A P P L I C AT I O N N O T E

Spectrum Analysis Basics

AN150

This application note explains the fundamentals of swept-tuned, superheterodyne

spectrum analyzers and discusses the latest advances in spectrum analyzer capabilities. The authority on
spectrum analysis
At the most basic level, a spectrum analyzer can be described as a frequency-
• What is a spectrum
selective, peak-responding voltmeter calibrated to display the rms value of a sine
analyzer?
wave. It is important to understand that the spectrum analyzer is not a power • Spectrum analyzer
meter, even though it can be used to display power directly. As long as we know fundamentals
some value of a sine wave (for example, peak or average) and know the resistance • Digital IF overview
across which we measure this value, we can calibrate our voltmeter to indicate • Amplitude and frequency
accuracy
power. With the advent of digital technology, modern spectrum analyzers have
• Sensitivity and noise
been given many more capabilities. In this note, we describe the basic spectrum
• Dynamic range
analyzer as well as additional capabilities made possible using digital technology
• Extending the frequency
and digital signal processing. range
• Modern signal analyzers
• Control and data transfer

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 As a testament to his
accomplishments and
contributions, Blake was
honored with Microwaves
& RF magazine’s first
Living Legend Award in
2013.

Keysight Technologies. Inc. dedicates this application note to Blake Peterson.

Blake’s outstanding service in technical support reached customers in all corners of

the world during and after his 45-year career with Hewlett-Packard and Keysight.
For many years, Blake trained new marketing and sales engineers in the “ABCs” of
spectrum analyzer technology, which provided the basis for understanding more
advanced technology. He is warmly regarded as a mentor and technical contributor in
spectrum analysis.

Blake’s many accomplishments include:

• Authored the original edition of the Spectrum Analysis Basics application note and
contributed to subsequent editions
• Helped launch the 8566/68 spectrum analyzers, marking the beginning of
modern spectrum analysis, and the PSA Series spectrum analyzers that set new
performance benchmarks in the industry when they were introduced
• Inspired the creation of Blake Peterson University––required training for all engineering
hires at Keysight

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1. What is a spectrum analyzer?. . ...............................................................................................4

Chapter 2. Spectrum analyzer fundamentals............................................................................................9

Chapter 3. Digital IF overview..................................................................................................................52

Chapter 4. Amplitude and frequency accuracy.........................................................................................59

Chapter 5. Sensitivity and noise..............................................................................................................70

Chapter 6. Dynamic range......................................................................................................................87

Chapter 7. Extending the frequency range ..............................................................................................100

Chapter 8. Modern signal analyzers. . .......................................................................................................123

Chapter 9. Control and data transfer.......................................................................................................132

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Chapter 1. Introduction - What Is A Spectrum Analyzer?

Frequency domain versus time domain

Before we get into the details of describing a spectrum analyzer, we might first ask
ourselves: “Just what is a spectrum and why would we want to analyze it?” Our normal
frame of reference is time. We note when certain events occur. This includes electrical
events. We can use an oscilloscope to view the instantaneous value of a particular
electrical event (or some other event converted to volts through an appropriate transducer)
as a function of time. In other words, we use the oscilloscope to view the waveform of a
signal in the time domain.

Fourier1 theory tells us any time-domain electrical phenomenon is made up of one or

more sine waves of appropriate frequency, amplitude, and phase. In other words, we
can transform a time-domain signal into its frequency-domain equivalent. Measurements in
the frequency domain tell us how much energy is present at each particular frequency. With
proper filtering, a waveform such as the one shown in Figure 1-1 can be decomposed
into separate sinusoidal waves, or spectral components, which we can then evaluate
independently. Each sine wave is characterized by its amplitude and phase. If the signal
we wish to analyze is periodic, as in our case here, Fourier says that the constituent
sine waves are separated in the frequency domain by 1/T, where T is the period of
the signal2.

Figure 1-1. Complex time-domain signal

1. Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier, 1768-1830. A French mathematician and physicist who discovered
that periodic functions can be expanded into a series of sines and cosines.
2. If the time signal occurs only once, then T is infinite, and the frequency representation is a
continuum of sine waves.

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Some measurements require that we preserve complete information about the signal
frequency, amplitude and phase. However, another large group of measurements can be
made without knowing the phase relationships among the sinusoidal components. This
type of signal analysis is called spectrum analysis. Because spectrum analysis is simpler
to understand, yet extremely useful, we begin by looking first at how spectrum analyzers
perform spectrum analysis measurements, starting in Chapter 2.

Theoretically, to make the transformation from the time domain to the frequency domain,
the signal must be evaluated over all time, that is, over infinity. However, in practice, we
always use a finite time period when making a measurement.

You also can make Fourier transformations from the frequency to the time domain.
This case also theoretically requires the evaluation of all spectral components over
frequencies to infinity. In reality, making measurements in a finite bandwidth that
captures most of the signal energy produces acceptable results. When you perform a
Fourier transformation on frequency domain data, the phase of the individual components
is indeed critical. For example, a square wave transformed to the frequency domain and
back again could turn into a sawtooth wave if you do not preserve phase.

What is a spectrum?
So what is a spectrum in the context of this discussion? A spectrum is a collection
of sine waves that, when combined properly, produce the time-domain signal under
examination. Figure 1-1 shows the waveform of a complex signal. Suppose that we
were hoping to see a sine wave. Although the waveform certainly shows us that the
signal is not a pure sinusoid, it does not give us a definitive indication of the reason why.

Figure 1-2 shows our complex signal in both the time and frequency domains. The
frequency-domain display plots the amplitude versus the frequency of each sine wave
in the spectrum. As shown, the spectrum in this case comprises just two sine waves.
We now know why our original waveform was not a pure sine wave. It contained a
second sine wave, the second harmonic in this case. Does this mean we have no need
to perform time-domain measurements? Not at all. The time domain is better for many
measurements, and some can be made only in the time domain. For example, pure
time-domain measurements include pulse rise and fall times, overshoot and ringing.

Why measure spectra?

The frequency domain also has its measurement strengths. We have already seen in
Figures 1-1 and 1-2 that the frequency domain is better for determining the harmonic
content of a signal.

People involved in wireless communications are extremely interested in out-of-band and

spurious emissions. For example, cellular radio systems must be checked for harmonics

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 Time domain Frequency domain
measurements measurements

Figure 1-2. Relationship between time and frequency domain

of the carrier signal that might interfere with other systems operating at the same
frequencies as the harmonics. Engineers and technicians are also very concerned about
distortion of the message modulated onto a carrier.
Figure 1-2.
Third-order intermodulation (two tones of a complex signal modulating each other) can
be particularly troublesome because the distortion components can fall within the band
of interest, which means they cannot be filtered away.

Spectrum monitoring is another important frequency-domain measurement activity.

Government regulatory agencies allocate different frequencies for various radio services,
such as broadcast television and radio, mobile phone systems, police and emergency
communications, and a host of other applications. It is critical that each of these
services operates at the assigned frequency and stays within the allocated channel
bandwidth. Transmitters and other intentional radiators often must operate at closely
spaced adjacent frequencies. A key performance measure for the power amplifiers and
other components used in these systems is the amount of signal energy that spills over
into adjacent channels and causes interference.

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a term applied to unwanted emissions from both

intentional and unintentional radiators. These unwanted emissions, either radiated
or conducted (through the power lines or other interconnecting wires), might impair
the operation of other systems. Almost anyone designing or manufacturing electrical
or electronic products must test for emission levels versus frequency according to
regulations set by various government agencies or industry-standard bodies.

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Noise is often the signal you want to measure. Any active circuit or device will generate
excess noise. Tests such as noise figure and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) are important
for characterizing the performance of a device and its contribution to overall
system performance.

Figures 1-3 through 1-6 show some of these measurements on an X-Series signal analyzer.

Types of signal analyzers

The first swept-tuned superheterodyne analyzers measured only amplitude. However, as
technology advanced and communication systems grew more complex, phase became
a more important part of the measurement. Spectrum analyzers, now often labeled
signal analyzers, have kept pace. By digitizing the signal, after one or more stages of

Figure 1-3. Harmonic distortion test of a transmitter Figure 1-4. GSM radio signal and spectral mask
showing limits of unwanted emissions

Figure 1-6. Radiated emissions plotted against CISPR11

limits as part of an EMI test
Figure 1- 5. Two-tone test on an RF power amplifier

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frequency conversion, phase as well as amplitude is preserved and can be included as
part of the information displayed. So today’s signal analyzers such as the Keysight
X-Series combine the attributes of analog, vector and FFT (fast Fourier transform)
More information
analyzers. To further improve capabilities, Keysight’s X-Series signal analyzers incorporate
For additional information
a computer, complete with a removable disk drive that allows sensitive data to remain in a
on vector measurements,
controlled area should the analyzer be removed. see Vector Signal Analysis
Basics–Application
Advanced technology also has allowed circuits to be miniaturized. As a result, rugged Note, literature number
portable spectrum analyzers such as the Keysight FieldFox simplify tasks such as 5989-1121EN.
characterizing sites for transmitters or antenna farms. Zero warm-up time eliminates
For information on FFT
delays in situations involving brief stops for quick measurements. Due to advanced analyzers that tune to 0 Hz,
calibration techniques, field measurements made with these handheld analyzers see the Web page for the
correlate with lab-grade bench-top spectrum analyzers within 10ths of a dB. Keysight 35670A at
www.keysight.com/
In this application note, we concentrate on swept amplitude measurements, only briefly find/35670A.
touching on measurements involving phase–see Chapter 8.

Note: When computers became Hewlett-Packard’s dominant business, it created and

spun off Agilent Technologies, and Agilent subsequently split off Keysight Technologies
in 2014 to continue the test and measurement business. Many older spectrum analyzers
carry the Hewlett-Packard name but are supported by Keysight.

This application note will give you insight into your particular spectrum or signal analyzer
and help you use this versatile instrument to its maximum potential.

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Chapter 2. Spectrum Analyzer Fundamentals
This chapter focuses on the fundamental theory of how a spectrum analyzer works.
While today’s technology makes it possible to replace many analog circuits with modern
digital implementations, it is useful to understand classic spectrum analyzer architecture
as a starting point in our discussion.

In later chapters, we will look at the capabilities and advantages that digital circuitry
brings to spectrum analysis. Chapter 3 discusses digital architectures used in spectrum
analyzers available today.

Figure 2-1 is a simplified block diagram of a superheterodyne spectrum analyzer. Heterodyne

means to mix; that is, to translate frequency. And super refers to superaudio frequencies,
or frequencies above the audio range. In the Figure 2-1 block diagram, we see that an
input signal passes through an attenuator, then through a low-pass filter (later we will
see why the filter is here) to a mixer, where it mixes with a signal from the local
oscillator (LO).

Because the mixer is a non-linear device, its output includes not only the two
original signals, but also their harmonics and the sums and differences of the
original frequencies and their harmonics. If any of the mixed signals falls within the
pass band of the intermediate-frequency (IF) filter, it is further processed (amplified
and perhaps compressed on a logarithmic scale). It is essentially rectified by
the envelope detector, filtered through the low-pass filter and displayed. A ramp
generator creates the horizontal movement across the display from left to right. The
ramp also tunes the LO so its frequency change is in proportion to the ramp voltage.

RF input
attenuator Log Envelope
Mixer IF gain IF filter amp detector

Input
signal

Pre-selector, or Video
low-pass filter filter
Local
oscillator

Reference
oscillator

Sweep
generator Display

Figure 2-1. Block diagram of a classic superheterodyne spectrum analyzer

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If you are familiar with superheterodyne AM radios, the type that receive ordinary AM
broadcast signals, you will note a strong similarity between them and the block diagram
shown in Figure 2-1. The differences are that the output of a spectrum analyzer is a
display instead of a speaker, and the local oscillator is tuned electronically rather than by
a front-panel knob.

The output of a spectrum analyzer is an X-Y trace on a display, so let’s see what
information we get from it. The display is mapped on a grid (graticule) with 10 major
horizontal divisions and generally 10 major vertical divisions. The horizontal axis is
linearly calibrated in frequency that increases from left to right. Setting the frequency is
a two-step process. First we adjust the frequency at the centerline of the graticule with
the center frequency control. Then we adjust the frequency range (span) across the full
10 divisions with the frequency span control. These controls are independent, so if we
change the center frequency, we do not alter the frequency span. Alternatively, we can
set the start and stop frequencies instead of setting center frequency and span. In either
case, we can determine the absolute frequency of any signal displayed and the relative
frequency difference between any two signals.

The vertical axis is calibrated in amplitude. You can choose a linear scale calibrated in
volts or a logarithmic scale calibrated in dB. The log scale is used far more often than the
linear scale because it has a much wider usable range. The log scale allows signals as far
apart in amplitude as 70 to 100 dB (voltage ratios of 3200 to 100,000 and power ratios of
10,000,000 to 10,000,000,000) to be displayed simultaneously.

Figure 2-2. Typical spectrum analyzer display with control settings

1. See Chapter 4, “Amplitude and Frequency Accuracy.”

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On the other hand, the linear scale is usable for signals differing by no more than 20 to
30 dB (voltage ratios of 10 to 32). In either case, we give the top line of the graticule, the
reference level, an absolute value through calibration techniques1 and use the scaling per
division to assign values to other locations on the graticule. Therefore, we can measure
either the absolute value of a signal or the relative amplitude difference between any two
signals. Scale calibration, both frequency and amplitude, is shown by annotations
written onto the display. Figure 2-2 shows the display of a typical analyzer.

Now, let’s turn our attention back to the spectrum analyzer components diagramed in
Figure 2-1.

RF attenuator
The first part of our analyzer is the RF input attenuator. Its purpose is to ensure the
signal enters the mixer at the optimum level to prevent overload, gain compression and
distortion. Because attenuation is a protective circuit for the analyzer, it is usually set
automatically, based on the reference level. However, manual selection of attenuation is
also available in steps of 10, 5, 2, or even 1 dB. The diagram in Figure 2-3 is an example
of an attenuator circuit with a maximum attenuation of 70 dB in increments of 2 dB.

0 to 70 dB, 2 dB steps
RF input

Amplitude
reference
signal

Figure 2-3. RF input attenuator circuitry

figure 2-3

The blocking capacitor is used to prevent the analyzer from being damaged by a DC
signal or a DC offset of the signal being viewed. Unfortunately, it also attenuates low-
frequency signals and increases the minimum useable start frequency of the analyzer
to 9 kHz, 100 kHz or 10 MHz, depending on the analyzer.

In some analyzers, an amplitude reference signal can be connected as shown in

Figure 2-3. It provides a precise frequency and amplitude signal, used by the analyzer
to periodically self-calibrate.

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Low-pass filter or preselector
The low-pass filter blocks high-frequency signals from reaching the mixer. This filtering
prevents out-of-band signals from mixing with the local oscillator and creating unwanted
responses on the display. Microwave spectrum analyzers replace the low-pass filter
with a preselector, which is a tunable filter that rejects all frequencies except those we
currently wish to view. In Chapter 7, we go into more detail about the operation and
purpose of the preselector.

Tuning the analyzer

We need to know how to tune our spectrum analyzer to the desired frequency range.
Tuning is a function of the center frequency of the IF filter, the frequency range of the LO
and the range of frequencies allowed to reach the mixer from the outside world (allowed
to pass through the low-pass filter). Of all the mixing products emerging from the mixer,
the two with the greatest amplitudes, and therefore the most desirable, are those
created from the sum of the LO and input signal and from the difference between the LO
and input signal. If we can arrange things so that the signal we wish to examine is either
above or below the LO frequency by the IF, then only one of the desired mixing products
will fall within the pass-band of the IF filter and be detected to create an amplitude
response on the display.

We need to pick an LO frequency and an IF that will create an analyzer with the desired
tuning range. Let’s assume that we want a tuning range from 0 to 3.6 GHz. We then
need to choose the IF. Let’s try a 1-GHz IF. Because this frequency is within our desired
tuning range, we could have an input signal at 1 GHz. The output of a mixer also
includes the original input signals, so an input signal at 1 GHz would give us a constant
output from the mixer at the IF. The 1-GHz signal would thus pass through the system
and give us a constant amplitude response on the display regardless of the tuning of the
LO. The result would be a hole in the frequency range at which we could not properly
examine signals because the amplitude response would be independent of the LO
frequency. Therefore, a 1-GHz IF will not work.

Instead, we choose an IF that is above the highest frequency to which we wish to tune.
In the Keysight X-Series signal analyzers that can tune to 3.6 GHz, the first LO frequency
range is 3.8 to 8.7 GHz, and the IF chosen is about 5.1 GHz.

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Remember that we want to tune from 0 Hz to 3.6 GHz (actually from some low frequency
because we cannot view a 0-Hz signal with this architecture).

If we start the LO at the IF (LO minus IF = 0 Hz) and tune it upward from there to
3.6 GHz above the IF, we can cover the tuning range with the LO minus IF mixing
product. Using this information, we can generate a tuning equation:

fsig = fLO - fIF

where fsig = signal frequency

fLO = local oscillator frequency, and

fIF = intermediate frequency (IF)

If we wanted to determine the LO frequency needed to tune the analyzer to a low-,

mid-, or high-frequency signal (say, 1 kHz, 1.5 GHz, or 3 GHz), we would first restate
the tuning equation in terms of fLO:

fLO = fsig + fIF

Then we would apply the numbers for the signal and IF in the tuning equation2:

fLO = 1 kHz + 5.1 GHz = 5.100001 GHz

fLO = 1.5 GHz + 5.1 GHz = 6.6 GHz or
fLO = 3 GHz + 5.1 GHz = 8.1 GHz.

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Figure 2-4 illustrates analyzer tuning. In this figure, fLO is not quite high enough to cause
the fLO – fsig mixing product to fall in the IF pass band, so there is no response on the
display. If we adjust the ramp generator to tune the LO higher, however, this mixing
product will fall in the IF pass band at some point on the ramp (sweep), and we will see
a response on the display.

A Freq range of analyzer IF

fsig f f LO f
f LO– f sig f LO + fsig
Freq range of analyzer Freq range of LO
A

f LO f

Figure 2-4. The LO must be tuned to fIF + f sig to produce a response on the display

The ramp generator controls both the horizontal position of the trace on the display and
the LO frequency, so we can now calibrate the horizontal axis of the display in terms of
the input signal frequency.

We are not quite through with the tuning yet. What happens if the frequency of the
input signal is 9.0 GHz? As the LO tunes through its 3.8- to 8.7-GHz range, it reaches
a frequency (3.9 GHz) at which it is the IF away from the 9.0-GHz input signal. At this
frequency we have a mixing product that is equal to the IF, creating a response on the
display. In other words, the tuning equation could just as easily have been:

fsig = fLO + fIF

This equation says that the architecture of Figure 2-1 could also result in a tuning range
from 8.9 to 13.8 GHz, but only if we allow signals in that range to reach the mixer.

2. In the text, we round off some of the frequency values for simplicity, although the exact
values are shown in the figures.

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The job of the input low-pass filter in Figure 2-1 is to prevent these higher frequencies
from getting to the mixer. We also want to keep signals at the intermediate frequency
itself from reaching the mixer, as previously described, so the low-pass filter must do a
good job of attenuating signals at 5.1 GHz as well as in the range from 8.9 to 13.8 GHz.

In summary, we can say that for a single-band RF spectrum analyzer, we would choose
an IF above the highest frequency of the tuning range. We would make the LO tunable
from the IF to the IF plus the upper limit of the tuning range and include a low-pass filter
in front of the mixer that cuts off below the IF.

To separate closely spaced signals (see “Resolving signals” later in this chapter), some
spectrum analyzers have IF bandwidths as narrow as 1 kHz; others, 10 Hz; still others,
1 Hz. Such narrow filters are difficult to achieve at a center frequency of 5.1 GHz, so we
must add additional mixing stages, typically two to four stages, to down-convert from
the first to the final IF. Figure 2-5 shows a possible IF chain based on the architecture of
a typical spectrum analyzer.

The full tuning equation for this analyzer is:

fsig = fLO1 – (fLO2 + fLO3 + ffinal IF)

However,

fLO2 + fLO3 + ffinal IF

= 4.8 GHz + 300 MHz + 22.5 MHz

= 5.1225 GHz, the first IF.

Simplifying the tuning equation by using just the first IF leads us to the same answers.
Although only passive filters are shown in figure 2-5, the actual implementation includes
amplification in the narrower IF stages.

3.6 GHz 5.1225 GHz 322.5 MHz 22.5 MHz Envelope

detector

5.1 to 8.7 GHz

4.8 GHz 300 MHz

Sweep
generator
Display

Figure 2-5. Most spectrum analyzers use two to four mixing steps to reach the final IF.

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The final IF section contains additional components, such as logarithmic amplifiers
or analog -to-digital converters, depending on the design of the particular analyzer.

Most RF spectrum analyzers allow an LO frequency as low as, and even below, the
first IF. Because there is finite isolation between the LO and IF ports of the mixer, the
LO appears at the mixer output. When the LO equals the IF, the LO signal itself is
processed by the system and appears as a response on the display, as if it were an
input signal at 0 Hz. This response, the LO feedthrough, can mask very low-frequency
signals, so not all analyzers allow the display range to include 0 Hz.

IF gain
Referring back to Figure 2-1, we see the next component of the block diagram is a
variable gain amplifier. It is used to adjust the vertical position of signals on the display
without affecting the signal level at the input mixer. When the IF gain is changed, the
value of the reference level is changed accordingly to retain the correct indicated value
for the displayed signals. Generally, we do not want the reference level to change when
we change the input attenuator, so the settings of the input attenuator and the IF gain
are coupled together.

A change in input attenuation will automatically change the IF gain to offset the effect
of the change in input attenuation, thereby keeping the signal at a constant position on
the display.

Resolving signals
After the IF gain amplifier, we find the IF section, which consists of the analog or digital
resolution bandwidth (RBW) filters, or both.

Analog filters
Frequency resolution is the ability of a spectrum analyzer to separate two input sinusoids
into distinct responses. Fourier tells us that a sine-wave signal only has energy at one
frequency, so we should not have any resolution problems. Two signals, no matter
how close in frequency, should appear as two lines on the display. But a closer look
at our superheterodyne receiver shows why signal responses have a definite width on
the display.

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The output of a mixer includes the sum and difference products plus the two original
signals (input and LO). A bandpass filter determines the intermediate frequency, and this
filter selects the desired mixing product and rejects all other signals. Because the input
signal is fixed and the local oscillator is swept, the products from the mixer are also
swept. If a mixing product happens to sweep past the IF, the characteristic shape of the
bandpass filter is traced on the display. See Figure 2-6. The narrowest filter in the chain
determines the overall displayed bandwidth, and in the architecture of Figure 2-5, this
filter is in the 22.5-MHz IF.

Two signals must be far enough apart or the traces they make will fall on top of each
other and look like only one response. Fortunately, spectrum analyzers have selectable
resolution (IF) filters, so it is usually possible to select one narrow enough to resolve
closely spaced signals.

Keysight data sheets describe the ability to resolve signals by listing the 3-dB bandwidths
of the available IF filters. This number tells us how close together equal-amplitude
sinusoids can be and still be resolved. In this case, there will be about a 3-dB dip
between the two peaks traced out by these signals. See Figure 2-7. The signals can be
closer together before their traces merge completely, but the 3-dB bandwidth is a good
rule of thumb for resolution of equal-amplitude signals3.

Figure 2-6. As a mixing product sweeps past the IF filter, the filter shape is traced on the display

3. If you experiment with resolution on a spectrum analyzer using the normal (rosenfell) detector
mode (See “Detector types” later in this chapter) use enough video filtering to create a
smooth trace. Otherwise, you will see smearing as the two signals interact. While the smeared
trace certainly indicates the presence of more than one signal, it is difficult to determine the
amplitudes of the individual signals. Spectrum analyzers with positive peak as their default
detector mode may not show the smearing effect. You can observe the smearing by selecting
the sample detector mode.

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Figure 2-7. Two equal-amplitude sinusoids separated by the 3-dB BW
of the selected IF filter can be resolved.

More often than not, we are dealing with sinusoids that are not equal in amplitude. The
smaller sinusoid can actually be lost under the skirt of the response traced out by the
larger. This effect is illustrated in Figure 2-8. The top trace looks like a single signal, but
in fact represents two signals: one at 300 MHz (0 dBm) and another at 300.005 MHz
(–30 dBm). The lower trace shows the display after the 300-MHz signal is removed.

Another specification is listed for the resolution filters: bandwidth selectivity (or
selectivity or shape factor). Bandwidth selectivity helps determine the resolving power
for unequal sinusoids. For Keysight analyzers, bandwidth selectivity is generally
specified as the ratio of the 60-dB bandwidth to the 3-dB bandwidth, as shown in
Figure 2-9. The analog filters in Keysight analyzers are a four-pole, synchronously tuned
design, with a nearly Gaussian shape4. This type of filter exhibits a bandwidth selectivity
of about 12.7:1.

For example, what resolution bandwidth must we choose to resolve signals that differ by
4 kHz and 30 dB, assuming 12.7:1 bandwidth selectivity?

4. Some older spectrum analyzer models used five-pole filters for the narrowest resolution bandwidths to
provide improved selectivity of about 10:1. Modern designs achieve even better bandwidth selectivity
using digital IF filters.

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Figure 2-8. A low-level signal can be lost under the skirt of the response
to a larger signal

Figure 2-9. Bandwidth selectivity, ratio of 60-dB to 3-dB bandwidths

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Because we are concerned with rejection of the larger signal when the analyzer is tuned
to the smaller signal, we need to consider not the full bandwidth, but the frequency
difference from the filter center frequency to the skirt. To determine how far down the
filter skirt is at a given offset, we use the following equation:

H(∆f) = –10(N) log10 [(∆f/f0) 2 + 1]

Where H(∆f) is the filter skirt rejection in dB,

N is the number of filter poles,

∆f is the frequency offset from the center in Hz, and

f0 is given by RBW
2 √ 21/N –1

For our example, N = 4 and ∆f = 4000. Let’s begin by trying the 3-kHz RBW filter.
First, we compute f0:

3000
f0 = = 3448.44
2 √ 2¼ –1

Now we can determine the filter rejection at a 4-kHz offset:

H(4000) = –10(4) log10 [(4000/3448.44)2 + 1] = −14.8 dB

This is not enough to allow us to see the smaller signal. Let’s determine H(∆f) again
using a 1-kHz filter:

1000
f0 = = 1149.48
2 √ 2¼ –1

This allows us to calculate the filter rejection:

H(4000) = –10(4) log10[(4000/1149.48)2 + 1] = −44.7 dB

Thus, the 1-kHz resolution bandwidth filter does resolve the smaller signal, as illustrated
in Figure 2-10.

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Figure 2-10. The 3-kHz filter (top trace) does not resolve the smaller
signal; reducing the resolution bandwidth to 1 kHz (bottom trace)
does resolve the smaller signal

Digital filters
Some spectrum analyzers use digital techniques to realize their resolution bandwidth
filters. Digital filters can provide important benefits, such as dramatically improved
bandwidth selectivity. The Keysight PSA and X-Series signal analyzers implement all
resolution bandwidths digitally. Other analyzers, such as the Keysight ESA-E Series,
take a hybrid approach, using analog filters for the wider bandwidths and digital filters
for bandwidths of 300 Hz and below. Refer to Chapter 3 for more information on
digital filters.

Residual FM
The instability and residual FM of the LOs in an analyzer, particularly the first LO, often
determine the minimum usable resolution bandwidth. The unstable YIG (yttrium iron
garnet) oscillator used in early analyzers typically had a residual FM of about 1 kHz.
Because this instability was transferred to any mixing product involving the LO, there
was no point in having resolution bandwidths narrower than 1 kHz because it was
impossible to determine the cause of any instability on the display.

However, modern analyzers have dramatically improved residual FM. For example,
residual FM in Keysight high-performance X-Series signal analyzers is nominally
0.25 Hz; in PSA Series analyzers, 1 to 4 Hz; and in ESA Series analyzers, 2 to 8 Hz.
This allows bandwidths as low as 1 Hz in many analyzers, and any instability we see
on a spectrum analyzer today is due to the incoming signal.

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Phase noise
No oscillator is perfectly stable. Even though we may not be able to see the actual
frequency jitter of a spectrum analyzer LO system, there is still a manifestation of the
LO frequency or phase instability that can be observed. This is known as phase noise
(sometimes called sideband noise).

All are frequency or phase modulated by random noise to some extent. As previously
noted, any instability in the LO is transferred to any mixing products resulting from the
LO and input signals. So the LO phase noise modulation sidebands appear around any
spectral component on the display that is far enough above the broadband noise floor
of the system (Figure 2-11). The amplitude difference between a displayed spectral
component and the phase noise is a function of the stability of the LO. The more stable
the LO, the lower the phase noise. The amplitude difference is also a function of the
resolution bandwidth. If we reduce the resolution bandwidth by a factor of 10, the level
of the displayed phase noise decreases by 10 dB5.

The shape of the phase noise spectrum is a function of analyzer design, in particular, the
sophistication of the phase-lock loops employed to stabilize the LO. In some analyzers,
the phase noise is a relatively flat pedestal out to the bandwidth of the stabilizing loop.
In others, the phase noise may fall away as a function of frequency offset from the
signal. Phase noise is specified in terms of dBc (dB relative to a carrier) and normalized
to a 1-Hz noise power bandwidth. It is sometimes specified at specific frequency
offsets. At other times, a curve is given to show the phase noise characteristics over a
range of offsets.

Figure 2-11. Phase noise is displayed only when a signal is

displayed far enough above the system noise floor

5. The effect is the same for the broadband noise floor (or any broadband noise signal).
See Chapter 5, “Sensitivity and Noise.”

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Generally, we can see the inherent phase noise of a spectrum analyzer only in the
narrower resolution filters, when it obscures the lower skirts of these filters. The use of
the digital filters previously described does not change this effect. For wider filters, the
phase noise is hidden under the filter skirt, just as in the case of two unequal sinusoids
discussed earlier.

Today’s spectrum or signal analyzers, such as Keysight’s X-Series, allow you to select
different LO stabilization modes to optimize the phase noise for different measurement
conditions. For example, high-performance X-Series signal analyzers offer three
different modes:

• Optimize phase noise for frequency offsets < 140 kHz from the carrier. In this mode,
the LO phase noise is optimized for the area close in to the carrier at the expense
of phase noise beyond 140-kHz offset.
• Optimize phase noise for frequency offsets > 160 kHz from the carrier. This mode
optimizes phase noise for offsets above 160 kHz away from the carrier.
• Optimize LO for fast tuning. When this mode is selected, LO behavior compromises
phase noise at all offsets from the carrier below approximately 2 MHz. This mode
minimizes measurement time and allows the maximum measurement throughput
when changing the center frequency or span.

Figure 2-12a. Phase noise performance can be Figure 2-12b. Detail of the 140-kHz carrier offset region
optimized for different measurement conditions

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High-performance X-Series signal analyzer phase noise optimization can also be set
to auto mode, which automatically sets the instrument’s behavior to optimize speed
or dynamic range for various operating conditions. When the span is > 44.44 MHz
or the RBW is > 1.9 MHz, the analyzer selects Fast Tuning mode. Otherwise, the
analyzer automatically chooses Best Close-In Phase Noise when center frequency
< 195 kHz, or when center frequency ≥ 1 MHz and span ≤ 1.3 MHz and RBW ≤ 75 kHz.
If these conditions are not met, the analyzer automatically chooses Best Wide-Offset
Phase Noise.

In any case, phase noise becomes the ultimate limitation in an analyzer’s ability to
resolve signals of unequal amplitude. As shown in Figure 2-13, we may have determined
that we can resolve two signals based on the 3-dB bandwidth and selectivity, only to
find that the phase noise covers up the smaller signal.

Figure 2-13. Phase noise can prevent resolution of unequal signals

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Sweep time
Analog resolution filters
If resolution were the only criterion on which we judged a spectrum analyzer, we might
design our analyzer with the narrowest possible resolution (IF) filter and let it go at that.
But resolution affects sweep time, and we care very much about sweep time. Sweep
time directly affects how long it takes to complete a measurement.

Resolution comes into play because the IF filters are band-limited circuits that require
finite times to charge and discharge. If the mixing products are swept through them
too quickly, there will be a loss of displayed amplitude, as shown in Figure 2-14. (See
“Envelope detector,” later in this chapter, for another approach to IF response time.) If
we think about how long a mixing product stays in the pass band of the IF filter, that
time is directly proportional to bandwidth and inversely proportional to the sweep in Hz
per unit time, or:
RBW (RBW)(ST)
Time in pass band = = Span
Span/ST

Where

RBW = resolution bandwidth and ST = sweep time.

On the other hand, the rise time of a filter is inversely proportional to its bandwidth, and
if we include a constant of proportionality, k, then:

k
Rise time =
RBW

If we make the terms equal and solve for sweep time, we have:

k (RBW)(ST)
=
RBW Span

k (Span)
or ST =
RBW2

For the synchronously-tuned, near-Gaussian filters used in many analog analyzers, the
value of k is in the 2 to 3 range.

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The important message here is that a change in resolution has a dramatic effect on
sweep time. Older analog analyzers typically provided values in a 1, 3, 10 sequence
or in ratios roughly equaling the square root of 10. So sweep time was affected by a
factor of about 10 with each step in resolution. Keysight X-Series signal analyzers offer
bandwidth steps of just 10% for an even better compromise among span, resolution
and sweep time.

Spectrum analyzers automatically couple sweep time to the span and resolution
bandwidth settings. Sweep time is adjusted to maintain a calibrated display. If the need
arises, we can override the automatic setting and set sweep time manually. If you set a
sweep time shorter than the maximum available, the analyzer indicates that the display
is uncalibrated with a “Meas Uncal” message in the upper-right part of the graticule.

Figure 2-14. Sweeping an analyzer too fast causes a drop in displayed

amplitude and a shift in indicated frequency

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