Basic Electronics Engineering (104010)

FE 2019 Course

Presented by
Dr. P. P. Chitte
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics & Computer Engineering
P.R.E.C., Loni

1
 Unit V : Sensors
Syllabus
• Classification of sensors.
• Active /Passive Sensors
• Analog/Digital Sensors
• Motion Sensors (LVDT, Accelerometer)
• Temperature Sensors (Thermocouple, Thermistor, RTD)
• Semiconductor Sensors (Gas Sensors), Optical Sensors
(LDR)
• Mechanical Sensors (Strain Gauge, Load Cell, Pressure
sensors)
• Biosensors. (Working Principle and one application).
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 Sensors:
• Sensor: A sensor is a device which detects one form of energy and produces
corresponding electrical signal.
• Transduces: A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into
another form of energy.
• Thus sensor is type of transducer.
• Sensors - Devices which perform an “Input” function are commonly
called Sensors because they “sense” a physical change in some characteristic
that changes in response to some excitation, for example heat or force and
covert that into an electrical signal.
• Actuators: Devices which perform an “Output” function are generally
called Actuators and are used to control some external device, for example
movement or sound.
 Classification of Sensors
Sensors
(Based upon)

transduction Need of excitation for direct/indirect sensing form of

obtaining voltage / of measurand
principle output
Current output

A) Based upon - Transduction principle used:

• Resistive Sensor: output is the change in their resistance (R) corresponding to change in
measurand.
– Example: Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), Strain gauge, Thermistor.
• Capacitive Sensor: output is the change in their capacitance (C) corresponding to change in
measurand.
– Example: Gang capacitor, Parallel plate capacitor
• Inductive Sensor: output is the change in their inductance (L) corresponding to change in
measurand.
– Example: Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
• Piezoelectric Sensor: converts pressure signal into electrical signal.
– Example: Quartz crystal
• Thermoelectric Sensor: converts thermal energy into voltage signal.
– Example: Thermocouple.
• Photoelectric/Photovoltaic (Optical) Sensor: has change in electrical properties due to
incident light.
– Example: LDR, Photodiode, Photo transistor, Solar cell.
 Sensors:
B) Based upon - Need of excitation for obtaining voltage/current output:
• Active sensor: Active sensor is sensor which does not require any external energy to
generate voltage/current output upon applying input measurand.
– Example: Thermocouple, Piezoelectric Sensor, Solar cell
• Passive sensor: Passive sensor is sensor which requires external energy to generate
voltage/current output upon applying input measurand.
– Example: (R,L,C) Sensor, RTD, LVDT, LDR, Strain gauge.

C) Based upon – Direct/Indirect sensing of measurand:

• Primary sensor: Primary sensor is a sensor which accepts measurand as input and
converts it into another quantity corresponding to input.
– Example: LVDT for displacement measurement, Strain gauge for pressure measurement.
• Secondary sensor: Secondary sensor is sensor which accepts output of primary sensor as
input and converts it into another quantity
– Example: LVDT for pressure measurement, LVDT for accelerometer.

D) Based upon – form of output:

• Analog sensor: Analog sensor is a sensor whose output is in analog form (graph or
waveform).
– Example: LVDT, Strain gauge, Thermocouple.
• Digital sensor: Digital sensor is a sensor whose output is in digital form (digital code).
– Example: Rotary and absolute encoders, Stroboscope.
Comparison between active & passive sensors:

Active sensor Passive sensor

They don’t require any external power They require external power or
or energy. energy.
They produce V or I signal which is They produce variations in R, L, C w.r.t.
proportional to the physical quantity to the physical quantity to be measured
be measured.
They are simple They are complex
Size is small Size is bulky
Less expensive More expensive
Examples: Thermocouple, Piezoelectric Examples: Variable (R,L,C), LDR, RTD,
devices, Photovoltaic cells etc. LVDT etc.
 Comparison between Analog & Digital sensors:

Analog sensor Digital sensor

Output is in analog form Output is in digital form
Can be directly measured One line can transmit multiple sensors
No compatibility issues Need to interpret the 1’s and 0’s
More prone to noise Need to make sure clocks a synced up
Rotary and absolute encoders,
Ex. LVDT, Strain gauge, Thermocouple
Stroboscope
Output is in analog form Output is in digital form
 #Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT): motion sensor
• LVDT - Linear Variable Differential Transformer.
• It is inductive transducer that converts the linear motion into the
electrical signal.
• LVDTs are used to measure displacement.
• The o/p across secondary of this transformer is the differential.
• LVDT consists of a coil assembly and a core.
• Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the two
secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil.
 LVDT:
Main Features of Construction:
• The LVDT consists of a primary winding P and two secondary windings
S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature and
contains the core).
• Both the secondary windings have an equal number of turns, and we place
them on either side of primary winding
• The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in
the air gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to
be measured is connected to the iron core.
• The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in
reducing harmonics and high sensitivity of LVDT.
• The LVDT is placed inside stainless steel housing because it will provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
• The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that
resulted output is the difference between the voltages of two windings.
LVDT:
Principle of Operation and Working:
• As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating
current and voltages are produced in the secondary of the
LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is E1 and in the secondary S2 is
E2.
• So the differential output is,
𝐄𝐨𝐮𝐭 = 𝐄𝟏 − 𝐄𝟐

This equation explains the principle of Operation of LVDT.

LVDT:
 LVDT:
Now three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains the working
of LVDT are discussed below as,
• CASE I : (Eout = 0) - When the core is at null position (for no displacement)
When the core is at null position then the flux linking with both the
secondary windings is equal so the induced emf is equal in both the windings. So
for no displacement, Eout = 0 as E1 = E2. So it shows that no displacement took
place.

• CASE II : (Eout = Positive) - When the core is moved to left of null position (For
displacement to the upward of reference point)
In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S1 is more as
compared to flux linking with S2. Due to this E1 > E2 => Eout is positive.

• CASE III : (Eout = Negative) - When the core is moved to right of null position (For
displacement to the upward of reference point)
In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S2 is more as
compared to flux linking with S1. Due to this E1 < E2 => Eout is negative.

Output VS Core Displacement A linear curve shows that output voltage varies linearly
with displacement of core.
 LVDT:
Advantages:
• High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement. They can used
for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm.
• No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of displacement
input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
• High Input and High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn’t need any
amplification. The transducer possess a high sensitivity which is typically about 40V/mm.
• Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under all
conditions
• Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very as compared to other transducers.
• Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear displacement to electrical voltage
which are easy to process

Disadvantages:
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a setup to protect them from stray
magnetic fields.
• LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications:
• We use LVDT in the applications where displacements to be measured are ranging from a fraction of
mm to few cms. The LVDT acting as a primary transducer converts the displacement to electrical
signal directly.
• The LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer. E.g. the Bourbon tube which acts as a primary
transducer and it converts pressure into linear displacement and then LVDT coverts this
displacement into an electrical signal which after calibration gives the readings of the pressure of
fluid.
 Accelerometers: (motion sensor)
• An accelerometer is a sensor which measures
acceleration, which is the change in an object's
velocity per second. It is also used for measurement
of vibration, shock. An accelerometer measures
proper acceleration, which is not the same as
coordinate acceleration. This means that
the accelerometer can be used to detect the
direction of gravity.
Contd…
• The basic accelerometer is mechanical system with mass, damper and
spring. Such arrangement is known as Seismic instrument.

Construction:
• The accelerometer consists of a mass, damper and spring.
• The mass is suspended freely and is connected to casing through damper
and spring. The mass-damper-spring assembly is enclosed by casing.

Working:
• Due to application of force the acceleration takes place. Hence mass-
damper-spring experiences displacement x and the casing experiences
displacement y. Then the relative displacement is x-y. The acceleration is
directly proportional to the displacement. Thus by measuring x with
displacement sensor attached to mass and knowing all constants (k, m, B)
the acceleration can be measured.

Where,
k - Spring constant
m - Seismometer mass
B - Damper constant
 Temperature Sensor & its types

Temperature sensor: The sensor that change their

output with change in temperature.
• Example: Thermocouple, Thermistor, Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD)

Types of Temperature sensor:

 Temperature Sensor - Thermocouple
Thermocouple: It is an active temperature sensor which generates voltage proportional to applied temperature

Principle: (work on Seeback effect)

• Seebeck Effect:-In 1821, the great scientist Prof. Seebeck discovered that if the two wires of different
metals are joined together forming closed circuit and if the two junctions formed are at different
temperatures, an electric current flows around a closed circuit. This is called Seebeck effect.
• He also observed that if the two metals used are copper and iron, then the current flows from
copper to iron at hot junction and from iron to copper at cold junction
V0 α (T2 − T1 )
V0 = C. (T2 − T1 )
Where C is sensitivity of thermocouple in mV/ 0C.
• The above principle is known as seeback effect.
• Thus by measuring the output voltage across the junction the temperature can be determined.
 Thermocouple:
• Working:

• A thermocouple consists of a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at one

end, forming a hot junction and terminated at the other end known as reference or
cold junction.
• When heat is applied to the hot junction, a temperature difference exists between
the hot junction and the cold junction, causing generation of e.m.f.
• The magnitude of this e.m.f. depends on the material used for the wires and the
temperature difference between the two junctions.
• The two dissimilar metals form an electric circuit, and a current flows as a result of
the generated e.m.f. as shown in Fig. 11.8.2 (b).
e=K(T1-T2)
Thermocouple:
Advantages:
• External source not required.
• Less expensive and compact in size.
• Responds quickly to temperature changes.
• High working range
•
Disadvantages:
• The generated output voltage is very small therefore it needs amplification.
• Maintaining the junction temperature stable is difficult.
• Characteristics V0 Vs Temp. is non-linear.
• The thermocouple system requires periodic maintenance.

Application:
• Cement manufacturing plants.
• Tube mills.
• Food industries, bakeries.
• Heat treatment plants.
• Semiconductor manufacturing plants.
• Seamless pipes manufacturing plants.
 Temperature Sensor: Thermistor
• A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature.
• The word is a combination of thermal and resistor.
• Thermistor is temperature sensing resistor.
• It is manufactured using semiconductor materials having negative
temperature coefficient.

Principle:
• The resistance of thermistor changes with change in temperature.
• The relation between the resistance of thermistor and temperature is,
𝟏 𝟏
𝛃⋅ (𝐓 − 𝐓 )
𝐑𝐓 = 𝐑𝟎 ⋅ 𝐞 𝟎

Where,
R T − Resistance of thermistor at T 0C
R 0 − Resistance of thermistor at T0 0 C
β - Material constant
Thermistor:
Thermistor:
Temp. Sensor : Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):
RTD:
 RTD:
Advantages:
• Due to no fluid present absolute temperature is recorded
• It is highly sensitive and gives accurate results.
• It has good range of temperature measurement.
• High accuracy
• Don’t need reference temperature.
• Due to electrical output it can be used with PLCs and complete can be achieved

Disadvantages:
• It needs external power supply.
• Its size is not compact.
• It has low resolution
• Cost is high

Applications:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Textile processing
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement
Gas Sensors:
 Gas Sensing Electrode:
Principle:
• Semiconductor gas sensors relay on the gas coming into metal oxide surface
and then undergoing either oxidation or reduction.

Construction:
• It consists of metal oxide film as a sensing element. The exact metal depends
upon the gas to be detected. The film is connected to electrodes and from
electrodes the connecting wire are taken out for measurement of resistance.
This sensing element is covered with a sensor body having sensor cap and a
filter.

Working:
• When the gas is allowed to enter the sensor body, it is observed by the sensing
element which changes its resistance. The change in resistance is proportional
to gas concentration. Thus a linear equation between resistance and gas
concentration can be established. Also the change in resistance can be
converted into voltage using electric circuit.
• The gas sensors are generally used for detection of carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2). Accordingly the material of sensing element is selected.
Gas Sensing Electrode:
Advantages:
• High accuracy & sensitivity
• Good dynamic response
• Compact size

Disadvantages:
• It needs external power supply.
• It needs careful and periodic maintenance

Applications:
• To detect the presence of CO2, SO2, NH3 gases in residential
complex & industrial plants.
• To measure the percentage CO2, SO2, NH3 gases.
• To control pollution
 Optical Sensor:
Optical sensor:
• The optical sensors are sensitive to light. The electrical properties of
these sensors change with the intensity of light incident on them.
• Example: Photodiode, Photo transistor, Photovoltaic cell - Solar cell, LDR

# Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):

Principle:
• The resistivity of LDR decreases
with increase in intensity of light.

Construction:
• Figure (a) & (b) – Construction of LDR.
• Figure (c) - Symbol of LDR.

LDR has lightly doped active semiconductor region deposited on the semi-
insulating material. The material contact is placed on the active layer. To have
relatively large area that is exposed to the light, the pattern is cut in the
metallization on the surface of the active area which allows light to pass through.
 Optical Sensor: LDR:
Working:
• LDR is made up of semiconductor material with high resistance.
• It has high resistance because there are very less electrons and majority of electrons are
locked into the crystal lattice structure.
• When the light falls on the LDR, the protons are absorbed by the active layer region. The
energy of absorbed protons is transferred is transferred to electrons locked into the crystal
lattice. This energy makes the electrons free to move which allows conduction of electricity.
Due to this action, the resistivity of LDR falls.

Advantages:
• High sensitivity
• Compact size & low cost
• High dark to light resistance approximately 100:1

Disadvantages:
• Response time – very large
• It needs external power supply

Applications:
• Counting circuits.
• CdS cells are used as On-Off switch.
• They are used to check the intensity of light.
• In security alarm system.
 Mechanical Sensors: Types

Strain gauges: Types

Strain Gauge

Resistive Semiconductor
Type Type

Unbounded Bounded Foil

 Strain gauges:
• Strain gauge is an elastic resistive transducer which converts mechanical
elongation and compression (strain) into change in resistance. Strain gauge is
widely used for measurement of strain, pressure, force and weight.
Principle:
• Resistance of any conductor depends on its resistivity, length and cross
sectional area. Hence if there is change in length or cross sectional area due
to compression or elongation, resistance gets changed. Also in elastic
material, upon application of stress, proportionate strain takes place in
material and resistance gets changed.
𝐥
• The resistance is given by, 𝐑 = 𝛒
𝐀

Where,
dR − change in Resistance
𝒅𝑹 𝒅𝒍 R − Resistance when no stress is applied
= 𝟏 + 𝟐v 𝛆𝐚 = 𝐆. 𝐅. 𝐱 𝛆𝐚 = 𝐆. 𝐅. 𝐱
𝑹 𝒍
εa – Axial strain = 𝑑𝑙𝑙
v − Possion′ s ratio
G. F. = Gauge factor = 𝟏 + 𝟐v
Load Cell:
Pressure Sensor:
 Burdon tube:
Principle:
• The Bourdon pressure gauge operates on the principle that, when pressurized, a
flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section.
• When a gauge is pressurized, the Bourdon creates the dial tip travel to enable pressure
measurement

Construction:
• Bourdon tube is the most commonly used elastic
pressure sensor in mechanical dial gauges.
• The bourdon tubes are available in C-shape,
spiral shape, twisted tube & helical shape.
• C-shape tube is used in dial gauges.
• The C-shape Bourdon tubes are made out of
an elliptically flattened tube bent in such
a way that produces C shape.
One end of tube is sealed and
the other end is exposed to pressure.
 Burdon tube:
Working:
• When the pressure is applied at open end of Bourdon tube, the tube bends
to straighten. This cause the movement of sealed end of tube. This
movement is connected to pointer through the mechanical linkage. Thus
pointer moves and shows pressure on the calibrated scale.

Advantages:
• Low cost
• Simple construction
• High pressure range
• High accuracy

Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to shock & vibration
• Elasticity of spring reduces gradually due to ageing effect.

Applications:
• Low as well as high pressure measurement.
 Biosensor:
• Bisensor is a device which uses living organism or biological molecule
(bioreceptor) to detect the presence of chemicals.
Principle:
• A specific enzyme (type of bireceptor) or preferred biological molecule is
deactivated.
• The change in properties of biomaterial is related to chemical under
detection.
 Biosensor:
Explanation:
• Bioreceptor: The bioreceptor is in the vicinity of sample.
Depending on the sample and its concentration the
properties of bioreceptor changes. The bioreceptor can be
enzymes, tissues, microorganisms or chemoreceptors.
• Transducer: The transducer converts one form of signal
into another form. In this case the change in properties of
bioreceptor is converted into electrical signal.
• Amplifier: The electrical signals produced by the
transducer are very weak. Hence the output of transducer
is amplified by using amplifier.
• Data Processing: The amplified electrical signal is
calibrated against composition and concentration of
sample.
THANK YOU