the sweep ramp causes a signal to slowly shift its horizontal position on the display.
Shorter-term LO instability can appear as random FM or phase noise on an otherwise
stable signal.

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Full span: For most modern spectrum analyzers, full span means a frequency span
that covers the entire tuning range of the analyzer. These analyzers include single -band
RF analyzers and microwave analyzers such as the ESA, PSA and X- Series that use a
solid-state switch to switch between the low and preselected ranges.

NOTE: On some earlier spectrum analyzers, full span referred to a sub-range. For
example, with the Keysight 8566B, a microwave spectrum analyzer that used a
mechanical switch to switch between the low and preselected ranges, full span referred
to either the low, non-preselected range or the high, preselected range.

Gain compression: That signal level at the input mixer of a spectrum analyzer at which
the displayed amplitude of the signal is a specified number of dB too low due just to
mixer saturation. The signal level is generally specified for 1-dB compression and is
usually between +3 and –10 dBm, depending on the model of spectrum analyzer.

GSM: The global system for mobile communication is a widely used digital standard for
mobile communication. It is a TDMA-based system in which multiple communication
streams are interleaved in time, enabling them to share a common frequency channel.

Harmonic distortion: Unwanted frequency components added to a signal as the result

of the nonlinear behavior of the device (e.g., mixer, amplifier) through which the signal
passes. These unwanted components are harmonically related to the original signal.

Harmonic mixing: Using the LO harmonics generated in a mixer to extend the

tuning range of a spectrum analyzer beyond the range achievable using just the
LO fundamental.

IF gain/IF attenuation: Adjusts the vertical position of signals on the display without
affecting the signal level at the input mixer. When changed, the value of the reference
level is changed accordingly.

IF feedthrough: A raising of the baseline trace on the display due to an input signal at
the intermediate frequency passing through the input mixer. Generally, this is a potential
problem only on non-preselected spectrum analyzers. The entire trace is raised because
the signal is always at the IF; mixing with the LO is not required.

Image frequencies: Two or more real signals present at the spectrum analyzer input
that produce an IF response at the same LO frequency. Because the mixing products all
occur at the same LO and IF frequencies, it is impossible to distinguish between them.

Image response: A displayed signal that is actually twice the IF away from the frequency
indicated by the spectrum analyzer. For each harmonic of the LO, there is an image pair,
one below and one above the LO frequency by the IF. Images usually appear only on
non-preselected spectrum analyzers.

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Incidental FM: Unwanted frequency modulation on the output of a device (signal
source, amplifier) caused by (incidental to) some other form of modulation, e.g.,
amplitude modulation.

Input attenuator: A step attenuator between the input connector and first mixer of
a spectrum analyzer. Also called the RF attenuator. The input attenuator is used to
adjust level of the signal incident upon the first mixer. The attenuator is used to prevent
gain compression due to high-level or broadband signals and to set dynamic range by
controlling the degree of internally generated distortion. In some analyzers, the vertical
position of displayed signals is changed when the input attenuator setting is changed,
so the reference level is also changed accordingly. In modern Keysight analyzers, the
IF gain is changed to compensate for input attenuator changes, so signals remain
stationary on the display, and the reference level is not changed.

Input impedance: The terminating impedance that the analyzer presents to the signal
source. The nominal impedance for RF and microwave analyzers is usually 50 ohms. For
some systems, e.g., cable TV, 75 ohms is standard. The degree of mismatch between
the nominal and actual input impedance is given in terms of VSWR (voltage standing
wave ratio).

Intermodulation distortion: Unwanted frequency components resulting from

the interaction of two or more spectral components passing through a device with
nonlinear behavior (e.g., mixer, amplifier). The unwanted components are related to
the fundamental components by sums and differences of the fundamentals and various
harmonics, e.g. f1 ± f2, 2f1 ± f2, 2f2 ± f1, 3f1 ± 2f2, and so forth.

Linear display: The display mode in which vertical deflection on the display is
directly proportional to the voltage of the input signal. The bottom line of the graticule
represents 0 V, and the top line, the reference level, some nonzero value that depends
upon the particular spectrum analyzer. On most modern analyzers, we select the
reference level, and the scale factor becomes the reference level value divided by the
number of graticule divisions. Although the display is linear, modern analyzers allow
reference level and marker values to be indicated in dBm, dBmV, dBuV, and in some
cases, watts as well as volts.

LO emission or feedout: The emergence of the LO signal from the input of a spectrum
analyzer. The level can be greater than 0 dBm on non-preselected spectrum analyzers
but is usually less than –70 dBm on preselected analyzers.

LO feedthrough: The response on the display when a spectrum analyzer is tuned to

0 Hz, i.e., when the LO is tuned to the IF. The LO feedthrough can be used as a 0-Hz
marker, and there is no frequency error.

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Log display: The display mode in which vertical deflection on the display is a
logarithmic function of the voltage of the input signal. We set the display calibration by
selecting the value of the top line of the graticule, the reference level and scale factor
in dB/div. On Keysight analyzers, the bottom line of the graticule represents zero volts
for scale factors of 10 dB/div or more, so the bottom division is not calibrated in these
cases. Modern analyzers allow reference level and marker values to be indicated in
dBm, dBmV, dBuV, volts, and in some cases, watts. Earlier analyzers usually offered
only one choice of units, and dBm was the usual choice.

Marker: A visible indicator we can place anywhere along the displayed signal trace. A
read out indicates the absolute value of both the frequency and amplitude of the trace
at the marked point. The amplitude value is given in the currently selected units. Also
see Delta marker and Noise marker.

Measurement range: The ratio, expressed in dB, of the maximum signal level that
can be measured (usually the maximum safe input level) to the displayed average noise
level (DANL). This ratio is almost always much greater than can be realized in a single
measurement. See Dynamic range.

Mixing mode: A description of the particular circumstance that creates a given

response on a spectrum analyzer. The mixing mode, e.g., 1+, indicates the harmonic of
the LO used in the mixing process and whether the input signal is above (+) or below (–)
that harmonic.

Multiple responses: Two or more responses on a spectrum analyzer display from a

single input signal. Multiple responses occur only when mixing modes overlap and the
LO is swept over a wide enough range to allow the input signal to mix on more than one
mixing mode. Normally not encountered in analyzers with preselectors.

Negative peak: The display detection mode in which each displayed point indicates
the minimum value of the video signal for that part of the frequency span or time interval
represented by the point.

Noise floor extension: Developed by Keysight Technologies, Inc., a modeling

algorithm of the noise power in a signal analyzer which can be subtracted from the
measurement results to reduce the effective noise level.

Noise figure: The ratio, usually expressed in dB, of the signal-to-noise ratio at the input
of a device (mixer, amplifier) to the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the device.

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Noise marker: A marker whose value indicates the noise level in a 1-Hz noise power
bandwidth. When the noise marker is selected, the sample display detection mode is
activated, the values of a number of consecutive trace points (the number depends
upon the analyzer) about the marker are averaged, and this average value is normalized
to an equivalent value in a 1-Hz noise power bandwidth. The normalization process
accounts for detection and bandwidth plus the effect of the log amplifier when we select
the log display mode.

Noise power bandwidth: A fictitious filter that would pass the same noise power as
the analyzer’s actual filter, making comparisons of noise measurements among different
analyzers possible.

Noise sidebands: Modulation sidebands that indicate the short-term instability of the
LO (primarily the first LO) system of a spectrum analyzer. The modulating signal is noise,
in the LO circuit itself or in the LO stabilizing circuit, and the sidebands comprise a noise
spectrum. The mixing process transfers any LO instability to the mixing products, so
the noise sidebands appear on any spectral component displayed on the analyzer far
enough above the broadband noise floor. Because the sidebands are noise, their level
relative to a spectral component is a function of resolution bandwidth. Noise sidebands
are typically specified in terms of dBc/Hz (amplitude in a 1-Hz bandwidth relative to the
carrier) at a given offset from the carrier, the carrier being a spectral component viewed
on the display.

Phase noise: See Noise sidebands.

Positive peak: The display detection mode in which each displayed point indicates the
maximum value of the video signal for that part of the frequency span or time interval
represented by the point.

Preamplifier: An external, low-noise-figure amplifier that improves system (preamplifier/

spectrum analyzer) sensitivity over that of the analyzer itself.

Preselector: A tunable bandpass filter that precedes the input mixer of a spectrum
analyzer and tracks the appropriate mixing mode. Preselectors are typically used only
above 2 GHz. They essentially eliminate multiple and image responses and, for certain
signal conditions, improve dynamic range.

Quasi-peak detector (QPD): A type of detector whose output is a function of both

signal amplitude as well as pulse repetition rate. The QPD gives higher weighting
to signals with higher pulse repetition rates. In the limit, a QPD will exhibit the same
amplitude as a peak detector when measuring a signal with a constant amplitude
(CW) signal.

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Raster display: A TV-like display in which the image is formed by scanning the electron
beam rapidly across and slowly down the display face and gating the beam on as
appropriate. The scanning rates are fast enough to produce a flicker-free display. Also
see Vector display and Sweep time.

Real-time spectrum analyzer: A method of signal analysis in which all signal samples
are processed for some sort of measurement result or triggering operation. There are no
gaps between time acquisitions while nonreal-time operations leave gaps.

Reference level: The calibrated vertical position on the display used as a reference
for amplitude measurements. The reference level position is normally the top line of
the graticule.

Relative amplitude accuracy: The uncertainty of an amplitude measurement in which

the amplitude of one signal is compared to the amplitude of another regardless of
the absolute amplitude of either. Distortion measurements are relative measurements.
Contributors to uncertainty include frequency response and display fidelity and changes
of input attenuation, IF gain, scale factor and resolution bandwidth.

Residual FM: The inherent short-term frequency instability of an oscillator in the

absence of any other modulation. In the case of a spectrum analyzer, we usually expand
the definition to include the case in which the LO is swept. Residual FM is usually
specified in peak-to-peak values because they are most easily measured on the display,
if visible at all.

Residual responses: Discrete responses seen on a spectrum analyzer display with no

input signal present.

Resolution: See Frequency resolution.

Resolution bandwidth: The width of the resolution bandwidth (IF) filter of a spectrum
analyzer at some level below the minimum insertion loss point (maximum deflection
point on the display). For Keysight analyzers, the 3-dB bandwidth is specified; for some
others, it is the 6-dB bandwidth.

Rosenfell: The display detection mode in which the value displayed at each point is
based upon whether or not the video signal both rose and fell during the frequency
or time interval represented by the point. If the video signal only rose or only fell, the
maximum value is displayed. If the video signal did both rise and fall, then the maximum
value during the interval is displayed by odd-numbered points, the minimum value,
by even-numbered points. To prevent the loss of a signal that occurs only in an even-
numbered interval, the maximum value during this interval is preserved, and in the next
(odd-numbered) interval, the displayed value is the greater of either the value carried
over or the maximum that occurs in the current interval.

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Sample: The display detection mode in which the value displayed at each point is the
instantaneous value of the video signal at the end of the frequency span or time interval
represented by the point.

Scale factor: The per-division calibration of the vertical axis of the display.

Sensitivity: The level of the smallest sinusoid that can be observed on a spectrum
analyzer, usually under optimized conditions of minimum resolution bandwidth, 0-dB
RF input attenuation and minimum video bandwidth. Keysight defines sensitivity as
the displayed average noise level. A sinusoid at that level will appear to be about 2 dB
above the noise.

Shape factor: See Bandwidth selectivity.

Signal analyzer: A spectrum analyzer that also uses digital signal processing to
perform other more complex measurements such as vector signal analysis.

Signal identification: A routine, either manual or automatic, that indicates whether or

not a particular response on the spectrum analyzer’s display is from the mixing mode
for which the display is calibrated. If automatic, the routine may change the analyzer’s
tuning to show the signal on the correct mixing mode, or it may tell us the signal’s
frequency and give us the option of ignoring the signal or having the analyzer tune itself
properly for the signal. Generally not needed on preselected analyzers.

Span accuracy: The uncertainty of the indicated frequency separation of any two
signals on the display.

Spectral purity: See Noise sidebands.

Spectral component: One of the sine waves comprising a spectrum.

Spectrum: An array of sine waves of differing frequencies and amplitudes and

properly related with respect to phase that, taken as a whole, constitute a particular
time-domain signal.

Spectrum analyzer: A device that effectively performs a Fourier transform and displays
the individual spectral components (sine waves) that constitute a time-domain signal.
Phase may or may not be preserved, depending upon the analyzer type and design.

Spurious responses: The improper responses that appear on a spectrum analyzer

display as a result of the input signal. Internally generated distortion products are
spurious responses, as are image and multiple responses.

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Sweep time: The time to tune the LO across the selected span. Sweep time does not
include the dead time between the completion of one sweep and the start of the next.
In zero span, the spectrum analyzer’s LO is fixed, so the horizontal axis of the display
is calibrated in time only. In nonzero spans, the horizontal axis is calibrated in both
frequency and time, and sweep time is usually a function of frequency span, resolution
bandwidth and video bandwidth.

Time gating: A method of controlling the frequency sweep of the spectrum analyzer
based on the characteristics of the signal being measured. It is often useful when
analyzing pulsed or burst modulated signals’ time-multiplexed signals and intermittent
signals.

TDMA: Time division multiple access is a digital communication method in which

multiple communication streams are interleaved in time, enabling them to share a
common frequency channel.

Units: Dimensions of the measured quantities. Units usually refer to amplitude quantities
because they can be changed. In modern spectrum analyzers, available units are dBm
(dB relative to 1 milliwatt dissipated in the nominal input impedance of the analyzer),
dBmV (dB relative to 1 millivolt), dBuV (dB relative to 1 microvolt), volts, and in some
analyzers, watts. In Keysight analyzers, we can specify any units in both log and
linear displays.

Vector diagram: A display type commonly used when analyzing digitally modulated
signals. It is similar to a constellation display, except that in addition to the detected
symbol points, the instantaneous power levels during state transitions are also plotted
on an IQ graph.

Vector display: A display type used in earlier spectrum analyzer designs, in which the
electron beam was directed so that the image (trace, graticule, annotation) was written
directly on the CRT face, not created from a series of dots as in the raster displays
commonly used today.

Video: In a spectrum analyzer, a term describing the output of the envelope detector.
The frequency range extends from 0 Hz to a frequency typically well beyond the widest
resolution bandwidth available in the analyzer. However, the ultimate bandwidth of the
video chain is determined by the setting of the video filter.

Video amplifier: A post-detection, DC-coupled amplifier that drives the vertical deflection
plates of the CRT. See Video bandwidth and Video filter.

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Video average: A digital averaging of a spectrum analyzer’s trace information. The
averaging is done at each point of the display independently and is completed over the
number of sweeps selected by the user. The averaging algorithm applies a weighting
factor (1/n, where n is the number of the current sweep) to the amplitude value of a
given point on the current sweep, applies another weighting factor [(n – 1)/n] to the
previously stored average, and combines the two for a current average. After the
designated number of sweeps are completed, the weighting factors remain constant,
and the display becomes a running average.

Video bandwidth: The cutoff frequency (3-dB point) of an adjustable low-pass filter
in the video circuit. When the video bandwidth is equal to or less than the resolution
bandwidth, the video circuit cannot fully respond to the more rapid fluctuations of the
output of the envelope detector. The result is a smoothing of the trace, i.e., a reduction
in the peak-to-peak excursion of broadband signals such as noise and pulsed RF when
viewed in the broadband mode. The degree of averaging or smoothing is a function of
the ratio of the video bandwidth to the resolution bandwidth.

Video filter: A post-detection, low-pass filter that determines the bandwidth of the
video amplifier. Used to average or smooth a trace. See Video bandwidth.

Zero span: That case in which a spectrum analyzer’s LO remains fixed at a given
frequency so the analyzer becomes a fixed-tuned receiver. The bandwidth of the
receiver is that of the resolution (IF) bandwidth. Signal amplitude variations are displayed
as a function of time. To avoid any loss of signal information, the resolution bandwidth
must be as wide as the signal bandwidth. To avoid any smoothing, the video bandwidth
must be set wider than the resolution bandwidth.

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This information is subject to change without notice. © Keysight Technologies, 1971 - 2020, Published in USA, October 10, 2020, 5952-0292