Network College

Department of Management
Computer Application module

Chapter one
Introduction to computer
1.1 What is computer?
A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept
data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce results, and store the results for future use. Computers
process data to create information.
 Data is a collection of raw or unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols.
 Information is data that is organized, meaningful, and useful. To process data into information, a computer uses
hardware and software. Hardware is the electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment that makes up a computer.
Software is the series of instructions that tells the hardware how to perform tasks.
1.2 Generations of computer
The history of computer development is often referred to the different generations of computing devices. Each generation
of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful, and more efficient and reliable devices. Therefore
computers passes so many generations to
1. First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes :
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous,
taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are
examples of first-generation computing devices.
2. Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors:
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was far
superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and
more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
3. Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits:
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors
were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers.
4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors:
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built
onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand.
5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence :
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence , are still in development, though there are
some applications, such as voice recognition , that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
1.3 Characteristics of computer
The characteristics of computers that have made them so powerful and universally useful are speed, accuracy, diligence,
versatility and storage capacity. Let us discuss them briefly.
6. Speed: - Computers work at an incredible speed. A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3-4
million simple instructions per second. Their speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry
out a basic operation. Computer speed measured in terms of microsecond (10-6 one millionths), nanosecond (10-9
one billionths), and Pico second (10-12 one trillionths).

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

7. Accuracy: - Nowadays computers are being used for surgical purposes, which need almost a hundred percent
accuracy. From this we can understand that computers are accurate and consistent. Unless there is an error in the
input data or unreliable program the computer processes with a very high accuracy.
8. Diligence: - Unlike human beings, computers are highly consistent. They do not suffer from human traits of
boredom and tiredness resulting in lack of concentration. Computers, therefore, are better than human beings in
performing voluminous and repetitive jobs.
9. Versatility: - Computers are versatile machines and are capable of performing any task as long as it can be
broken down into a series of logical steps. The presence of computers can be seen in almost every sphere –
Railway/Air reservation, Banks, Hotels, Weather forecasting and many more.
10. Automatic: -Once necessary information and program is fed, the computer performs processing without human
intervention.
11. Storage capacity: -Today’s computers can store large volumes of data. A piece of information once recorded (or
stored) in the computer, can never be forgotten and can be retrieved almost instantaneously. And the time it took
to retrieve or process single information is not more than a micro or nanoseconds.
In general a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information in organized manner so that
accessing information is very fast.
1.4 Types of Computers
Computers can be classified into different categories based on different characteristics.
Based on type of data they process
Based on the type of data they process computers can be classified as:
Analog
Analog computers operate by measuring physical properties. They deal with continuous variables; they don’t compute
directly with numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage,
current etc.
Examples: Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer
Digital
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They operate directly up
on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples: Abacus, Desk & pocket calculators, general purpose computers
Hybrid
Hybrid computers inherit the best features of both analog and digital computers. Usually the Input is continuous data
(analog). Since Digital Processing is more accurate, processing takes place digitally. The processed information – the
output – could be either digital or analog, depending on the user preference or the type of application.
Examples: digital camera, health monitoring machines in some hospitals,

Based on Size, Capacity and price

Size and capacity are also the other characteristics of computers that can be used to categorize computers. Based on these
characteristics computers can be classified as:

Super computer
The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely powerful computer designed for high-speed
processing. A supercomputer is generally characterized as being the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computer.
Generally, Supercomputers are:
 The largest and the most efficient computers

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

 Very expensive
 very fast and
 Supports hundreds of users at different locations

Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger than micros and minis and usually have
processors with faster instruction processing speeds. For example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200 million
instructions per second (MIPS). Mainframe computers also support multiple users and are expensive.
Mini computer
Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most microcomputers but are smaller and
less powerful than mainframe computer systems. Minicomputers are being used for a large number of business and
scientific applications. They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers, universities and colleges,
engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control, etc.
Micro computers
The smallest computers ever produced in the history of computers are microcomputers. Since they are designed to be used
by a single user, they have the least capacity as compared to the other types of computers. They are also the least
expensive of all types. There two different types of microcomputers are desktop computers and portable computers
(laptops, notebook computers and palmtops)
Classification by purpose of application
Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified as special
purpose or general purpose computers.
Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and their functions are uniquely adapted
to a specific situation involving specific application.

Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket-calculators etc.
 Counters
 Most analog computers are special purpose computers.

General purpose computers

They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A program or set of
instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory and then executed by the computer one by
one. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using different program. General computers
are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Super computers etc.
1.5 Limitation of computers
Computers have the following limitations:-

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

1. Cannot decide how to be programmed

2. Does not provide its own inputs, unless people provide with the input
3. Interpretation of data and implementation of decision is left for human beings
4. Unlike human beings, computers are incapable to:
 Think
 Create
 Judge and
 Motivated
1.6 Application areas of computers
Computer can be applied in all of the following areas
a) Commercial or business applications
 Covers the use of computers for office work, administrative, production and business use.
Examples are:
 Text processing
 Accounting and Finance management
 Inventory control
 Database management
 Statistical analysis
b) Scientific, Engineering and Research applications
 Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work, and analysis and control of
physical systems.
Examples are:
 Space technology
 Meteorological observatory systems
 Astronomical investigations
 Design of machines and
 Control of manufacturing process
 Nuclear control systems
Chapter two
Organization of a computer system

Generally, a computer system is composed of two main components:

1. Computer hardware and
2. Computer software

2.1 Computer Hardware

Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer system that can be seen and felt. The hardware part of a computer
system is composed of a number of interacted physical parts. E.g. keyboard, mouse, CPU
2.1.1 Types of Computer Hardware
The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting physical parts based on the need of the
information flow. Information flows in the computer hardware. There are several criteria by which computer hardware
can be categorized.

Based on information processing, we can divide computer hardware into four:

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

i) Input devices
ii) Central Processing Unit (CPU)
iii) Output Devices
iv) Storage Devices

i) Input Devices
Input devices are used to enter information into computer. They convert the data we give them into the form that can
be manipulated in the computer (electronic format).
Some examples of input devices are Keyboard, mouse, scanner, Bar Code Reader, mice
ii) Central Processing Unit
CPU executes instructions and performs the computer's processing activities. It is also known as processor or
microprocessor. It functions the same purpose as the human brain for human being. It is called the brain of the computer.
One of the basic features of a computer that affects its entire performance is the CPU speed. CPU speed is measured in
Hertz (Hz). Hertz is the number of cycles per second. 1Hz=1cycle per second. Larger units are KHz (Kilo Hertz), MHz
(Mega Hertz), GHz (Giga Hertz), etc.
1 KHz = 1000 Hz
1 MHz = 1000 KHz
1 GHz = 1000MHZ
Current CPUs are as fast as 2-3GHz (2-3 billion cycles per second)
CPU has three sub-components:
 Control Unit (CU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Memory
Control Unit
As human brain controls the body, control unit controls the computer hardware. Control Unit does not execute
instruction by itself, i.e. does not carry out instruction processing, but it directs other processing elements to
execute instructions.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The purpose of ALU is to execute instruction. It performs two operations:
 Arithmetic operation
 Logic Operation
Arithmetic operation: this includes mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
etc. If you give your computer the instruction 2+3, this will be included in arithmetic operation and it is executed
by Arithmetic Unit.
Logical Operation: this is concerned with the comparison of data and it is called logical operation. It includes
operators like less than, greater than, equal to, less or equal to, greater or equal to, different from, etc. e.g. if
mark>80, grade is 'A'.
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 Network College
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Computer Application module

iii) Output Devices

Output devices are used to get data out of a computer so that it can be examined, analyzed or distributed to others. It
converts information from machine-understandable form to a human understandable form. The outputs are of two types:
Softcopy: displayed on monitor, projector, or similar devices and Hardcopy: printed on paper
Examples
 The Visual Display Unit (VDU) or monitor or screen
 Printers (dot matrix, daisy wheel, laser printers)
 Plotters
 Voice (audio) response unit
 Disk drives
iv) Storage Devices
One of the unique features of computers is storage. Data can be stored on different storage media temporarily or
permanently. Storage devices can be categorized into to as:
1. Primary storage device
2. Secondary storage device
1. Primary Memory / Main Memory
Primary memory, also called Main memory, refers to integrated circuit that stores program instructions and data. The CPU
closely works with the main memory to perform its activities. Memory stores three things:
 Operation system software instructions
 Application software instruction
 Data that is being processed
Depending on the type of information they store and the technology used, the primary memory can be categorized into
three:
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 ROM (Read Only Memory)
RAM is temporary storage i.e. the data is lost when the computer is off unlike secondary storage. Because of this it is
called volatile memory.
Why is it volatile? It uses electric power to store data. When you write anything on your computer, first it is stored on
RAM. When you save the file, it is transferred into secondary storage.
RAM has differing capacity, the common ones being 128, 256, and 512.It is directly accessible by CPU. It is called RAM
because each memory location can be accessed randomly using memory address. Each unit in RAM has memory address
by which it can be easily accessed/referenced.
ROM stores data and programs that are permanently required by the computer. They have programs built into them at the
factory and that program could not be changed or erased by the user, but read. It is non-volatile, read-only (not
changeable) memory. Read-only means data can't be altered or erased but read.
2. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage (also called auxiliary storage) supplements the primary memory. It takes many forms. It includes
punched cards, punched paper tape, magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk. Based on information access, secondary
storage devices are divided into two:
 Sequential Access: information is accessed sequentially. To access information on such media, we start from the
beginning and read through to the end. Jumping to some part is not possible. E.g. tape recorder cassette
 Random Access: information can be accessed in any order. You can access the first or the last part of information by
jumping others. E.g. floppy disk

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

2.1.2 Computer Software

Computer hardware is directed by a set of instructions. Without these instructions, computers can do nothing. These set of
instructions are called software (also called programs). One or more programs are termed as software. We use
programming languages to write these instructions. Examples of programming languages include C, C++, Visual Basic,
Java, etc.
Software is categorized into two:
 System Software and Application Software
 System Software
System software consists of programs that are related to controlling the actual operations of the computer
equipment/resource.
There are three types of system software:
 Operating System
 Utility Software
 Language translators
Operating system manage resources, provides a user interface, and run application software. It organizes resources
such as keyboard, mouse, printer, monitor, etc. It also presents GUI (Graphical User Interface) to the user for easy use of
computer. It makes complex hardware more users friendly i.e. it acts between the user and hardware. Operating system
coordinates the activity between the user and the computer

(Operating system is system software that controls and coordinates the use of hardware among the different application
software and users. OS intermediates between the user of computer and the computer hardware. The users give a
command and the OS translates the command into a form that the machine can understand and execute.)
 Examples of operating systems—MS-DOS, Windows family of OS, Linux
 Objectives of OS
OS has two main objectives:-
(1) To make the computer system convenient and easy to use, for the user, and
(2) To use the computer hardware in an efficient way, by handling the details of the operations of the hardware .And
others:-
 To allocate resources to processes (Manage resources).
 Provide a pleasant and effective user interface.
 Functions of OS
Main functions of the operating system are as follows:
 Process management, memory management, file management, device management, protection and security, user
interface

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

Device Management— The device management tasks handled by OS are—(1) open, close and write device drivers, and
(2) communicate, control and monitor the device driver.
User Interface or Command Interpreter— Operating system provides an interface between the computer user and the
computer hardware. The user interface is a set of commands or a graphical user interface via which the user interacts
with the applications and the hardware.
Process Management— The process management activities handled by the OS are—(1) control access to shared
resources like file, memory, I/O and CPU, (2) control execution of applications, (3) create, execute and delete a process
(system process or user process), (4) cancel or resume a process (5) schedule a process.
Memory Management — the activities of memory management handled by OS are—(1) allocate memory, (2) free
memory, (3) re-allocate memory to a program when a used block is freed, and (4) keep track of memory usage.
File Management— The file management tasks include—(1) create and delete both files and directories, (2) provide
access to files, (3) allocate space for files, (4) keep back-up of files, and (5) secure files.
Protection and Security— OS protects the resources of system. User authentication, file attributes like read, write,
encryption, and back-up of data are used by OS to provide basic protection.

Utilities software is programs that make computing easier. They perform specific tasks related to managing computer
resources or files. There are different utility programs:
i) Troubleshooting programs: enable us to recognize and correct computer problems before they become serious.
ii) Anti-virus programs: they protect your computer against viruses or other malicious programs that damage
computer. E.g MacAfee, Sophos, Norton, etc.
iii) File compression programs: are used to reduce the size of files or data so that it takes less storage space or
network band. E.g WinZip, WinRAR, etc.
iv) Uninstall programs: this software enable us to safely and completely remove unneeded programs/software
from your computer.
v) Backup software: with the help of this software, we can make copies of files to be used in case of the original
data is lost/damaged. This copy is called back up.

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 Network College
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vi) Screen savers: helps to prevent your work from being seen by others if you leave your computer idle for some
time.
Language translators are used to convert the programming instruction written by users into binary code that the
computer can understand. They are written for specific programming languages and computer system.
 Application Software
Application software performs useful work for the user. These useful works could be:
 Word processing-document creation
 Spreadsheet-electronic calculation
 Data base system
 Email/communicating-email sending and reading
Users use this software to perform different activities like calculation, video editing, word processing, presentation, etc.

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

CHAPTER 3

DATA REPRESENTATION IN COMPUTER SYSTEM

Data Representation
Every computer stores numbers, letters, & other special characters in a coded form. But a computer stores those
data’s in a binary number system. There are two main code forms that every number, letter and special character
is represented in a computer system. Before discussing those codes let have a look at binary number system.

The Binary Number System

Computers are electronic devices that use electrical patterns to represent numbers. Modern digital computers
recognize only two electrical states—ON and OFF—but their memories contain millions of transistors that can be
either on or off. Working with numbers in computers is like making numbers out of a row of lights that can be
switched on and off independently. Because there are only two ways to represent a number, computers use the
binary number system (base 2 or radix 2).

A relationship among Binary & other number system

Decimal Hexadecimal Octal Binary

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 10
3 3 3 11
4 4 4 100
5 5 5 101
6 6 6 110
7 7 7 111
8 8 10 1000
9 9 11 1001
10 A 12 1010
11 B 13 1011
12 C 14 1100
13 D 15 1101
14 E 16 1110
15 F 17 1111
16 10 20 0001 0000

Why Binary?
Why do we go for binary numbers instead of decimal numbers?’ The reasons are as follows:

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

1. The 1st reason is that the electronic & electrical components, by their very nature, operate in a binary mode.
Information is handled in the computer by electronic/electrical components such as transistors, semiconductors,
wires, etc all of which can only indicate 2 states or conditions – on(1) or off(0).
Transistors are either conducting (1) or non-conducting (0); a voltage is present (1) or absent (0) in wire. The
binary number system, which has only two digits (0&1), is most suitable for expressing the two possible states

2. The second reason is that the computer circuits only have to handle two binary digits rather than ten decimal
digits. This greatly simplifies the internal circuit design of computers, resulting in less expensive & more reliable
circuits.

3. Finally, the binary system is used because everything that can be done in decimal number system ( addition,
subtraction, division & multiplication) can also be done in binary number system.
Units of Data Representation

When data is stored, processed, or communicated within the computer system, it is “packed” in units. Arranged from
the smallest to the largest, the units are called bits, bytes, & words.

Bits, Bytes and Words

Bits
A bit is a single binary digit. A bit may have a value of 0 or 1. In a computer, aswitch or transistor that is off
represents a 0, and a switch or transistor that is on represents a 1.A bit is represented by the numbers 1, & 0, which
correspond to the states on & off, true & false, or yes & no.

Bytes
Most computers work with groups of 8 bits, which is called a byte. To make it easier to read, the 8 binary digits in a
byte are divided into two groups of four, called nibbles, when they are written.

One byte may hold binary numbers ranging in value from 0000 0000 (base 2) to1111 1111 (base 2), or from 0 (base
10) to 255 (base 10). Counting 0 as a value,one byte can contain 256 values. For many computer variables, the
maximum value is 255 because the computer wants to store the value in a single byte, oryou are limited to 256
choices.

Words
- Bytes are combined into groups of 1 to 8 bytes called words.
- Words refer to the number of bits that a computer process at once.
- Typically word lengths are 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits & 64 bits.

Computer Number systems

A decimal integer is converted to any other base, by using the division operation.

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 Network College
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Hexadecimal number system

 Computers use hexadecimal because it represents binary values in a compact form.
 Base 16 number system
 Hex means six, Deci means ten
 16 symbols are used - 0 thru 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
 0-9 = 0-9
 A = 10 D = 13
 B = 11 E = 14
 C = 12 F = 15

Conversion of decimal to hexadecimal

 Reverse the process
 59 is 3B in hexadecimal
 16 goes into 59 three times
 It will take “11” or “B” to get to 59 (59 = 3*16+11) =3 * B (11)
Example: Convert the decimal number 90 into hexadecimal number
Solution:
90 = (5 * 16) +10 this implies 5A because the number 10 is represented by A in hexadecimal.
90 dividing by 16 and collecting the remainder of the digit we can verify it.
 A binary number can be converted into octal or hexadecimal number using a shortcut method. The shortcut
method is based on the following information:-
 An octal digit from 0 to 7 can be represented as a combination of 3 bits, since 23 = 8.
 A hexadecimal digit from 0 to 15 can be represented as a combination of 4 bits, since 24 = 16.
Decimal to Other Base System
Steps
 Steps 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
 Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new base number.
 Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
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 Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base number.
Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 29 / 2 14 1
Step 2 14 / 2 7 0
Step 3 7/2 3 1
Step 4 3/2 1 1
Step 5 1/2 0 1
As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first remainder becomes
the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.
Other base system to Decimal System
Steps
 Steps 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of the digit and the
base of the number system).
 Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.
 Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.
Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Decimal Number
Step 1 111012 ((1 x 2 ) + (1 x 2 ) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10
4 3

Step 2 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 111012 2910
Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910
Other Base System to Non-Decimal System
Steps
 Steps 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).
 Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.
Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step 1: Convert to Decimal
Step Octal Number Decimal Number
Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10
Step 2 258 (16 + 5 )10
Step 3 258 2110
Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

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Step 2: Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder
Step 1 21 / 2 10 1
Step 2 10 / 2 5 0
Step 3 5 / 2 2 1
Step 4 2 / 2 1 0
Step 5 1 / 2 0 1
Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
 Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Steps
 Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
 Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.
Example
Convert Binary Number: 101012to Octal Or
Calculating Octal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Octal Number
Step 1 101012 010 101
Step 2 101012 28 58
Step 3 101012 258
Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258
Binary to Octal
An easy way to convert from binary to octal is to group binary digits into sets of three, starting with the least significant
(rightmost) digits.
Binary: 11100101 = 11 100 101
011 100 101 Pad the most significant digits with zeros if
necessary to complete a group of three.
Then, look up each group in a table:
Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary = 011 100 101

Octal = 3 4 5 = 345 oct
 Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Steps
 Steps 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as decimal for this
conversion).
 Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.
Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step Octal Number Binary Number

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Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012
Step 3 258 0101012
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to octal. Simply look up each octal digit to obtain the
equivalent group of three binary digits.
Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Octal = 3 4 5
Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

 Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps
 Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
 Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.
Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:
Step Binary Number Hexadecimal Number
Step 1 101012 0001 0101
Step 2 101012 110 510
Step 3 101012 1516
Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516
Binary to Hexadecimal
An equally easy way to convert from binary to hexadecimal is to group binary digits into sets of four, starting with the
least significant (rightmost) digits.
Binary: 11100101 = 1110 0101
Then, look up each group in a table:
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex
Example
Convert the following binary numbers into decimal numbers.
 Conversion of binary number 1010101000010111to hexadecimal number is -AA1716
Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary
Steps

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 Steps 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).
 Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1516
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step Hexadecimal Number Binary Number
Step 1 1516 110 510
Step 2 1516 00012 01012
Step 3 1516 000101012
Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012
Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to hexadecimal. Simply look up each
hexadecimal digit to obtain the equivalent group of four binary digits.
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal = A 2 D E
Binary = 1010 0010 1101 1110 = 1010001011011110 binary

Octal to Hexadecimal
When converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first convert the octal number into binary and then from
binary into hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345 octal into hex:
(From the previous example)
Octal = 3 4 5
Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of four binary digits (bits):
Binary 011100101 = 1110 0101
Then, look up the groups in a table to convert to hexadecimal digits.
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex
Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals binary 011100101 equals hexadecimal E5.
Hexadecimal to Octal
When converting from hexadecimal to octal, it is often easier to first convert the hexadecimal number into binary and then
from binary into octal. For example, to convert A2DE hex into octal:

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(From the previous example)

Hexadecimal = A 2 D E
Binary = 1010 0010 1101 1110 = 1010001011011110 binary
Add leading zeros or remove leading zeros to group into sets of three binary digits.
Binary: 1010001011011110 = 001 010 001 011 011 110
Then, look up each group in a table:
Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary = 001 010 001 011 011 110

Octal = 1 2 1 3 3 6 = 121336 octal
Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, hexadecimal A2DE equals binary 1010001011011110 equals octal
121336.
Hexadecimal to Decimal
Converting hexadecimal to decimal can be performed in the conventional mathematical way, by showing each digit place
as an increasing power of 16. Of course, hexadecimal letter values need to be converted to decimal values before
performing the math.
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Decimal: 012 3 4 5 6 7
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F
Decimal: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

A2DE hexadecimal:
= ((A) * 163) + (2 * 162) + ((D) * 161) + ((E) * 160)
= (10 * 163) + (2 * 162) + (13 * 161) + (14 * 160)
= (10 * 4096) + (2 * 256) + (13 * 16) + (14 * 1)
= 40960 + 512 + 208 + 14
= 41694 decimal
Decimal to Hexadecimal
Here is an example of using repeated division to convert 1792 decimal to hexadecimal:
Decimal Number Operation Quotient Remainder Hexadecimal Result
1792 ÷ 16 = 112 0 0
112 ÷ 16 = 7 0 00
7 ÷ 16 = 0 7 700
0 Done.
The only addition to the algorithm when converting from decimal to hexadecimal is that a table must be used to obtain the
hexadecimal digit if the remainder is greater than decimal 9.
Decimal: 01234567
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Decimal: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

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Example:
Understanding Kilobytes, Megabytes, and Gigabytes
A kilobyte is often referred to as 1,000 bytes, but this is not totally accurate. Incomputer terms, a kilobyte is 1,024
bytes. K is used as shorthand for 210, whichequals 1,024.
A megabyteis not exactly 1,000,000 bytes, but 220 bytes, or 1,024 KB, or1,048,576 bytes. A 200 MB drive can
store 204,800 KB or 209,715,200 bytes.
A gigabyteis not 1 billion bytes, but 230 bytes or 1,073,741,824 bytes. 3 GB is the same as3,221,225,472 bytes.
For Example
210 is 1024 1000(or 1KB)
o 1KB (Kilo bytes)-1024 bytes-can store 1,000 characters.
o 1MB = 220 bytes 106 bytes- can store 1 Million characters
o 1GB = 230 bytes  109 bytes – can store 1 Billion characters.
o 1TB= 240 bytes  1012bytes- can store 1 Trillion characters.

 A computer having 256MB of memory is capable of storing 256 * 1048576(220Mega) bytes.

 A floppy disk holds 1.44 MB of data  1, 400, 000 characters.

Coding Methods

When characters are used in the computer, they must be converted into computer code(binary string, i.e., sequence of
0’s & 1’s). There are several codes for converting character data into binary string of which ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange) &EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) are the
most popular codes.
 ASCII
- Is a coding scheme that assigns numeric values to letters, numbers, & other characters?
- ASCII is of two types – ASCII -7(standard) &ASCII-8(extended)
 ASCII-7 is 7-bit code that allows 128(27) different characters.
 ASCII-8 is 8-bit code that allows 256(28) different characters.

- The extended ASCII codes, 128 through 256, are assigned to variable sets of characters by computer
manufacturers & software developers.
- Thus, whereas the standard ASCII character set is universal among microcomputer hardware & software.
Example
Character ASCII Equivalent
A 0100 0001
B 01000010
Z 0101 1010
a 0110 0001
? 0011 1111
0 0011 0000
Cancel 0001 1000
Escape 0001 1011
 EBCDIC
It is analogous to ASCII coding scheme and it is the standard character code for large computers
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Is not widely used with microcomputers, but well known & internationally recognized, primarily as an IBM code for
the corporation’s mainframes. EBCDIC is an 8-bit code without parity. The first 4 bits are known as zone bits and the
remaining 4 bits represent digit values.

Example:
The EBCDIC code of 4 and 9 is 11110100 and 11111001 respectively
Data Transmission in computer
 Data can be transmitted in one of two ways:
 Parallel - numerous bits (usually in multiples of eight) are transmitted simultaneously because there are
numerous data lines connecting components.
 Multi-lane Street.
 This data line is called a bus.
 Serial - only one bit is transmitted at a time because there is only one data line connecting components.
 Single Lane Street.

 Internally, the components inside of computers (and most computer-type devices) communicate via parallel
transmission.
 Externally, computers (and most computer-type devices) communicate via serial transmission with networks.

Chapter - 5
Data Communication and Computer Network
5.1 Data communication Basics

Definition: Data communication is a process of sharing ideas, information and messages with others in particular time
and space. Communication includes writing, talking and non verbal communication like facial expressions, visual
communications, electronic communications, etc.
People communicate one with others using communication systems. All communication systems, no matter how large or
small, are created from the same building blocks. An interconnected collection of Hardware Devices & Software, along
with a Communications Channel that enables data to be transmitted from one location to another
The basic components are:
 Computers (input & output devices)
 A communication channel (media)
 A communication Equipment ( intermediate device)
 Data transmission specifications (network rules & procedures)
Like in any other system, a computer system also has its own data communication. That is through the interconnection of
computers called Network. Therefore, Network is a group of computers that are connected each other for the sake of
Data/Information sharing, Hardware sharing or some other resource sharing.

Process of Communications
Communication is a process of exchange of ideas, facts opinions and manner by which the receiver of the massage shares
meaning and understanding with another. It is organizational process, because a group of people and group activities are
involved without this process, organizational activities do not progress.

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According to David K. Berlo, the whole process of communication involves six different steps as:
Ideation Encoding  Transmission  Receiving  Decoding Acting.
The entire process of communication consists of eight important elements as follows:
 Message: A piece of information, spoken on written to be passed from one person to another. It is the subject
matter of communication. It may involve any fact, idea, opinion, figure, attitude or course of action including
information. It exists in the mind of the communicator.
 Transmitter: Transmitter is sender of message or communicate or speaker, a person who transmit the message. In
the case of mechanical device used for communication, Para transmitter is an operator that transmit message. The
person who conveys the message is known as the communicator or sender.
 Encoding: The process of conversion of the subject matter into symbols is called encoding. The message or
subject matter of any communication is always abstract and intangible transmission of the message requires the
use of certain symbols. Encoding process translates ideas, word, facts, feelings, opinions into symbols, signs
actions, pictures and audio-visuals, etc.
 Communication Channel: Communication channel means the medium or through message passes. The words,
symbols, or signs selected should be transmitted to the receiver through certain channel or medium. The media
may be written media or oral media. Further there are various forms of written media like letters, reports, manual,
circulars, notes, questionnaires etc. The forms of oral media includes face-to face conversation, Dictaphone,
telephone, teleconferencing, television, documentary films, CD-ROMs, etc. represent audio-visual channels.
 Receiver: Receiver is the person to whom the message is meant for by the sender. A person, who receives the
message is called receiver. Responding or acting to the message done by the receiver only.

 Decoding: Decoding is the process of translation of an encoder message into ordinary understandable language.
Receiver converts the symbols, word or sign received from the sender to get the meaning of the message.
 Acting: According to the understanding of the message, the receive acts or implements the message.
 Feedback: Feedback is though the last element an important one in the communication process. The sending back
of the knowledge about the message to the transmitter is known as feedback. It ensures that the received the
message and understood in the same sense as the sender meant
5.2 What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a group of computers and associated peripheral devices connected by a communication channel;
capable of sharing files and other resources among several users. A network can range from a small network connecting a
small number of users in an office or department, to a Local Area Network connecting many users over permanently
installed cables and dial-up lines, to a Metropolitan Area Network or Wide Area Network connecting users on several net-
works spread over a wide geographic area.
If a computer is not connected to other computers that computer is standalone computer.
Example the following computer is a standalone (workstation computer) that cannot share information with other
computers.

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Why Network needs?

 The larger the
company, the
greater need to
share
information
between offices
over a greater
Distance.
 Standalone PC’s
are not enough
to give all the
utilities the user demands.

Because: Standalone PC has only

 Uses a single printer for each PC.
 Use floppies/flash disk to share documents (that is boring & easy to be corrupted)
 No internet connection, etc.
If the computer shown above was to be connected to other computers, then, it could share data with the other computers or
send documents to a printer. This connecting together of computers and other devices is called a network, and the concept
of connected computers sharing resources is called networking. See the following diagram.

Benefit of a Computer
Network
Linking computers into
networks provides
benefits in the following
areas:
 Hardware
sharing like
printer
 Software sharing
 File sharing e.g.:
- Assignment is
found on server.
 Central disk
storage –
dedicated file
server

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 Administrative support
 E-mail services
 Internet access

In all these usages computer networks increase the efficiency of work and decrease the cost of it. look the following
diagram (Network topology)

Sharing
Programs/Software
Application (software)
sharing occurs when
several users at different
locations run application
programs that are
installed centrally in one
location (application
server). Software
(application) that is
installed centrally can
be managed and
upgraded centrally.
Such systems are mostly
common in financial
system where the main
application is stored
centrally and users in
different sections of the
finance department are
able to run the system
from the network.
In short sharing programs on a network
 Saves disk space
 Reduces maintenance
 Reduce licensing cost

Types of computer Networks

Networks are classified based on:

I. Geographical span
II. Based on how they share information
Based on geographical span
Based on their geographic coverage they may span, networks could broadly be classified in to

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 local area network (LAN)

 Wide area network (WAN)
 Metropolitan area network (MAN)
LAN
LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of
buildings. However, one LAN can be connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A
system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN)
Basic LAN features:
 Confined to building group of buildings
 It is confined to limited geographical area (< 2km) like with in a building, in lab, in school, etc.
 It allows easy access to other computers or peripherals (because there is only short distance between computers).
 It uses higher bandwidth (1 mbps) & cheep cable media like UTP & coaxial.
 Ranges from two computers up to 1000 computers with a limited distance

MAN
Metropolitan
area network
(MAN) covers a
much larger area
than a LAN and
is a public or a
private network
used to connect
various
locations,
including the sub
urban. Campus networks are the example of a MAN
Basic features:
 It covers large geographical areas than LAN such as cities, districts, Regions etc
 It is an interconnection of several LANs e.g.: if your organization has several branches in different cities.
 It uses expensive cables (media) – fiber optic.
E.g.: Commercial Bank of Ethiopia from Addis Ababa to other branches in different cities (Adama and Hawasa
branches)

WAN
A WAN is a
computer
network that
spans a relatively
large
geographical
area. Typically, a
WAN consists

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millions or more local area networks (LANS) which can communicate to each other and access internet ( global
networks)
Computers connected to a wide area network are often connected through public networks, such as the telephone system.
They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the internet.
Basic features:
 The idea of connecting computers within a target Geographical area like between
Countries & b/n Continents
 Uses fiber optic cables, microwaves,& satellite (wireless Technology), Telephone line, modem etc.
E.g. Global Area network (GAN) Internet
 E-mail services and chatting
Example: Wide area network architecture- global internetworking

Types of
Network
Nodes

Relationships

Based on how the computers in a network are configured and how they access information, networks are classified into
three types: peer-to-peer, client-server, and hybrid.
1. Peer –peer network
2. Server – based network
3. Hybrid network
The type of network you choose to implement will depend on factors such as:
 Size of the organization
 Level of security required
 Type of business
 Level of administrative support available
 Amount of network traffic
 Needs of the network users
 Network budget

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Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the computers. All the
computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is
no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is
shared on the network.

Basic features:
 There is no dedicate sever
 All PCs are peers (equal) -No hierarchy
 They all work both as a client & as a server.
 There is no admin & no central storage
 There is no need of Additional Software
 Users at each PC determine their own security and acts as an administrator
 10 or fewer PCs are connected in this network
The following Figure shows a peer-to-peer network in which each computer functions as both a client and a server.

Peer-to-peer network computers act as both clients and servers

Advantages of peer to
peer network
 Less expensive
since it uses visible
& cheap cable
system (UTP)
 easy to install
 users act as their own Admin, plan their own security
Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate or good choices for environments where:

 If there are 10 or fewer users

 If there is limited network budget
 If security is not an issue
 If users’ need is to share information & hardware (Printer)etc.
Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice than a server-based network.
Server-Based Networks: client/server networks
Fundamentally, at any given moment, the computer is either acting as a client or as a server.
A server is a computer that shares its resources across the network, and

A client is a computer that access shared resources.

Another way to understand this relationship (client/server) is to visualize an information interchange that can best be
described as request- response. That is, a client requests information, and server responds to such a request by

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providing the requested information (or by denying the request). This relationship is called the client/server
relationship.

As a network grows, a peer-to-peer network will probably no longer be able to meet the increased demand on shared
resources. To accommodate the increased demand and provide additional functionality, most networks have
dedicated servers.A dedicated server functions as a server only, not as a client. The configuration of these servers is
optimized to process requests from network clients.

Client-server networks (see Figure below) have become standard models for networking

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Server-based network

Basic features of server based network

 It is the standard network model
 Optimized to process requests from network clients
 There is dedicated server (workload of individual PCs reduced)
 It has central storage and Admin support
 There is a need of additional software-NOS ( Network operating system)
- Server software
Advantage
 security is the main importance
 easy to backup
 Redundancy is available (duplicating the important data into other workstations)
 Supports thousands of users (more 100)
Hybrid network
Certain computers are peer to peer in which some of them are configured to access data from server in the network

Basic features:
 A combination of the two above
 It has both advantages
Network Media
Data signal must enter and leave a computer at a point to allow networked communication to occur. The data signal
travels through transmission media.
Transmission media is a medium or a material through which data can be transmitted over the long distances. The speed
or rate at which data is transmitted over a communication channel is denoted by a parameter called bandwidth.
Transmission media having higher bandwidths are used now -a -days for better performance.
Transmission media is categorized as:
 Bounded (guided) transmission media
 Unbounded (unguided) transmission media

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Guided Transmission Media

Guided transmission media uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a specific path. The data signals are
bound by the cabling system. Guided media is also known as bound media. "Cabling" is meant in a generic sense.
The three major categories of cables or guided transmission medium that connect most networks are:
 Coaxial cable
 Twisted-pair cable
 Fiber-optic cable

Unguided Transmission Media

Although the majority of LANs connect devices using a physical cable, there are instances where it is difficult or
impossible to install cable—such as in historical properties or when there is no right-of-way access between adjacent
buildings. In such cases, wireless transmission can be used to connect network devices.
Wireless systems do not physically connect network devices since the links between the devices are invisible.
To conclude, unguided transmission media consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide them
along a specific path. The data signals are not bound to a cabling media and are therefore often called unbound media.
The three most common types of unguided transmission medium are
 Infrared: uses infrared light signals that works in the same manner as remote control unit with television sets in
which connections are in a direct line-of-sight to each other
 Radio Frequency: it uses low density frequency range. No need of direct line-of sight with each other. The radio
signals are capable of passing through most office building doors and walls.
 Microwave: A cable-less medium that uses high frequency radio signals to send data or information through the
air
Advantages of Unguided (Wireless) Transmission
 Can be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to install cable.
 Portability
 Convenience
Network media can be summarized as follows:
Data signals travel through something i.e. Network Media

Networking
Equipments and
Instruments
Network Interface
Card
Network interface card
(NICs,) also known as
network adapters
provide the interface
between cables, and
computers. The cards
are installed in an
expansion slot in each
computer and server on

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the network. After the NIC has been installed, the network cable is attached to the card’s port to make the actual physical
connection between the computer and the rest of the network. (See figure below which is the sample of NIC)

Sample
NIC

The network adapter

(NIC) performs the
following functions:
 Interface
between
Network wire &
PC
 Without it no PC logon to the network
 Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
 Send the data to another computer.
 Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
 Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that can be understood by the computer's central
processing unit (CPU).

You cannot make networks larger just by adding new computers and more cable. Each network topology or architecture
has limits. You can, however, install components to increase the size of the network within its existing environment.
Components that enable you to expand the network include:
 Modem
 Repeaters and Hubs
 Bridges
 Switches
 Routers
Modem
A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate over a telephone line.
Computers cannot simply be connected to each other over a telephone line, because computers communicate by sending
digital electronic pulses (electronic signals), and a telephone line can send only analog waves (sound).

As shown in Figure below, the modem at the sending end converts the computer's digital signals into analog waves and
transmits the analog waves onto the telephone line. A modem at the receiving end converts the incoming analog signals
back into digital signals for the receiving computer

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Modems convert digital signals to analog waves, and convert analog waves to digital signals

Repeaters
Repeaters receive signals and retransmit them at their original strength and definition. This increases the practical length
of a cable. (If a cable is very long, the signal weakens and become unrecognizable.)Installing a repeater between cable
segments enables to travel farther. Figure below shows how repeaters regenerate weak signals.

Hubs
Hubs are connectivity devices that connect computers in a star topology. Hubs contain multiple ports for connecting to
network components. If you use a hub, a break in the network does not affect the entire network; only the segment and the
computer attached to that segment fail. A single data packet sent through a hub goes to all connected computers. Figure
below shows method of hub communication.

Bridges
A bridge is a device that passes data packets
between multiple network segments that use
the same communications protocol. If a
packet is destined for a computer within the sender's own network segment, the bridge retains the packet within that
segment. If the packet is destined for another segment, it passes the packet to that segment. Figure below shows a bridge
connecting two network segments.

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A bridge connecting two network segments

Switches
Switches are similar to bridges but offer a more direct network connection between the source and destination
computers. When a switch receives a data packet, it forwards the data packet to the appropriate port of the destination
computer only, based on information in each packet's header. The following figure illustrates a switched network.

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Switched network

Router
A router is a device that acts like a bridge or switch but provides more functionality. In moving data between different
network segments, routers examine a packet header to determine the best path for the packet to travel to the specific
end device. A router knows the path to all of the segments on the network by accessing information stored in the routing
table. Routers enable all users in a network to share a single connection to the Internet or a WAN.
The following Figure shows a router connecting two network segments.

Gateways
Gateways enable
communication
between different
network
architectures. A
gateway takes the data from one network and repackages it, so that each network can understand the other network's data
A gateway is like an interpreter.
Network Topologies
A network topology is the arrangement of computers, cables, and other components on a network. It is a map of the
physical network. The most common types of standard physical topologies are Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh and Hybrid.

Bus Topology
In a bus topology, all of the computers in a network are attached to a continuous cable, or segment, that connects them in
a straight line (See Figure below). In this straight-line topology, a packet is transmitted to all network adapters on that
segment.

Advantages of the bus topology are

 Use of cable is economical
 Media is inexpensive and easy to work with
 System is simple and reliable and is easy to extend.
Because of the way electrical signals are transmitted over this cable, the ends of the cable must be terminated by hardware
devices called terminators.
If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the signal will travel back and forth across the
network and all communication will stop.

An increase in the number of computers results in an increase in noise and a corresponding decrease in network
efficiency.

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Bus topology
Star Topology
In a star topology, cable segments from each computer on the network are connected to a central component, or hub (See
Figure below). A hub is a device that connects several computers together to form star topology. In a star topology,
signals are transmitted from the computer, through the hub, to all computers on the network. On a larger scale,
multiple LANs can be connected to each other in a star topology.

An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star topology fails, only the failed computer is unable
to send or receive data. The remainder of the network functions normally.
The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is connected to a hub, if the hub fails, the entire
network fails.

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Star topology
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, computers are connected on a single circle of cable (See Figure below).. The signals travel around the
loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which acts as a repeater to boost the signal and send it to the
next computer.

The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal and sending it on to
the next computer, thereby preserving signal strength.

The method of transmitting

data around the ring is called
token passing. A token is a
special series of bits that
contains control information. Possession of the token allows a network device to transmit data to the network. Each
network has only one token.
The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time can send data on a single token ring.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by a separate cable as shown in the figure
below. This arrangement provides redundant paths through the network so that if one cable fails, another carries the
traffic and the network continues to function.

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Mesh topology

Hybrid Topologies
In a hybrid topology, two or more topologies are combined to form a complete network design. Networks are rarely
designed using only one type of topology. For example, you may want to combine a star with a bus topology to benefit
from the advantages of each.
Two types of hybrid topologies are commonly in use: star-bus topology and star-ring topology.
Star-Bus
In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked to a bus connection. After a star configuration is full,
you can add a second star and use a bus connection to connect the two star topologies.
In a star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network. However, if the central
component, or hub, that attaches all computers in a star fails, all computers attached to that component fail and are
unable to communicate.

Star-Ring
In the star-ring topology, the computers are connected to a central component (hub) as in a star network. These
components, however, are wired to form a ring network.
Like the star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the network. See the following diagram

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

Hybrid topologies

Network Protocols
Like network needs hardware, it also needs software. Because each task in network is governed by a set of rules called
protocols. If the sender and receiver in NW should communicate, they must speak the same language called protocols (the
language).
E.g.: HTTP:-is hypertext transfer protocol which helps to communicate two computers application.
TCP/IP:- Transport control protocol (internet protocol)
- The main protocol that helps for internet transmission.
- Without TCP/ IP, there is NO internet access.

INTERNET AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Internetworking concepts
 Intranet, Extranet, and the Internet
Internetworking is the term used to define connecting networks. As we need to connect computers to build a network
for resource sharing purposesbetween computers, we may also need to connect our networks for the same reason –
sharing resources between networks.
Imagine a university where there are small networks in every department that are not connected to each other. Each
department will have its own data about students and applications about their mgt etc. There is no way data is shared
between departments even though there are common stuff between departments such as student mgt applications,
common courses, finance and administration issues, mail systems, library applications, university rules and regulations
etc.
These small networks where computers are connected to each other are commonly called LANs. A LAN is simply
computers connected within the same broadcast domain. A broadcast domain is a domain (collection) of computers
where by what one computer transmits is accessed (heard) by all the others.
If we connect all computers within a large institution like a university as a single LAN or within the same broadcast
domain, the backbone (media) connecting departments will be highly congested with data that the network may fail.
Internetworking refers to communication between LANs over a LAN and a WAN (between LAN and LAN, between
LAN and WAN) over the internet.
It is possible to connect these small networks (LANs) within an organization or between organization using different
methods depending on distance, efficiency etc.
Intranets, extranets and the Internet
Intranet
Connections of networks, communicating using (TCP/IP) the protocols of the Internet, within an organization where by
the organization have anoverall authority (control) of the media is called an Intranet. Intranets have become very
common in universities and organizations, commercial enterprises etc.

Extranet
Sometimes it may also be necessary for two or more institutions to share their data/information, or other resources. In
this case the involved organizations agree on terms and rules and give access of their Intranet (network) resources for each

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Computer Application module

other for specified reasons or business transactions. Such networks are called Extranets. Extranets are therefore the
interconnectionof Intranets, based on an agreement between organizations for the purpose of sharing resources.
Internet
The requirement to share resources is sometimes global. People need to exchange mail, to discuss about issues, to read
news, to advertise, to sell and buy, to exchange information etc. The network of networks that connects hundreds of
thousands of networks, and millions of computers around the world is called the internet
The Internet is a network of networks that is extended all around the world. It is not owned by anyone or any institution,
but controlled and managed by the internet service provider (ISP), in our case Ethiopian Telecom.
The Internet is a term used to describe thousands of computers connected with each other spanning over the world. It is
the largest network in existence. It is a network of networks acting as one. It is a worldwide communication to
businesses, homes, schools and governments.
Internet is also acts as cyber space (a virtual place that you can do a lot of things like visiting places, chatting with
friends, buying and selling products, advertise products, reading researches, etc).
With internet:
 You can communicate with friends or colleagues.
 You can communicate with one person at a time or thousands.
 You can send & receive files or information over a greater distance.
The most important and popular uses of Internet are:
1. Browsing information from world wide web (WWW)
2. Electronic mail (E-mail)
3. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
4. Telnet to any Internet Host-remote login
5. USE NET and So on.
World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web is a collection of host machines, which deliver documents, graphics and multi-media to users via
the internet. The common protocol that is used on the WWW is http, which stands for hypertext transport protocol.
The WWW allows users to ling documents together using clickable links. A browser is used to view the content that
server computers provide.
WWW is:
 A set of protocol and software that allows the global computer network called the Internet to display
multimedia documents.
 The information on WWW is spread over computers all over the world.
 WWW is sometimes called web.
 A system based on HTTP protocol for providing, organizing and accessing a wide variety of resources
(text, photographs, animation, films, music, video etc) that are available in a way of Internet.
E- Mail
Send and receive messages all over the world: You can send and receive electronic mail to or from anyone who also has
access to the Internet, anywhere in the world in just seconds.
Participate in discussion groups (USE NET): Thousands of special interest communities, or newsgroups, provide
access to Internet-based discussions on topics.
Find and access information: You can access information from Ethiopian Historical tips to New Zealand weather
forecasts and the latest women's health research from South Africa. Millions of documents are available from libraries,
museums, governments, educational institutions.
Retrieve files: On the Internet, you can access files that contain software programs, graphic images, music and others

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Computer Application module

Language of the internet - Terminologies

Web Page: A single Web document. Everything you can see in your browser window at one time (including what you can
see by scrolling) makes up one Web page.
Browser, Web Browser: The piece of software that runs on your computer and allows you to view Web pages. The most
common browsers are Netscape and Internet Explorer.
Web Site: A set of Web pages that are logically connected. e.g. www.google.com
Each website has specific address on www. This address is called URL (unified resource locator).e.g.
http://www.yahoo.com
Home Page: The starting, introductory or welcome page for a Web site.
Link, Hot Link, Hyper Link: A part of a Web page that can be clicked to get somewhere else. Links usually turn up a
different color and/or underlined in your Web browser.
Hypertext: Text that can contain links.
HTML: Stands for Hypertexts Markup Language. This is the language that all Web pages are written in.
URL: Stands for Uniform Resource Locator. It is the means of specifying the pathname for any resource on the
internet. A URL can be typed into the address bar windows of a web browser.
For example http://www.Geocities.com/Ggiday is the URL of this Web page.
Web Server: A Web server is a computer which holds a number of Web pages, and serves retrieve them to computers
that request them.
Cyberspace: conceptual place which does not really exist but looks like the real world system.
Requirements for Internet connection
We know how Internet is very important for our lives. So how could we get into it? There is an Internet service provider
within the country. For example Ethiopia-ETC (Tele) is our Internet service provider (ISP).
ISP- provides Internet access to customers for a monthly fee.
First a user buys a subscription from a service provider, which gives the user an identifying username & password and phone
number. And using TCP/IP you will have unique IP address.
Hardware Requirements -Dial up connection
 A computer with a serial port for modem or computer with built in modem
 Modem
 Cables, and cable connector (RJ – 11 )
 Telephone line
Hardware Requirements –Broad band connection
 A computer with NIC- Network interface card
 Cables, and cable connector (RJ-45)
 Intermediary devices (hub or switch)
Software Requirements- both for dial up and broadband
 Windows XP (OS)
 Browser or (Internet Explorer)
 Some additional software (MS – outlook 2000, yahoo Messenger, etc)
 An account with an Internet Access Provider (in Ethiopia, at present, Ethiopian Telecommunication Corporation
(ETC) is the only Internet Access Provider). The account can be either TCP/IP or user accounts (username and
password).

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 Network College
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Computer Application module

CHAPTER – 6

COMPUTER SAFETY AND SECURITY

Threats of a computer System

Threat is a source of probable trouble or attack to a system that could cause losses. One of the threats in computer system
is Virus.
Computer Viruses
Computer viruses are software programs that are able to reproduce themselves. It is the intellectual creation of a human
computer programmer. If a program is not able to replicate, then it is not a virus. Most computer viruses are damaging.
Computer virus is a program that is intentionally done to harm users’ program without permission.
Not all viruses are destructive, some viruses carry messages of goodwill without harming programs or data.
Dangers of computer viruses
a. Change: computer viruses can change actual data or text causing different sense
b. Slackness: many viruses cause slow computing operation because of the load that their reproductive activity
imposes.
c. Theft: viruses can steal data, and stolen data can be used to re-steal other more data
d. Scramble (mix): virus can scramble data and files
There are three major types of viruses.
1. Boot sector viruses
2. File infectors
3. Macro viruses
4. System infectors
Boot sector viruses
Boot sector viruses attach themselves to the system code and hides behind the boot sector of hard disk
File infectors/program infectors
These viruses attach themselves to executable files or programs. Therefore, file infectors affect system performance.
These viruses are the most widely spread viruses as executable files or programs run
Macro viruses
The latest virus threat comes from macro viruses. Macro viruses are hosted in user documents.
The result of a macro virus infection can be just as destructive. Macro viruses represent a larger threat as they attack
data files rather than executables. Although executable files can be easily replaced by reinstalling the affected software,
documents are irreplaceable unless they have been backed up onto other media.
System infectors
Attach themselves to the specific system files. E.g. command.com, etc
Potential Paths for Virus
Viruses are transmitted through various media such as:

- Storage devices. E.g. Hard disk, floppy disk, flash disk, CD-ROM
- Internet connection- e-mail attachments, sharing infected files
- Direct cabling between PCs (network). etc
Rules for safe computing
These simple rules will protect /secure/ your system from computer virus infection

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Computer Application module

1. Never load unknown disks into system unless the disks are virus free
2. Do not use infected software (executable files) unless they are free of virus infection
3. Backup your data regularly to protect the data loss from any cause
4. Prevent unauthorized access
5. Lock your computer when not in use
6. Install antivirus program on to your computer and update regularly/configure to update itself automatically if
there is internet connection
Safety of the computer system
Computers require uniform and uninterrupted power supply, no noise interference and suitable environmental conditions
for reliable operation.

Power line problem/disturbances

The power disturbances, which are common occurrences in AC utility line, may have no effect in most electrical
equipment, but they can be disastrous to computers.
Common power problems are:
 Voltage spikes –unrecognized and quick power OFF and ON
 Voltage surges – over voltage
 Voltage sages – under voltage
These Power problems can be solved through the use of uninterrupted power supply (UPS) because UPS stand between
the utility power and the system, conditioning AC power and eliminating over voltage, under voltage, and spikes.

When the utility power fails, the UPS employs backup batteries to minute’s level of conditioned power either by
continuing normal operation for a few minutes or to protect from shutdown
Environmental factors
Temperature: integrated circuits and other devices in the computer systems are sensitive to temperature. During normal
operation, the computer generates heat, which is tolerable to the circuitry.
Measures:
 Reset the system if intermittent failure occurs;
 Keep the cooling ventilator cleans
 Keep the system disk in cool and dry place
 If possible install air conditioner in the room
Dust: The static electrical charge that builds up in the computer systems and the monitor attracts dust. Dust is a major
contributor for integrated circuits failure in the system. Electro mechanical devices such as printers and disk drives have
a number of moving parts that get dirty causing overheating and early failures
Measures:
 Clean computer systems and its peripherals periodically
 Use dust covers
 Keep computer room windows closed
 No smoking near the system
 Do not touch the surface of disk drives and other internal components
 Clean the inside portion as well as the area with a vacuum cleaner
 Blow the dust in the screen with a pressurized anti-static spray
 Use soft brush to clean the screen and clean the cabinets with mild soap and then dry them with a piece of soft
cloth.

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 Network College
Department of Management
Computer Application module

Prepared by: Eyachew T.