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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Physics Edexcel 

1.2 Forces, Movement & Changing Shape

CONTENTS
1.2.1 Types of Forces
1.2.2 Scalar & Vectors
1.2.3 Resultant Forces
1.2.4 Unbalanced Forces
1.2.5 Weight
1.2.6 Stopping Distance
1.2.7 Terminal Velocity
1.2.8 Core Practical: Investigating Force & Extension
1.2.9 Hooke's Law

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1.2.1 Types of Forces YOUR NOTES



Effects of Forces
Forces can affect bodies in a variety of ways:
Changes in speed: forces can cause bodies to speed up or slow down
Changes in direction: forces can cause bodies to change their direction of travel
Changes in shape: forces can cause bodies to stretch, compress, or deform

The effects of different forces on objects

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Types of Forces YOUR NOTES

There are many types of force. Some examples include: 
Gravitational (or weight) - the force between any two objects with mass (like the Earth
and the Moon)
Electrostatic - the force between any two objects with charge (like a proton and an
electron)
Thrust - the force pushing a vehicle (like the push from rocket engines on the shuttle)
Upthrust - the upward force on any object in a fluid (like a boat on the surface of a river)
Air resistance (or drag) - the force of friction between objects falling through the air
(like a skydiver in freefall)
Compression - forces that squeeze an object (like squeezing a spring)
Tension - forces that stretch an object (like two teams in a tug-of-war)
Reaction force - the force between any two objects in contact (like the upwards force
from a table on a book)

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YOUR NOTES


Several types of forces acting on different objects

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 The force of gravity on an object is called its weight. Remember not to refer to this

force as simply 'gravity', as this term can mean several different things and
examiners will probably mark it as wrong.Similarly, when referring to air resistance,
avoid using terms like 'wind resistance' (there is no such thing!) or 'air pressure',
which is a different concept. Drag is an acceptable alternative to the force of air
resistance.

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1.2.2 Scalar & Vectors YOUR NOTES



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Scalar & Vector Quantities YOUR NOTES

All quantities can be one of two types: 
A scalar
A vector
Scalars
Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude
For example, mass is a scalar quantity since it is a quantity that has no direction to it
Vectors
Vectors have both a magnitude and a direction
Velocity is a vector quantity since it is described with both a magnitude and a direction
When describing the velocity of a car it is necessary to mention both its speed and the
direction in which it is travelling
For example, 60 km per hour in a Westerly direction
Distance is a value describing only how long an object is or how far it is between two points
- this means it is a scalar quantity
Displacement on the other hand also describes the direction in which the distance is
measured - this means it is a vector quantity
For example, 100 km in a Northern direction
Examples of Scalars & Vectors
The table below lists some common examples of scalar and vector quantities:
Scalars & Vectors Table

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YOUR NOTES


Some vectors and scalars are similar to each other

For example, the scalar quantity distance corresponds to the vector quantity
displacement
Corresponding vectors and their scalar counterparts are aligned in the table where
applicable

 Worked Example
Blu is in charge of training junior astronauts. For one of his sessions, he would like to
explain the difference between mass and weight.Suggest how Blu should explain
the difference between mass and weight, using definitions of scalars and vectors in
your answer.

Step 1: Recall the definitions of a scalar and vector quantity

Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude
Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction
Step 2: Identify which quantity has magnitude only
Mass is a quantity with magnitude only
So mass is a scalar quantity
Blu might explain to his junior astronauts that their mass will not change if they
travel to outer space
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Step 3: Identify which quantity has magnitude and direction YOUR NOTES
Weight is a quantity with magnitude and direction (it is a force) 
So weight is a vector quantity
Blu might explain that to his junior astronauts that their weight - the force on them
due to gravity - will vary depending on their distance from the centre of the Earth

Forces as Vectors
Force is a vector quantity because it describes both magnitude and direction
The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the force
The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the force

A free body diagram of an object with two forces acting on it

Not all forces are directed perfectly horizontally or vertically and thus need to have an angle
described
It is useful to describe an angle with respect to the vertical or the horizontal

A force of magnitude 100 N directed 40° to the horizontal

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1.2.3 Resultant Forces YOUR NOTES


Calculating Resultant Force
A resultant force is a single force that describes all of the forces operating on a body
When many forces are applied to an object they can be combined (added) to produce one
final force which describes the combined action of all of the forces
This single resultant force determines:
The direction in which the object will move as a result of all of the forces
The magnitude of the final force experienced by the object
The resultant force is sometimes called the net force
Resultant forces can be calculated by adding or subtracting all of the forces acting on the
object
Forces working in opposite directions are subtracted from each other
Forces working in the same direction are added together
If the forces acting in opposite directions are equal in size, then there will be no resultant
force – the forces are said to be balanced

Diagram showing the resultant forces on three different objects

Imagine the forces on the boxes as two people pushing on either side
In the first scenario, the two people are evenly matched - the box doesn't move
In the second scenario, the two people are pushing on the same side of the box, it
moves to the right with their combined strength
In the third scenario, the two people are pushing against each other and are not evenly
matched, so there is a resultant force to the left

 Worked Example
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant force in the diagram below.

Step 1: Add up all of the forces directed to the right

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4 N + 8 N = 12 N YOUR NOTES
Step 2: Subtract the forces on the right from the forces on the left 

14 N – 12 N = 2 N
Step 3: Evaluate the direction of the resultant force
The force to the left is greater than the force to the right therefore the resultant force is
directed to the left
Step 4: State the magnitude and direction of the resultant force
The resultant force is 2 N to the left

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Friction YOUR NOTES

Friction is defined as: 

The force which opposes the motion of an object

Frictional forces always act in the opposite direction to the object's motion
Friction emerges when two (or more) surfaces rub against each other:
At a molecular level, both surfaces contain imperfections - i.e. they are not perfectly
smooth
These imperfections tend to push against each other
The image below show the force of friction acting on a downhill sledder:

Friction is a force which opposes an objects motion, acting in the opposite direction to it

 Exam Tip
When calculating resultant forces, always remember to provide units for your
answer and to state whether the force is to the left, to the right, or maybe up or
downAlways provide your final answer as a description of the magnitude and the
direction, for example:
Resultant Force = 4 N to the right

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1.2.4 Unbalanced Forces YOUR NOTES


Unbalanced Forces
Forces can combine to produce
Balanced forces
Unbalanced forces
Balanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they cancel each
other out and no resultant force acts on the body
For example, the weight of a book on a desk is balanced by the normal force of the
desk
As a result, no resultant force is experienced by the book, the book and the table are
equal and balanced

A book resting on a table is an example of balanced forces

Unbalanced forces mean that the forces have combined in such a way that they do not
cancel out completely and there is a resultant force on the object
For example, imagine two people playing a game of tug-of-war, working against each
other on opposite sides of the rope
If person A pulls with 80 N to the left and person B pulls with 100 N to the right, these
forces do not cancel each other out completely
Since person B pulled with more force than person A the forces will be unbalanced and
the rope will experience a resultant force of 20 N to the right

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YOUR NOTES


A tug-of-war is an example of when forces can become unbalanced

Unbalanced Forces, Mass & Acceleration
When forces combine on an object in such a way that they do not cancel out, there is
a resultant force on the object
This resultant force causes the object to accelerate (i.e. change its velocity)
The object might speed up
The object might slow down
The object might change direction
The relationship between resultant force, mass and acceleration is given by the equation:
F=m×a
Where:
F = resultant force, measured in Newtons (N)
m = mass, measured in kilograms (kg)
a = acceleration, measured in metres per second squared (m/s2)

 Worked Example
A car salesman says that his best car has a mass of 900 kg and can accelerate
from 0 to 27 m/s in 3 seconds.Calculate:
a) The acceleration of the car in the first 3 seconds.
b) The force required to produce this acceleration.

Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities

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Initial velocity = 0 m/s YOUR NOTES

Final velocity = 27 m/s 
Time, t = 3 s
Step 2: Calculate the change in velocity
change in velocity = Δv = final velocity − initial velocity
Δv = 27 − 0 = 27 m/s
Step 3: State the equation for acceleration

Step 4: Calculate the acceleration

a = 27 ÷ 3 = 9 m/s2
Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass of the car, m = 900 kg
Acceleration, a = 9 m/s2
Step 2: Identify which law of motion to apply
The question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so Newton's
second law is required:
F = ma
Step 3: Calculate the force required to accelerate the car
F = 900 × 9 = 8100 N

 Worked Example
A passenger of mass 70 kg travels in a car at a speed of 20 m/s.The vehicle is
involved in a collision, which brings the car (and the passenger) to a halt in 0.1
seconds.Calculate:
a) The deceleration of the car (and the passenger).
b) The decelerating force on the passenger.

Part (a)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Initial velocity, u = 20 m/s
Final velocity, v = 0 m/s
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Time, t = 0.1 s YOUR NOTES

Step 2: Calculate the change in velocity of the car (and the passenger) 

change in velocity = Δv = final velocity − initial velocity = v − u

Δv = 0 − 20
Δv = −20 m/s
Step 3: Calculate the deceleration of the car (and the passenger) using the equation:

Step 4: Calculate the deceleration

a = −20 ÷ 0.1
a = −200 m/s2
Part (b)
Step 1: List the known quantities
Mass of the passenger, m = 70 kg
Acceleration (deceleration, in this case), a = −200 m/s2
Step 2: State the relationship between resultant force, mass and acceleration
This question involves quantities of force, mass and acceleration, so the appropriate
equation for this case is:
F=m×a
Step 3: Calculate the decelerating force
F = 70 × −200
F = −14 000 N

 Exam Tip
Remember that resultant force is a vector quantityExaminers may ask you to
comment on why its value is negative - this happens when the resultant force acts in
the opposite direction to the object's motionIn the worked example above, the
resultant force opposes the passenger's motion, slowing them down (decelerating
them) to a halt, this is why it has a minus symbol.

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1.2.5 Weight YOUR NOTES



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Weight YOUR NOTES

Weight is defined as: 

The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction

Planets have strong gravitational fields
Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
Objects stay firmly on the ground
Objects will always fall to the ground
Satellites are kept in orbit

Some of the phenomena associated with gravitational attraction and the weight force
Weight, mass and gravitational field strength are related using the equation:

This can also be written as:

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W=m×g YOUR NOTES

g is known as the acceleration due to gravity or the gravitational field strength 
On Earth, this is equal to 9.81 m/s2 (or N/kg)
The weight that an object experiences depends on:
The object's mass
The mass of the planet attracting it
Mass (measured in kilograms, kg) is related to the amount of matter in an object
Weight (measured in newtons, N) is the force of gravity on a mass
The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly proportional
The size of this force depends on the gravitational field strength (often called gravity,
g, for short)

 Worked Example
NASA's Artemis mission aims to send the first woman astronaut to the
Moon.Isabelle hopes to one day become an astronaut. She has a mass of 40
kg.Comment on the difference between Isabelle's weight on Earth, and her weight
on the Moon. Take the Earth's gravitational field strength as 10 N/kg, and the
Moon's gravitational field strength as 2 N/kg.

Step 1: State the equation linking weight and mass

The equation linking weight and mass is:
W=m×g
Step 2: List the known values
The question instructs us to take the Earth's gravitational field strength as 10 N/kg
The question also instructs us to take the Moon's gravitational field strength as 2 N/kg
Mass, m = 40 kg
Step 3: Calculate Isabelle's weight on Earth
Substituting the values of mass and Earth's gravitational field strength into the
equation gives:
W = 40 × 10 = 400 N
Step 4: Calculate Isabelle's weight on the Moon
Substituting the values of mass and the Moon's gravitational field strength into the
equation gives:
W = 40 × 2 = 80 N
Step 5: Comment on the two values of weight
Isabelle's weight is greater on Earth than on the Moon
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This is because the Earth has a larger gravitational field strength than the Moon, so YOUR NOTES
Isabelle's weight force (the force of gravity pulling down on her) is larger on Earth than 
on the Moon

 Exam Tip
It is a common misconception that mass and weight are the same, but they are in
fact very different
Since weight is a force - it is a vector quantity
Since mass is an amount - it is a scalar quantity

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1.2.6 Stopping Distance YOUR NOTES



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Stopping Distance YOUR NOTES

The stopping distance of a car is defined as: 

The total distance travelled during the time it takes for a car to stop in response to
some emergency
It can be written as an equation involving two distances:
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
Where:
Thinking distance = the distance travelled in the time it takes the driver to react
(reaction time) in metres (m)
Braking distance = the distance travelled under the braking force in metres (m)
Stopping distance = the sum of the thinking distance and braking distance, in metres
(m)
For a given braking force, the greater the speed of the vehicle, the greater the stopping
distance

 Worked Example
At a speed of 20 m/s, a particular vehicle had a stopping distance of 40 metres. The
car travelled 14 metres whilst the driver was reacting to the incident in front of him.
What was the braking distance?
A 54 m
B 34 m
C 26 m
D 6m

ANSWER: C
Step 1: Identify the different variables
Stopping distance = 40 m
Thinking distance = 14 m
Step 2: Rearrange the formula for stopping distance
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
Braking distance = Stopping distance – Thinking distance
Step 3: Calculate and identify the correct braking distance
Braking distance = 40 – 14 = 26 metres
Therefore, the answer is C

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Factors affecting Stopping Distance YOUR NOTES

There are various factors which can affect a vehicle's stopping distance. These are: 
Vehicle speed - the greater the speed, the greater the vehicle's braking distance will be
(because the brakes will need to do more work to bring the vehicle to a stop)
Vehicle mass - a heavy vehicle, such as a lorry, takes longer to stop
Road conditions - wet or icy roads make it harder to decelerate
Driver reaction time - a driver's thinking distance depends on their reaction time. Being
tired, or intoxicated (i.e. alcohol, or drugs) can increase reaction time

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1.2.7 Terminal Velocity YOUR NOTES



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Terminal Velocity YOUR NOTES

Falling objects experience two forces: 
Weight (due to gravity)
Air resistance (due to friction)
The force of air resistance increases with speed. This is illustrated in the image below:

Debbie initially accelerates downwards due to her weight. The upwards air resistance
increases as she falls until it eventually grows big enough to balance the weight force
Initially, the upwards air resistance is very small because the skydiver isn't falling very
quickly
Therefore, there are unbalanced forces on the skydiver initially
As the skydiver speeds up, air resistance increases, eventually growing large enough to
balance the downwards weight force
Once air resistance equals weight, the forces are balanced
This means there is no longer any resultant force
Therefore, the skydiver's acceleration is zero - they now travel at a constant speed
This speed is called their terminal velocity

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A small object falls out of an aircraft.Choose words from the list to complete the
sentences below:
Friction Gravity Air pressure
Accelerates Falls at a steady speed Slows down

(a) The weight of an object is the force of __________ which acts on it.
(b) When something falls, initially it ____________.
(c) The faster it falls, the larger the force of ______________ which acts on it.
(d) Eventually it ______________ when the force of friction equals the force of
gravity acting on it.

Part (a)
The weight of an object is the force of gravity which acts on it.
The weight force is due to the Earth's gravitational pull on the object, so weight is due
to gravity
Part (b)
When something falls, initially it accelerates.
The resultant force on the object is very large initially, so it accelerates
This is because there is a large unbalanced force downwards (its weight) - the upward
force of air resistance is very small to begin with
Part (c)
The faster it falls, the larger the force of friction which acts on it.
The force of air resistance is due to friction between the object's motion and
collisions with air particles
Air particles try to slow the object down, so air itself produces a frictional force, called
air resistance (sometimes called drag)
Part (d)
Eventually it falls at a steady speed when the force of friction equals the force of gravity
acting on it.
When the upwards air resistance grows enough to balance the downwards weight
force, the resultant force on the object is zero

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This means the object isn't accelerating - rather, it is moving at a steady (terminal) YOUR NOTES
speed 

 Exam Tip
The force of gravity on an object is called its weight. If you are asked to name this
force, use this word: don't call it 'gravity', as this term could also mean gravitational
field strength, and so might be marked wrong. Additionally, remember to identify air
resistance as the upwards force on a falling object. This force gets larger as the
object speeds up, but the weight of the object stays constant. Don't confuse 'air
resistance' with 'air pressure' - these are two different concepts!

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1.2.8 Core Practical: Investigating Force & Extension YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 2: Investigating Force & Extension
Equipment List

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Ruler = 1 mm
Experiment 1: Investigating Springs & Rubber Bands
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between force and extension
for a spring and a rubber band:
Variables:
Independent variable = Force, F
Dependent variable = Extension, e
Method

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YOUR NOTES


Investigating force-extension apparatus for a spring (and rubber band)

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram, initially without any masses hanging from
the spring / rubber band
2. Align the marker to a value on the ruler, record this initial length of the spring / rubber band
3. Add the 100 g mass hanger onto the spring / rubber band
4. Record the mass (in kg) and position (in cm) from the ruler now that the spring / rubber band
has extended
5. Add another 100 g to the mass hanger
6. Record the new mass and position from the ruler now that the spring / rubber band has
extended further
7. Repeat this process until all masses have been added
8. Remove the masses and repeat the entire process again, until it has been carried out a total
of three times, and an average length (for each mass attached) is calculated
An example table of results might look like this:

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YOUR NOTES


Experiment 2: Investigating Metal Wires

The aim of this experiment is to investigate the relationship between force and extension for
a metal wire
Variables:
Independent variable = Force, F
Dependent variable = Extension, e
Method

Investigating force-extension apparatus for a metal (e.g. copper) wire

1. Set up the apparatus so the wire is taut. No masses should be attached just yet
2. Measure the original length of the wire using a metre ruler and mark a reference point with
tape preferably near the beginning of the scale eg. at 1 cm
3. Record the initial reading on the ruler of the reference point

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4. Add a 100 g mass onto the mass hanger YOUR NOTES

5. Read and record the new reading of the tape marker from the meter ruler now that the metal 
wire has extended
6. Repeat this process until all masses have been added
7. Remove the masses and repeat the entire process again, until it has been carried out a total
of three times, and an average length (for each mass attached) is calculated
An example table of results might look like this:

Analysis of Results
The force, F added to the spring / rubber band / metal wire is the weight of the mass
The weight is calculated using the equation:
W=m×g
Where:
W = weight in newtons (N)
m = mass in kilograms (kg)
g = gravitational field strength on Earth in newtons per kg (N/kg)
Therefore, multiply each mass by gravitational field strength, g, to calculate the force, F
The force can be calculated by multiplying the mass (in kg) by 10 N/kg
The extension e of the spring / rubber band is calculated using the equation:
e = average length – original length
The final length is the length of the spring / rubber band recorded from the ruler after the
masses were added
The extension e of the metal wire is calculated using the equation:
e = new marker reading − reference point reading
The original length is the length of the spring / rubber band / metal wire when there were
no masses attached
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1. Plot a graph of the force against extension for the spring / rubber band / metal wire YOUR NOTES
2. Draw a line or curve of best fit 
3. If the graph has a linear region (is a straight line), then the force is proportional to the
extension
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:
Make sure the measurements on the ruler are taken at eye level to avoid parallax error
Random Errors:
The accuracy of such an experiment is improved with the use of a pointer (a fiducial marker)

Fiducial marker to measure the extension more accurately

Wait a few seconds for the spring / rubber band / metal wire to fully extend when a mass is
added, before taking the reading for its new length
Make sure to check whether the spring has not gone past its limit of proportionality
otherwise, it has been stretched too far
Safety Considerations
Wear goggles during this experiment in case the spring snaps
Stand up while carrying out the experiment making sure no feet are directly under the
masses
Place a mat or a soft material below the masses to prevent any damage in case they fall

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Use a G clamp to secure the clamp stand to the desk so that the clamp and masses do not YOUR NOTES
fall over 
As well as this, place each mass carefully on the hanger and do not pull the spring too
hard that it breaks or pulls the apparatus over

 Exam Tip
Remember - for the spring and rubber band, the extension measures how much the
object has stretched by and can be found by subtracting the original length from
each of the subsequent lengths.For the metal wire, each extension is measured by
finding the difference between the new marker point and the original reference
point.A common mistake is to calculate the increase in length by each time instead
of the total extension – if each of your extensions is roughly the same then you might
have made this mistake!

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1.2.9 Hooke's Law YOUR NOTES



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Hooke's Law YOUR NOTES

The relationship between the extension of an elastic object and the applied force is defined 
by Hooke's Law
Hooke's Law states that:
The extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied, up
to the limit of proportionality
Directly proportional means that as more force is applied, the greater the extension (and
vice versa)
The limit of proportionality is where if more force is added, the object may extend but will
not return to its original shape when the force is removed (it will be inelastically deformed)
This limit varies according to the material

Hooke's Law states that a force applied to a spring will cause it to extend by an amount
proportional to the force
The Force-Extension Graph
Hooke’s law is the linear relationship between force and extension
This is represented by a straight line on a force-extension graph
Any material beyond its limit of proportionality will have a non-linear relationship between
force and extension

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YOUR NOTES
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Hooke's Law is associated with the linear region of a force-extension graph

Elastic Behaviour
When some objects, such as springs or rubber bands, are stretched they will return to their
original shape and length once the forces are removed
Other materials, such as plastic, remain permanently deformed (stretched)
A change of shape is called a deformation and can either be:
Elastic
Inelastic
Elastic Deformation
Elastic deformation occurs:
When objects return to their original shape when the stretching force is removed
Examples of materials that undergo elastic deformation are:
Rubber bands
Fabrics
Steel springs
Inelastic Deformation
Inelastic deformation occurs:
When objects remain stretched and do not return completely to their original shape
even when the stretching force is removed
Examples of materials that undergo inelastic deformation are:
Plastic
Clay
Glass

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