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 Contents

Chapter 1 LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 5

1.1 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 5
1.2 THE LIMIT LAWS 14
1.3 CONTINUITY 21
1.4 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 26

Chapter 2 DERIVATIVES 35
2.1 DEFINING THE DERIVATIVE 35
2.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES 46
2.3 DERIVATIVES AS A RATE OF CHANGE 60
2.4 THE CHAIN RULE 64
2.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 68
2.6 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION 75

Chapter 3 APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 81

3.1 RELATED RATES 81
3.2 MAXIMA AND MINIMA 89
3.3 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 104
3.4 OPTIMIZATION 110
3.5 L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 118

Chapter 4 ANTIDERIVATIVES AND INTEGRATION 125

4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES 125
4.2 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 137
4.3 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 141
4.4 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 146

3
4
 Chapter 1

LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

INTRODUCTION

The idea of a limit is central to all of calculus. In this chapter, we describe how to find the limit
of a function at a given point. Not all functions have limits at all points, and we discuss what this
means and how we can tell if a function does or does not have a limit at a particular value. This
chapter has been created in an informal, intuitive fashion, but this is not always enough if we need
to prove a mathematical statement involving limits.

1.1 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

The concept of a limit or limiting process, essential to the understanding of calculus, has been
around for thousands of years. In fact, early mathematicians used a limiting process to obtain
better and better approximations of areas of circles. Yet, the formal definition of a limit - as we
know and understand it today - did not appear until the late 19th century. We therefore begin our
quest to understand limits, as our mathematical ancestors did, by using an intuitive approach.

We begin our exploration of limits by looking at the graph

x2 − 4
of the function f (x) = given in Figure 1.1.
x−2

This function is undefined at x = 2, but if we make this

statement and no other, we give a very incomplete picture
of how each function behaves in the vicinity of x = 2. To
express the behavior the graph in the vicinity of 2 more
completely, we need to introduce the concept of a limit.

Let’s first take a closer look at how the function behaves

around x = 2 in 1.1. As the values of x approach from
either side of 2, the values of y = f (x) approach 4. Math-
ematically, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2
x2 − 4
is 4. Symbolically, we express this limit as lim f (x) = 4. Figure 1.1: f (x) =
x→2 x−2

5
6

Limit
Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing a, with the possible
exception of a itself, and let L be a real number. If all values of the function f (x) approach
the real number L as the values of x(̸= a) approach the number a, then we say that the limit
of f (x) as x approaches a is L (More succinct, as x gets closer to a, f (x) gets closer and stays
close to L ). Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f (x) = L.
x→a

Example 1

Evaluating a√Limit Using a Table of Functional Values

x−2
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
x→4 x − 4

Solution :
We use Table 1.1 to list the values of the function for the given values of x.
√ √
x−2 x−2
x f (x) = x f (x) =
x−4 x−4
3.9 0.251582342 4.1 0.248456731
3.99 0.250156446 4.01 0.249843945
3.999 0.250015627 4.001 0.249984377
3.9999 0.250001563 4.0001 0.249998438
3.99999 0.25000016 4.00001 0.24999984
√
x−2
Table 1.1: Table of functional values for lim
x→4 x−4

After inspecting this table, we see that the functional values less than 4 appear to be decreas-
ing toward 0.25 whereas the √ functional values greater than 4 appear to be increasing toward
x−2
0.25. We conclude that lim = 0.25.
x→4 x − 4

Note that for the limit of a function to exist at a point, the functional values must approach a single
real-number value at that point. If the functional values do not approach a single value, then the
limit does not exist.

Example 2

Evaluating a Limit that fail to exist

|x − 3|
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
x→3 x − 3
 7

Solution :
We use Table 1.2 to list the values of the function for the given values of x.

|x − 3| |x − 3|
x f (x) = x f (x) =
x−3 x−3
2.9 −1 3.1 1
2.99 −1 3.01 1
2.999 −1 3.001 1
2.9999 −1 3.0001 1
2.99999 −1 3.00001 1

|x − 3|
Table 1.2: Table of functional values for lim
x→3 x−3

After inspecting this table, we see that the functional values less than 3 is equal to −1,
|x − 3|
whereas the functional values greater than 3 is equal to 1 . We conclude that lim
x→3 x − 3
does not exist.

Example 3

Evaluating a Limit Using a Graph

For g(x) shown in Figure 1.2, evaluate lim g(x).
x→−1

Solution :

Despite the fact that g(−1) = 4, as the

x-values approach −1 from either side, the
g(x) values approach 3 .

Therefore, lim g(x) = 3.

x→−1

Note that we can determine this limit without

even knowing the algebraic expression of the
function.

Figure 1.2: The function g(x)

Based on Example 3, we make the following observation:

It is possible for the limit of a function to exist at a point, and for the function to be defined at this
point, but the limit of the function and the value of the function at the point may be different.

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8

One-Sided Limits

Sometimes indicating that the limit of a func-

tion fails to exist at a point does not provide us
with enough information about the behavior of
the function at that particular point. To see this,
|x − 2|
we now look at the function g(x) = given
x−2
in Figure 1.3. As we pick values of x close to 2,
g(x) does not approach a single value, so the limit
as x approaches 2 does not exist - that is, lim g(x)
x→2
does not exist. However, this statement alone does
not give us a complete picture of the behavior of
the function around the x-value 2 . To provide a
more accurate description, we introduce the idea
of a one-sided limit. For all values to the left of 2
(or the negative side of 2), g(x) = −1. Thus, as x |x − 2|
Figure 1.3: The function g(x) =
approaches 2 from the left, g(x) approaches −1. x−2

Mathematically, we say that the limit as x approaches 2 from the left is −1. Symbolically, we
express this idea as
lim g(x) = −1.
x→2−

Similarly, as x approaches 2 from the right (or from the positive side), g(x) approaches 1 . Symbol-
ically, we express this idea as
lim g(x) = 1
x→2+

We can now present an informal definition of one-sided limits.

We define two types of one-sided limits.

Limit from the left
Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form ( c, a), and let
L be a real number. If the values of the function f (x) approach the real number L as the
values of x (where x < a ) approach the number a, then we say that L is the limit of f (x) as
x approaches a from the left. Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f (x) = L.
x→a−
 9

Limit from the right

Let f (x) be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form (a, c), and let L
be a real number. If the values of the function f (x) approach the real number L as the values
of x (where x > a ) approach the number a, then we say that L is the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a from the right. Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f (x) = L.
x→a+

Theorem 1.1 (Relating One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits): Let f (x) be a function defined at all
values in an open interval containing a, with the possible exception of a itself, and let L be a real
number. Then, lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.
x→a x→a− x→a+

Example 4

Evaluating One-Sided(Limits
x+1 if x<2
For the function f (x) = , evaluate each of the following limits using a
x2 − 4 if x≥2
table of functional values.

(a) lim f (x)

x→2−

(b) lim f (x)

x→2+

Solution :
We can use tables of functional values again Table 1.3. Observe that for values of x less than
2 , we use f (x) = x + 1 and for values of x greater than 2 , we use f (x) = x2 − 4.

x f (x) = x + 1 x f (x) = x2 − 4
1.9 2.9 2.1 0.41
1.99 2.99 2.01 0.0401
1.999 2.999 2.001 0.004001
1.9999 2.9999 2.0001 0.00040001
1.99999 2.99999 2.00001 0.0000400001
(
x+1 if x<2
Table 1.3: Table of functional values for f (x) =
x2 − 4 if x≥2

Based on this table, we can conclude that

(a) lim f (x) = 3 and
x→2−
(b) lim f (x) = 0.
x→2+
Therefore, the (two-sided) limit of f (x) does not exist at x = 2.

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10

1.1 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following questions:

1
−1
(1) Estimate lim x using a table of functional values.
x→1 x − 1

x2 − 4
(2) Use a table of functional values to evaluate lim , if possible.
x→2 x − 2
sin x
(3) Use a table of functional values to evaluate lim , if possible.
x→0 x

(4) Use the graph of h(x) in Figure 1.1.1 to evaluate lim h(x), if possible.
x→2

(5) Use a table of functional values to estimate the following limits, if possible.
x2 − 1
(a) lim
x→1− x−1
x2 − 1
(b) lim
x→1+ x−1
 11

(6) Use the graph of f (x) in Figure 1.1.2 to determine each of the following values:

(a) lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x); f (−4)

x→−4− x→−4+ x→−4

(b) lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x); f (−2)

x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2

(c) lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x); f (1)

x→1− x→1+ x→1

(d) lim f (x); lim f (x); lim f (x); f (3)

x→3− x→3+ x→3

(7) In the following exercises, consider the graph of the function y = f (x) shown in Figure
1.1.3. Which of the statements about y = f (x) are true and which are false? Explain why
a statement is false.

(a) lim f (x) = 0

x→10

(b) lim f (x) = 3

x→2+

(c) lim f (x) = f (−8)

x→−8

(d) lim f (x) = 5

x→6

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12

(8) In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y = f (x) shown in Figure 1.1.4 to
find the values, if possible. Estimate when necessary.
(a) lim f (x)
x→−2−

(b) lim f (x)

x→−2+

(c) lim f (x)

x→−2

(d) lim f (x)

x→2−

(e) lim f (x)

x→2+

(f) lim f (x)

x→2

(9) In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y = f (x) shown in Figure 1.1.5 to
find the values, if possible. Estimate when necessary.

(a) lim f (x)

x→0−

(b) lim f (x)

x→0+

(c) lim f (x)

x→0

(d) lim f (x)

x→1

(e) lim f (x)

x→2
 13

(10) Using the graph in Figure 1.1.6, find each limit or explain why the limit does not exist.
(a) lim f (x)
x→−1

(b) lim f (x)

x→1

(c) lim f (x)

x→0+

(d) lim f (x)

x→2

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14

1.2 THE LIMIT LAWS

In the previous section, we evaluated limits by looking at graphs or by constructing a table of values.
In this section, we establish laws for calculating limits and learn how to apply these laws. We begin
by restating two useful limit results from the previous section. These two results, together with the
limit laws, serve as a foundation for calculating many limits.

Theorem 1.2 (Basic Limit Results): For any real number a and any constant c,

(a) lim x = a
x→a

(b) lim c = c
x→a

Theorem 1.3 (Limit Laws): Let f (x) and g(x) be defined for all x ̸= a over some open interval
containing a. Assume that L and M are real numbers such that lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M .
x→a x→a
Let c be a constant. Then, each of the following statements holds:

(a) Sum law for limits:

lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = L + M

x→a x→a x→a

(b) Difference law for limits:

lim (f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x) = L − M

x→a x→a x→a

(c) Constant multiple law for limits:

lim (cf (x)) = c · lim f (x) = c · L

x→a x→a

(d) Product law for limits:

lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x) = L · M

x→a x→a x→a

(e) Quotient law for limits:

  lim f (x)
f (x) x→a L
lim = = for M ̸= 0
x→a g(x) lim g(x) M
x→a

(f) Power law for limits:

 n
lim (f (x))n = lim f (x) = Ln for every positive integer n
x→a x→a

(g) Root law for limits:

p q √
f (x) = n lim f (x) = L for all L if n is odd and for L ≥ 0 if n is even.
n n
lim
x→a x→a
 15

Theorem 1.4 (Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions): Let p(x) and q(x) be polynomial
functions. Let a be a real number. Then,

lim p(x) = p(a)

x→a
p(x) p(a)
lim = when q(a) ̸= 0.
x→a q(x) q(a)

Example 1

Evaluating Limits using the limit laws

2x2 − 3x + 1
Use the limit laws to evaluate lim .
x→2 x3 + 4

Solution :

2x2 − 3x + 1 2(2)2 − 3(2) + 1 3

lim 3
= 3
= .
x→2 x +3 (2) + 3 11

Additional Limit Evaluation Techniques

f (x) 0
Calculating a Limit when has the Indeterminate Form .
g(x) 0

1. First, we need to make sure that our function has the appropriate form and cannot be evaluated
immediately using the limit laws.
f (x)
2. We then need to find a function that is equal to h(x) = for all x ̸= a over some interval
g(x)
containing a. To do this, we may need to try one or more of the following steps: - If f (x) and
g(x) are polynomials, we should factor each function and cancel out any common factors.

• If the numerator or denominator contains a difference involving a square root, we should

try multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the expression in-
volving the square root.
f (x)
• If is a complex fraction, we begin by simplifying it.
g(x)
3. Last, we apply the limit laws.

Example 2

Evaluating a Limit by Factoring and Canceling

x2 − 3x
Evaluate lim 2
x→3 2x − 5x − 3

Solution :
x2 − 3x
Step 1. The function f (x) = is undefined for x = 3. In fact, if we substitute 3
2x2 − 5x − 3

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16

0
into the function we get , which is undefined. Factoring and canceling is a good strategy:
0

x2 − 3x x(x − 3)
lim = lim
x→3 2x − 5x − 3
2 x→3 (x − 3)(2x + 1)

x2 − 3x x
Step 2. For all x ̸= 3, = . Therefore,
2x − 5x − 3
2 2x + 1

x(x − 3) x
lim = lim
x→3 (x − 3)(2x + 1) x→3 (2x + 1)

Step 3. Evaluate using the limit laws:

x 3
lim = .
x→3 (2x + 1) 7

Example 3

Evaluating a √
Limit by Multiplying by a Conjugate
x+2−1
Evaluate lim .
x→−1 x+1

Solution :
√
x+2−1 0 √
Step 1. has the form at −1. Let’s begin by multiplying by x + 2 + 1, the
x√
+1 0
conjugate of x + 2 − 1, on the numerator and denominator:
√ √ √
x+2−1 x+2−1 x+2+1
lim = lim ·√ .
x→−1 x+1 x→−1 x+1 x+2+1

Step 2. We then multiply out the numerator. We don’t multiply out the denominator because
we are hoping that the (x + 1) in the denominator cancels out in the end:

x+1
lim √ .
x→−1 (x + 1)( x + 2 + 1)

Step 3. Then we cancel:

1
lim √
x→−1 ( x + 2 + 1)
Step 4. Last, we apply the limit laws:

1 1
lim √ = .
x→−1 ( x + 2 + 1) 2
 17

Example 4

Evaluating a Limit by Simplifying a Complex Fraction

1 1
−
Evaluate lim x + 1 2
x→1 x−1

Solution :
1 1
− 0
Step 1. x + 1 2 has the form at 1 . We simplify the algebraic fraction
x−1 0

1 1 2 − (x + 1)
−
2(x + 1)
lim x + 1 2 = lim
x→1 x−1 x→1 x−1
−x + 1
= lim
x→1 2(x + 1)(x − 1)
−(x − 1)
= lim .
x→1 2(x + 1)(x − 1)

Step 2. Then, we cancel the common factors of (x − 1) :

−1
= lim .
x→1 2(x + 1)

Step 3. Last, we evaluate using the limit laws:

−1 1
lim =− .
x→1 2(x + 1) 4

Example 5

Evaluating(a Two-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws

4x − 3 if x < 2
For f (x) = , evaluate each of the following limits:
(x − 3) 2 if x ≥ 2

(a) lim f (x)

x→2−

(b) lim f (x)

x→2+

(c) lim f (x)

x→2

Solution :
(a) Since f (x) = 4x − 3 for all x < 2, replace f (x) in the limit with 4x − 3 and apply the
limit laws:
lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 5.
x→2− x→2−

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18

(b) Since f (x) = (x − 3)2 for all x ≥ 2, replace f (x) in the limit with (x − 3)2 and apply the
limit laws:
lim f (x) = lim (x − 3)2 = 1.
x→2+ x→2+

(c) Since lim f (x) = 5 and lim f (x) = 1, we conclude that lim f (x) does not exist. We
x→2− x→2+ x→2
f (x)
now turn our attention to evaluating a limit of the form lim , where lim f (x) = K,
x→a g(x) x→a
f (x) K
̸ 0 and lim g(x) = 0. That is
where K = , has the form , K ̸= 0 at a.
x→a g(x) 0

Example 6

K
Evaluating a Limit of the Form , K ̸= 0 using the Limit Laws
0
x−3
Evaluate lim 2
x→2− x − 2x

Solution :
−1
Step 1. After substituting in x = 2, we see that this limit has the form . That is, as x
0
approaches 2 from the left, the numerator approaches −1; and the denominator approaches 0 .

x−3
Consequently, the magnitude of becomes infinite. To get a better idea of what the
x(x − 2)
limit is, we need to factor the denominator:

x−3 x−3
lim = lim .
x→2− x − 2x x→2 x(x − 2)
2 −

Step 2. Since x − 2 is the only part of the denominator that is zero when 2 is substituted,
1
we then separate from the rest of the function:
x−2

x−3 1
= lim ·
x→2− x x−2

x−3 −1 1 x−3 1
Step 3. lim = and lim = −∞. Therefore, the product of and
x→2− x 2 x→2 x − 2
− x x−2
has a limit of +∞ :
x−3
lim = +∞.
x→2− x2 − 2x

1.2 EXERCISES

I. In the following exercises, use direct substitution to evaluate each limit.

 19

2 − 7x
(1) lim 4x2 − 1 (4) lim
x→−2 x→1 x + 6
2x2 − 3x + 1 2
(2) lim (5) lim e2x−x
x→3 5x + 4 x→2
1
(3) lim (6) lim ln e3x
x→0 1 + sin x x→3

II. In the following exercises, use direct substitution to show that each limit leads to the indeter-
0
minate form . Then, evaluate the limit.
0
x2 − 16 2x2 + 3x − 2
(1) lim (9) lim
x→4 x − 4 1 2x − 1
x−2 x→
2
(2) lim 2
x→2 x − 2x
1
3x − 18 +1
(3) lim x + 2
x→6 2x − 12 (10) lim
x→−3 x+3
(1 + h)2 − 1
(4) lim 1 1
h→0
√
h −
x+4−1 (11) lim a + h a where a is a real valued
(5) lim h→0 h
x→−3 x+3
√ constant
x−1−2
(6) lim sin θ
x→5 x−5 (12) lim
t−9 θ→π tan θ
(7) lim √
t→9 t−3 cot x
(13) lim
x −1
3 π cos x
(8) lim 2 x→
x→1 x − 1 2

III. In the following exercises, use direct substitution to show that each limit leads to the indeter-
K
minate form , K ̸= 0. Then, evaluate the limit.
0
x2 + 25 2x2 + 7x − 4
(1) lim (3) lim
x→−5 x + 5 x→−2 x2 + x − 2
x+2 2x2 + 7x − 4
(2) lim (4) lim
x→1 (x − 1)2
+
x→1 x2 + x − 2

IV. In the following exercises, assume that lim f (x) = 4, lim g(x) = 9, and lim h(x) = 6. Use
x→6 x→6 x→6
these three facts and the limit laws to evaluate each limit.
p
(1) lim 2f (x)g(x) (5) lim g(x) − f (x)
x→6 x→6
 
1
(2) lim f (x) + g(x) (6) lim (x · h(x))
x→6 3 x→6
g(x) − 1
(3) lim (7) lim [(x + 1)f (x)]
x→6 f (x) x→6
(h(x))3
(4) lim (8) lim (f (x) · g(x) − h(x))
x→6 2 x→6

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20

V. In the following exercises, evaluate the given limits.

 
 x2 , x≤3 x2 − 2x + 1, x<2
(1) f (x) = (3) h(x) =
x + 4, x > 3 3 − x, x≥2
(a) lim f (x)
x→3− (a) lim h(x)
x→2−
(b) lim f (x)
x→3+ (b) lim h(x)
x→2+
(c) lim f (x)
x→3 (c) lim h(x)
 x→2
x3 − 1, x ≤ 0
(2) g(x) =
1, x>0
(a) lim g(x)
x→0−
(b) lim g(x)
x→0+
(c) lim g(x)
x→0
 21

1.3 CONTINUITY

Many functions have the property that their graphs can be traced with a pencil without lifting the
pencil from the page. Such functions are called continuous. Other functions have points at which
a break in the graph occurs, but satisfy this property over intervals contained in their domains.
They are continuous on these intervals and are said to have a discontinuity at a point where a break
occurs.
We begin our investigation of continuity by exploring what it means for a function to have continuity
at a point. Intuitively, a function is continuous at a particular point if there is no break in its graph
at that point.
Continuity at a Point
Before we look at a formal definition of what it means for a function to be continuous at a point, let’s
consider various functions that fail to meet our intuitive notion of what it means to be continuous
at a point. We then create a list of conditions that prevent such failures.
Our first function of interest is shown in Figure 1.4. We see that the graph of f (x) has a hole at a.
In fact, f (a) is undefined. At the very least, for f (x) to be continuous at a, we need the following
condition:
i. f (a) is defined.

However, as we see in Figure 1.5, this condition alone is insufficient to guarantee continuity at the
point a. Although f (a) is defined, the function has a gap at a. In this example, the gap exists
because lim f (x) does not exist. We must add another condition for continuity at a-namely,
x→a

ii. lim f (x) exists.

x→a

However, as we see in Figure 1.6, these two conditions by themselves do not guarantee continuity
at a point. The function in this figure satisfies both of our first two conditions, but is still not
continuous at a. We must add a third condition to our list:

Figure 1.4: The function f (x) is not continuous at a because f (a) is undefined.

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22

iii. lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

Figure 1.5: The function f (x) is not contin- Figure 1.6: The function f (x) is not contin-
uous at a because lim f (x) does not exists. uous at a because lim f (x) ̸= f (a)
x→a
x→a

Now we put our list of conditions together and form a definition of continuity at a point.

Continuous
A function is continuous at a point a if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied:

1. f (a) is defined.

2. lim f (x) exists.

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

A function is discontinuous at a point a if it fails to be continuous at a.

Example 1

Determining Continuity at a Point 

 sin x , x ̸= 0
Using the definition, determine whether the function f (x) = x is continuous
 1, x=0
at x = 0. Justify the conclusion.

Solution :
First, observe that
f (0) = 1.
 23

Next,
sin x
lim f (x) = lim = 1. (from question 4 in Exercise 1.1)
x→0 x→0 x

Last, compare f (0) and lim f (x). We see that

x→0

lim f (x) = f (0).

x→0

Since all three of the conditions in the definition of continuity are satisfied, f (x) is continuous
at x = 0.

Example 2

Determining Continuity at a Point (

−x2 + 4, x ≤ 3
Using the definition, determine whether the function f (x) = is contin-
4x − 8, x>3
uous at x = 3. Justify the conclusion.

Solution :
Let’s begin by trying to calculate f (3).

f (3) = −(3)2 + 4 = −5.

Thus, f (3) is defined. Next, we calculate lim f (x). To do this, we must compute lim f (x)
x→3 x→3−
and lim f (x) :
x→3+
lim f (x) = −(3)2 + 4 = −5
x→3−

and
lim f (x) = 4(3) − 8 = 4.
x→3+

Therefore, lim f (x) does not exist. Thus f (x) is not continuous at 3 .
x→3

Theorem 1.5 (Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions): Polynomials and rational func-
tions are continuous at every point in their domains.
Theorem 1.6 (Continuity of Trigonometric Functions): Trigonometric functions are continuous
over their entire domains.

Example 3

Continuity of a Rational Function

x+1
For what values of x is f (x) = continuous?
x−5

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24

Solution :
x+1
The rational function f (x) = is continuous for every value of x except x = 5.
x−5

Continuity over an Interval

Now that we have explored the concept of continuity at a point, we extend that idea to continuity
over an interval. As we develop this idea for different types of intervals, it may be useful to keep in
mind the intuitive idea that a function is continuous over an interval if we can use a pencil to trace
the function between any two points in the interval without lifting the pencil from the paper. In
preparation for defining continuity on an interval, we begin by looking at the definition of what it
means for a function to be continuous from the right at a point and continuous from the left at a
point.

Continuity from the Right and from the Left

A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the right at a if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a+
A function f (x) is said to be continuous from the left at a if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a−
A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. A
function f (x) is continuous over a closed interval of the form [a, b] if it is continuous at every point
in (a, b) and is continuous from the right at a and is continuous from the left at b. Analogously, a
function f (x) is continuous over an interval of the form (a, b] if it is continuous over (a, b) and is
continuous from the left at b. Continuity over other types of intervals are defined in a similar fashion.

Example 4

Continuity over an interval

x−1
State the interval(s) over which the function f (x) = is continuous.
x2 + 2x

Solution :
x−1
Since f (x) = is a rational function, it is continuous at every point in its domain.
x2 + 2x
The domain of f (x) is the set (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). Thus, f (x) is continuous over
each of the intervals (−∞, −2), (−2, 0) and (0, ∞).

Example 5

Continuity over an interval

√
State the interval(s) over which the function f (x) = 4 − x2 is continuous.
 25

Solution :
p p
From the limit laws, we know that lim 4 − x2 = 4 − a2 for all values of a in(−2, 2). We
p x→a p
also know that lim 4 − x2 = 0 exists and lim 4 − x2 = 0 exists. Therefore, f (x) is
x→2+ x→2−
continuous over the interval [−2, 2].

1.3 EXERCISES



 2x + 1, x < 1
I. Using the definition, determine whether the function f (x) = 2, x = 1 is continuous


−x + 4, x > 1
at x = 1. Justify the conclusion.
√
II. State the interval(s) over which the function f (x) = x + 3 is continuous.
III. For the following exercises, determine whether the function is continuous at the given point.
2x2 − 5x + 3
(1) f (x) = at x = 1.
x−1
(
x sin x, x ≤ π
(2) f (x) = at x = π.
x tan x, x > π
(
x2 − ex , x < 0
(3) h(x) = at x = 0.
x − 1, x≥0

 6u + u − 2 , u ̸= 1
2

(4) g(u) = 2u − 1 2 at u = 1 .

 7, 1 2
u=
2 2
sin(πy)
(5) f (y) = at y = 1.
tan(πy)

IV. In the following exercises, find the value(s) of k that makes each function continuous over the
given interval.
 2 (
 x + 3x + 2 ekx , 0≤x≤4
̸ −2
,x = (3) g(x) = .
(1) f (x) = x+2 . x + 3, 4 ≤ x ≤ 8

k, x = −2
( √ (
kx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 3x + 2, x > 4
(2) g(x) = . (4) h(x) = .
x + 1, 3 ≤ x ≤ 10 2x − k, x ≤ 4

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26

1.4 LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY

INTRODUCTION
We begin by examining what it means for a function to have a finite limit at infinity. Then we
study the idea of a function with an infinite limit at infinity. Back in Introduction to Functions and
Graphs, we looked at vertical asymptotes; in this section we deal with horizontal asymptotes.

Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes

Recall that lim f (x) = L means f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L as long as x is sufficiently close
x→a
1
to a. We can extend this idea to limits at infinity. For example, consider the function f (x) = 2 + .
x
As can be seen graphically in Figure 1.7 and numerically in Table 1.4, as the values of x get
larger, the values of f (x) approach 2 . We say the limit as x approaches ∞ of f (x) is 2 and write
lim f (x) = 2. Similarly, for x < 0, as the values |x| get larger, the values of f (x) approaches 2 .
x→∞
We say the limit as x approaches −∞ of f (x) is 2 and write lim f (x) = 2.
x→−∞

Figure 1.7: The function approaches the asymptote y = 2 as x approaches ±∞.

x 10 100 1,000 10,000

1
2+ 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001
x
x −10 −100 −1000 −10, 000
1
2+ 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999
x
Table 1.4: Values of a function f as x → ±∞

More generally, for any function f , we say the limit as x → ∞ of f (x) is L if f (x) becomes arbitrarily
close to L as long as x is sufficiently large. In that case, we write lim f (x) = L. Similarly, we
x→∞
say the limit as x → −∞ of f (x) is L if f (x) becomes arbitrarily close to L as long as x < 0 and
 27

|x| is sufficiently large. In that case, we write lim f (x) = L. We now look at the definition of a
x→−∞
function having a limit at infinity.
Limit at infinity

If the values of f (x) become arbitrarily close to L as x becomes sufficiently large, we say
the function f has a limit at infinity and write lim f (x) = L. If the values of f (x) becomes
x→∞
arbitrarily close to L for x < 0 as |x| becomes sufficiently large, we say that the function
f has a limit at negative infinity and write lim f (x) = L. If the values f (x) are getting
x→−∞
arbitrarily close to some finite value L as x → ∞ or x → −∞, the graph of f approaches the
line y = L. In that case, the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f .

1
For example, for the function f (x) = , since lim f (x) = 0, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote
x x→∞
1
of f (x) = .
x
Horizontal Asymtote of f

If lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L, we say the line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of f .

x→∞ x→−∞

As x → ∞, the values of f are getting arbitrarily close to L. The line y = L is a horizontal

asymptote of f .

As x → −∞, the values of f are getting arbitrarily close to M . The line y = M is a horizontal
asymptote of f .

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28

Vertical Asymtote of f

The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function y = (x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = ±∞,
x→a−

lim f (x) = ±∞,

x→a+

where lim is the limit as x approaches the value a from the left (from lesser values), and
x→a−
lim is the limit as x approaches a from the right.
x→a+

x
For example, if (x) = , the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 as x
(x–1)
approaches 1. So
x
lim = +∞
x→1+ x − 1
x
lim = −∞
x→1 x − 1
−

and the curve has a vertical asymptote x = 1.

A function cannot cross a vertical asymptote because the graph must approach infinity (or −∞ )
from at least one direction as x approaches the vertical asymptote. However, a function may cross
a horizontal asymptote. In fact, a function may cross a horizontal asymptote an unlimited number
of times.

(cos x)
For example, the function f (x) = + 1 intersects the horizontal asymptote y = 1 an infinite
x
number of times as it oscillates around the asymptote with everdecreasing amplitude.

The graph of f (x) = (cos x)/x + 1 crosses its horizontal asymptote y = 1 an infinite number of
times.

The algebraic limit laws and squeeze theorem we introduced in Introduction to Limits also apply
to limits at infinity. We illustrate how to use these laws to compute several limits at infinity.
 29

Example 1

Computing Limits at Infinity

Evaluate lim f (x) and lim f (x). Determine the horizontal asymptote(s) and vertical
x→∞ x→−∞
2
asymptote for f (x) = 5 −
x2

Solution :
     
2 1 1
Using the algebraic limit laws, we have lim 5− 2 = lim 5 − 2 lim · lim =
x→∞ x x→∞ x→∞ x x→∞ x
5 − 2 · 0 = 5.
2
Similarly, lim f (x) = 5. Therefore, f (x) = 5 − 2 has a horizontal asymptote of y = 5 and
x→−∞ x
f approaches this horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞ as shown in the following graph.

This function approaches a horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞.

2
Since f (x) = 5 − approaches −∞ at x approaches 0, f (x) has vertical asymptote of x = 0.
x2

Infinite Limits at Infinity

Sometimes the values of a function f become arbitrarily large as x → ∞ (or as x → −∞ ). In
this case, we write lim f (x) = ∞ (or lim f (x) = ∞ ). On the other hand, if the values of f
x→∞ x→−∞
are negative but become arbitrarily large in magnitude as x → ∞ (or as x → −∞ ), we write
lim f (x) = −∞ (or lim f (x) = −∞ ).
x→∞ x→−∞

Infinite Limit at Infinity

We say a function f has an infinite limit at infinity and write lim f (x) = ∞. if f (x) becomes
x→∞
arbitrarily large for x sufficiently large. We say a function has a negative infinite limit at
infinity and write lim f (x) = −∞. if f (x) < 0 and |f (x)| becomes arbitrarily large for x
x→∞
sufficiently large. Similarly, we can define infinite limits as x → −∞.

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30

Example 2

For each of the following functions, determine the limits as x → ∞ and x → −∞. Also,
determine the horizontal asymptote(s).
3x − 1
(a) f (x) = (Note: The degree of the numerator and the denominator are the same.)
2x + 5
3x2 + 2x
(b) f (x) = (Note: The degree of numerator is less than the degree of the
4x3 − 5x + 7
denominator.)
3x2 + 4x
(c) f (x) = (Note: The degree of numerator is greater than the degree of the
x+2
denominator.)

Solution :
(a) The highest power of x in the denominator is x. Therefore, dividing the nu-
merator and denominator by x and applying the algebraic limit laws, we see that

3x − 1 3 − 1/x
lim = lim
x→±∞ 2x + 5 x→±∞ 2 + 5/x
lim (3 − 1/x)
x→±∞
=
lim (2 + 5/x)
x→±∞
lim 3 − lim 1/x
→±∞ x→±∞
=
lim 2 + lim 5/x
x→±∞ x→±∞
3−0 3
= = .
2+0 2

3
Since lim f (x) = , we know that
x→±∞ 2
3
y = is a horizontal asymptote for
2
this function as shown in the graph.

The graph of this rational function approaches a horizontal asymptote as x → ±∞.

(b) Since the largest power of x appearing in the denominator is x3 , divide the numerator
and denominator by x3 . After doing so and applying algebraic limit laws, we obtain

3x2 + 2x 3/x + 2/x2

lim = lim
x→±∞ 4x3 − 5x + 7 x→±∞ 4 − 5/x2 + 7/x3
3(0) + 2(0)
=
4 − 5(0) + 7(0)
= 0.
 31

Therefore f has a horizontal asymptote of

y = 0 as shown in the following graph.
The graph of this rational function ap-
proaches the horizontal asymptote y = 0
as x → ±∞.

(c) Dividing the numerator and denominator by x, we have

3x2 + 4x 3x + 4
lim = lim
x→±∞ x + 2 x→±∞ 1 + 2/x

As x → ±∞, the denominator approaches

1. As x → ∞, the numerator approaches
+∞. As x → −∞, the numerator ap-
proaches −∞. Therefore lim f (x) = ∞,
x→∞
whereas lim f (x) = −∞ as shown in
x→−∞
the following figure.

As x → ∞, the values f (x) → ∞. As x → −∞, the values f (x) → −∞

Therefore f has no horizontal asymptote.

1.4 EXERCISES

I. For the following exercises, evaluate the limit.

(1) lim
1 x4 − 4x3 + 1
(5) lim
x→∞ 3x + 6 x→−∞ 2 − 2x2 − 7x4
2x − 5 3x
(2) lim (6) lim √
x→∞ 4x x→∞ x2 + 1
√
x2 − 2x + 5 4x2 − 1
(3) lim (7) lim
x→∞ x+2 x→−∞ x+2
3x3 − 2x 4x
(4) lim (8) lim √
x→−∞ x2 + 2x + 8 x→∞ x2 − 1

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32

II. For the following exercises, examine the graphs. Identify where the vertical asymptotes are
located.

(1) (4)

(2) (5)

(3)
 33

III. For the following exercises, find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
9
(1) f (x) = x −
x
1
(2) f (x) =
1 − x2
x3
(3) f (x) =
4 − x2
x2 + 3
(4) f (x) = 2
x +1
1
(5) f (x) = 3
x + x2

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34
 Chapter 2

DERIVATIVES

INTRODUCTION

Calculating velocity and changes in velocity are important uses of calculus, but it is far more
widespread than that. Calculus is important in all branches of mathematics, science, and engineer-
ing, and it is critical to analysis in business and health as well. In this chapter, we explore one of
the main tools of calculus, the derivative, and show convenient ways to calculate derivatives. We
apply these rules to a variety of functions in this chapter so that we can then explore applications
of these techniques

2.1 DEFINING THE DERIVATIVE

Now that we have both a conceptual understanding of a limit and the practical ability to compute
limits, we have established the foundation for our study of calculus, the branch of mathematics in
which we compute derivatives and integrals. Most mathematicians and historians agree that cal-
culus was developed independently by the Englishman Isaac Newton (1643-1727) and the German
Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716). When we credit Newton and Leibniz with developing calculus, we
are really referring to the fact that Newton and Leibniz were the first to understand the relationship
between the derivative and the integral.

Both mathematicians benefited from the work of predecessors, such as Barrow, Fermat, and Cav-
alieri. The initial relationship between the two mathematicians appears to have been amicable;
however, in later years a bitter controversy erupted over whose work took precedence. Although it
seems likely that Newton did, indeed, arrive at the ideas behind calculus first, we are indebted to
Leibniz for the notation that we commonly use today.

Tangent Lines
We begin our study of calculus by revisiting the notion of secant lines and tangent lines. We use
the slope of a secant line to a function at a point (a, f (a)) to estimate the rate of change, or the
rate at which one variable changes in relation to another variable. Let a + h be a value of x close
to a. We can obtain a secant by drawing a line through the points (a, f (a)) and (a + h, f (a + h)).

35
36

The slope of this secant line is given by the following equation in the form of a difference quotient
with increment h :
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
msec = =
a+h−a h
In figure 2.1(a) we see that, as the values of x approach a, the slopes of the secant lines provide
better estimates of the rate of change of the function at a. Furthermore, the secant lines themselves
approach the tangent line to the function at a, which represents the limit of the secant lines.

Similarly, figure 2.1(b) shows that as the values of h get closer to 0 , the secant lines also approach
the tangent line. The slope of the tangent line at a is the rate of change of the function at a, as
shown in figure 2.1(c).

Figure 2.1: The secant lines approach the tangent line as the second point approaches the first.

Formally we may define the tangent line to the graph of a function as follows.

Tangent line

Let f (x) be a function defined in an open interval containing a. The tangent line to f (x) at
a is the line passing through the point (a, f (a)) having slope

f (a + h) − f (a)
mtan = lim
h→0 h

provided this limit exists.

The equation of this tangent line to f (x) at the point (a, f (a)) is,

y = mtan (x − a) + f (a)

Example 1

The Slope of a Tangent Line

Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = x2 at x = 3.
 37

Solution :
f (3 + h) − f (3)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
(3 + h) − (3)2
2
= lim
h→0 h
9 + 6h + h2 − 9
= lim
h→0 h
h(6 + h) − f (3)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (6 + h) = 6
h→0

Example 2

The Equation of a Tangent Line

1
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = at x = 2.
x

Solution :
First find the slope of the tangent line.

f (2 + h) − f (2)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
1 1
−
= lim 2 + h 2
h→0 h
2 − (2 + h)
2(2 + h)
= lim
h→0 h
−h
= lim
h→0 2h(2 + h)
−1
= lim
h→0 2(2 + h)
−1
=
4
1 1
Next, find the point on the graph of f (x) = at x = 2. We have f (2) = , so the tangent
  x 2
1
line passes through the point 2, . So the equation of the tangent line is
2

y = mtan (x − a) + f (a)
−1 1
y= (x − 2) +
4 2
−1 1
y= x+ .
4 2

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38

The Derivative of a Function at a Point

The type of limit we compute in order to find the slope of the line tangent to a function at a
point occurs in many applications across many disciplines. These applications include velocity and
acceleration in physics, marginal profit functions in business, and growth rates in biology. This
limit occurs so frequently that we give this value a special name: the derivative. The process of
finding a derivative is called differentiation.
Derivative of the Function
Let f (x) be a function defined in an open interval containing a. The derivative of the function
f (x) at a, denoted by f ′ (a) is defined by

f (a + h) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
h→0 h

provided this limit exists.

Example 3

Finding the derivative at a point

For f (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1, find f ′ (2) by using the definition of derivative at a point.

Solution :
f (2 + h) − f (2)
f ′ (2) = lim
h→0
 h   
3(2 + h)2 − 4(2 + h) + 1 − 3(2)2 − 4(2) + 1
= lim
h→0 h
3h2 + 8h
= lim
h→0 h
h(3h + 8)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (3h + 8) = 8
h→0

Velocities and Rates of Change

Now that we can evaluate a derivative, we can use it in velocity applications. Recall that if
s(t) is the position of an object moving along a coordinate axis, the average velocity of the
object over a time interval [a, t] if t > a or [t, a] if t < a is given by the difference quotient

s(t) − s(a)
vave = .
t−a

As the values of t approach a, the values of vave approach the value we call the instantaneous
 39

velocity at a. That is, instantaneous velocity at a, denoted v(a), is given by

s(t) − s(a)
v(a) = s′ (a) = lim .
t→a t−a

Example 4

Finding the instantaneous velocity

A rock is dropped from a height of 64 feet. Its height above ground at time t seconds later
is given by s(t) = −16t2 + 64, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. Find its instantaneous velocity 1 second after it is
dropped.

Solution :
s(t) − s(1)
v(1) = s′ (1) = lim
 t −21
t→1
  
−16t + 64 − −16(1)2 + 64
= lim
t→1 t−1
−16t2 + 16
= lim
t→1 t−1

−16 t2 − 1
= lim
t→1 t−1
−16(t − 1)(t + 1)
= lim
t→1 t−1
= lim[−16(t + 1)] = −32
t→1

The instantaneous velocity of the rock 1 second after it is dropped is −32 feet per second.

Instantaneous rate of change of a function

The instantaneous rate of change of a function f (x) at a value a is its derivative f ′ (a).

Example 5

Rate of Change of Temperature

A homeowner sets the thermostat so that the temperature in the house begins to drop from
70◦ F at 9 p.m., reaches a low of 60◦ during the night, and rises back to 70◦ by 7 a.m. the
next morning. Suppose that the temperature in the house is given by T (t) = 0.4t2 − 4t + 70
for 0 ≤ t ≤ 10, where t is the number of hours past 9 p.m. Find the instantaneous rate of
change of the temperature at midnight.

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40

Solution :
Since midnight is 3 hours past 9 p.m., we want to compute T ′ (3).

T (t) − T (3)
T ′ (3) = lim
 t 2− 3
t→3
  
0.4t − 4t + 70 − 0.4(3)2 − 4(3) + 70
= lim
t→3 t−3
0.4t2 − 4t + 8.4
= lim
t→3 t−3

0.4(t − 3)(t − 7)
= lim
t→3 t−3
= lim 0.4(t − 7) = −1.6
t→3

The instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at midnight is −1.6◦ F per hour.

THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION

As we have seen, the derivative of a function at a given point gives us the rate of change or slope of
the tangent line to the function at that point. If we differentiate a position function at a given time,
we obtain the velocity at that time. It seems reasonable to conclude that knowing the derivative of
the function at every point would produce valuable information about the behavior of the function.
However, the process of finding the derivative at even a handful of values using the techniques of
the preceding section would quickly become quite tedious. In this section we define the derivative
function and learn a process for finding it.

Derivative Functions

The derivative function gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of the original
function for which the derivative is defined. We can formally define a derivative function as follows.
Derivative
Let f be a function. The derivative function, denoted by f ′ , is the function whose domain
consists of those values of x such that the following limit exists:

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h

A function f (x) is said to be differentiable at a if f ′ (a) exists. More generally, a function

is said to be differentiable on S if it is differentiable at every point in an open set S, and a
differentiable function is one in which f ′ (x) exists on its domain.

Example 6

Finding the Derivative of a Square-Root Function

√
Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x.
 41

Solution :
Start directly with the definition of the derivative function.

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim .
h→0 h
√ √
′ x+h− x
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
h
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √
h→0 ( x + h + x)
1
= √
2 x

Example 7

Finding the Derivative of a Quadratic Function

Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 − 2x.

Solution :
Follow the same procedure here, but without having to multiply by the conjugate.
   
′ (x + h)2 − 2(x + h) − x2 − 2x
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
x2 + 2xh + h2 − 2x − 2h − x2 + 2x
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2 − 2h
= lim
h→0 h
h(2x + h − 2)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x + h − 2)
h→0

= 2x − 2

We use a variety of different notations to express the derivative of a function. In Example 7 we

showed that if f (x) = x2 − 2x, then f ′ (x) = 2x − 2. If we had expressed this function in the form
dy
y = x2 − 2x, we could have expressed the derivative as y ′ = 2x − 2 or = 2x − 2. We could have
dx
d

conveyed the same information by writing x2 − 2x = 2x − 2. Thus, for the function y = f (x),
dx

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42

each of the following notations represents the derivative of f (x) :

dy ′ d
f ′ (x), , y , (f (x)).
dx dx

dy dy
In place of f ′ (a) we may also use . Use of the notation (called Leibniz notation) is quite
dx x=a dx
common in engineering and physics.

Graphing a Derivative

We have already discussed how to graph a function, so given the equation of a function or the
equation of a derivative function, we could graph it. Given both, we would expect to see a cor-
respondence between the graphs of these two functions, since f ′ (x) gives the rate of change of a
function f (x) (or slope of the tangent line to f (x) ).

√ 1
In Example 1, we found that for f (x) = x, f ′ (x) =
√ . If we graph these functions on the
2 x
same axes, as in Figure 2.2, we can use the graphs to understand the relationship between these
two functions. First, we notice that f (x) is increasing over its entire domain, which means that
the slopes of its tangent lines at all points are positive. Consequently, we expect f ′ (x) > 0 for all
values of x in its domain. Furthermore, as x increases, the slopes of the tangent lines to f (x) are
decreasing and we expect to see a corresponding decrease in f ′ (x). We also observe that f (0) is
undefined and that lim f (x) = +∞, corresponding to a vertical tangent to f (x) at 0.
x→0+

Figure 2.2 The derivative f ′ (x) is positive everywhere because the function f (x) is increasing.
 43

Figure 2.3 The derivative f ′ (x) < 0 where the function f (x) is decreasing and f ′ (x) > 0 where f (x)
is increasing. The derivative is zero where the function has a horizontal tangent.

In Example 2, we found that for f (x) = x2 − 2x, f ′ (x) = 2x − 2. The graphs of these functions
are shown in Figure 2.3. Observe that f (x) is decreasing for x < 1. For these same values of x,
f ′ (x) < 0. For values of x > 1, f (x) is increasing and f ′ (x) > 0. Also, f (x) has a horizontal tangent
at x = 1 and f ′ (1) = 0.

Example 8

Sketching a Derivative Using a Function

Use the following graph of f (x) to sketch a graph of f ′ (x).

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44

Solution :

The solution is shown in the following

graph. Observe that f (x) is increas-
ing and f ′ (x) > 0 on (−2, 3). Also,
f (x) is decreasing and f ′ (x) < 0 on
(−∞, −2) and on (3, +∞). Also note
that f (x) has horizontal tangents at
−2 and 3 , and f ′ (x) = 0 and f ′ (3) =
0.

Derivatives and Continuity

Now that we can graph a derivative, let’s examine the behavior of the graphs. First, we consider the
relationship between differentiability and continuity. We will see that if a function is differentiable
at a point, it must be continuous there; however, a function that is continuous at a point need
not be differentiable at that point. In fact, a function may be continuous at a point and fail to be
differentiable at the point for one of several reasons.

Theorem 2.1 (Differentiability Implies Continuity): Let f (x) be a function and a be in its domain.
If f (x) is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.

2.1 EXERCISES

I. For f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2, find f ′ (1).

II. For the following functions, find the slope of the tangent line at x = a and the equation of the
tangent line to f at x = a.

(1) f (x) = 3 − 4x, a = 2. −3

(6) f (x) = , a = 4.
x−1
(2) f (x) = x2 + x, a = 2. 2
(7) f (x) = , a = −4.
(3) f (x) = 1 − x − x2 , a = 0. x+3
3
(4) f (x) = 2 − 3x2 , a = −2. (8) f (x) = 2 , a = 3.
x
x √
(5) f (x) = + 6, a = −1. (9) f (x) = x + 8, a = 1.
5

III. For the following functions y = f (x), find f ′ (a) by using the definition of derivative at a point.
 45

a = −1. 1
(1) f (x) = 5x + 4, (7) f (x) = √ , a = 4.
x
(2) f (x) = −7x + 1, a = 3.
1
(3) f (x) = x2 + 9x, a = 2. (8) f (x) = , a = 2.
x
(4) f (x) = 3x2 − x + 2, a = 1. 1
√ (9) f (x) = , a = −1.
x−3
(5) f (x) = x, a = 4.
√ 1
(6) f (x) = x − 2, a = 6. (10) f (x) = 3 , a = 1.
x

IV. For the following position functions y = s(t), an object is moving along a straight line, where
t is in seconds and s is in meters. Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 seconds.
1
(1) s(t) = t + 5.
3
(2) s(t) = t2 − 2t.
16 4
(3) s(t) = 2t3 + 3. (d) s(t) = − .
t2 t
V. The position in feet of a race car along a straight track after t seconds is modeled by the
1
function s(t) = 8t2 − t3 .
16
(1) Find the average velocity of the vehicle over the time interval [4, 4.1] to four decimal places.
(2) Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 4 seconds.

VI. The distance in feet that a ball rolls down an incline is modeled by the function s(t) = 14t2 ,
where t is seconds after the ball begins rolling.

(1) Find the average velocity of the ball over the time interval [5, 5.1].
(2) Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 5 seconds.

VII. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 − 4. On what interval is the graph of f ′ (x) above the x-axis?
VIII. Using the definition of a derivative, find the derivative of f (x) = x2 − 8
IX. Using the definition of a derivative, find the derivative of f (x) = x2 − 6x
X. For the following functions, use the definition of a derivative to check whether the function is
differentiable at x = 1.
( √ (
2 x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 3, x < 1
(1) f (x) = (3) f (x) =
3x − 1, x > 1 3x, x ≥ 1

(  2x, x ≤ 1
−x2 + 2, x ≤ 1 (4) f (x) =
(2) f (x) = 2
x, x > 1  ,x > 1
x

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46

2.2 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

Finding derivatives of functions by using the definition of the derivative can be a lengthy and, for cer-
d √ 1
tain functions, a rather challenging process. For example, previously we found that ( x) = √
dx 2 x
by using a process that involved multiplying an expression by a conjugate prior to evaluating a limit.
d √
The process that we could use to evaluate ( 3 x) using the definition, while similar, is more com-
dx
plicated. In this section, we develop rules for finding derivatives that allow us to bypass this process.
We begin with the basics.

The Basic Rules

The functions f (x) = c and g(x) = xn where n is a positive integer, are the building blocks from
which all polynomials and rational functions are constructed. To find derivatives of polynomials
and rational functions efficiently without resorting to the limit definition of the derivative, we must
first develop formulas for differentiating these basic functions.

The Constant Rule

We first apply the limit definition of the derivative to find the derivative of the constant function,
f (x) = c. For this function, both f (x) = c and f (x + h) = c, so we obtain the following result:

f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
c−c
= lim
h→0 h
0
= lim
h→0 h

= lim 0
h→0

=0

The rule for differentiating constant functions is called the constant rule. It states that the deriva-
tive of a constant function is zero; that is, since a constant function is a horizontal line, the slope,
or the rate of change, of a constant function is 0 . We restate this rule in the following theorem.

Theorem 2.2 (The Constant Rule): Let c be a constant.

If f (x) = c, then f ′ (x) = 0.
Alternatively, we may express this rule as

d
(c) = 0.
dx
 47

The Power Rule

We have shown that  

1 1
d
d 1 −
2
x = 2x and x 2  = x 2
dx dx 2

d
At this point, you might see a pattern beginning to develop for derivatives of the form (xn ).
dx
We continue our examination of derivative formulas by differentiating power functions of the form
f (x) = xn where n is a positive integer. We develop formulas for derivatives of this type of function
in stages, beginning with positive integer powers.

Before stating and proving the general rule for derivatives of functions of this form, we take a look
d

at a specific case, x3 . As we go through this derivation, pay special attention to the portion of
dx
the expression in boldface, as the technique used in this case is essentially the same as the technique
used to prove the general case.

Example 1

Differentiating x3
d

Find x3
dx

Solution :

d
(x + h)3 − x3
x3 = lim
dx h→0 h
x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 − x3
= lim
h→0 h
3x h + 3xh + h3
2 2
= lim
h→0 h

h 3x + 3xh + h2
2
= lim
h→0 h


= lim 3x + 3xh + h2
2
h→0
2
= 3x

As we shall see, the procedure for finding the derivative of the general form f (x) = xn is very
similar. Although it is often unwise to draw general conclusions from specific examples, we note
that when we differentiate f (x) = x3 , the power on x becomes the coefficient of x2 in the derivative
and the power on x in the derivative decreases by 1. The following theorem states that the power
rule holds for all positive integer powers of x. We will eventually extend this result to negative
integer powers. Later, we will see that this rule may also be extended first to rational powers of x
and then to arbitrary powers of x. Be aware, however, that this rule does not apply to functions in
which a constant is raised to a variable power, such as f (x) = 3x .

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48

Theorem 2.3 (The Power Rule): Let n be a positive integer. If f (x) = xn , then f ′ (x) = nxn−1
d
Alternatively, we may express this rule as (x) = nxn−1
dx

Example 2

Applying the Constant Rule

Find the derivative of f (x) = 8.

Solution :
This is just a one-step application of the rule using Leibniz notation:

d d
(f (x)) = (8) = 0.
dx dx

Example 3

Applying the Power Rule

Find the derivative of f (x) = x10 by applying the power rule.

Solution :
Using the power rule with n = 10, we obtain

f ′ (x) = 10x10−1 = 10x9 .

The Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules

We find our next differentiation rules by looking at derivatives of sums, differences, and constant
multiples of functions. Just as when we work with functions, there are rules that make it easier
to find derivatives of functions that we add, subtract, or multiply by a constant. These rules are
summarized in the following theorem.
Theorem 2.4 (Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules): Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable
functions and k be a constant. Then each of the following equations holds.
Sum Rule.

The derivative of the sum of a function f and a function g is the same as the sum of the derivative
of f and the derivative of g.

d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = (f (x)) + (g(x)).
dx dx dx

Difference Rule.

The derivative of the difference of a function f and a function g is the same as the difference of the
 49

derivative of f and the derivative of g :

d d d
(f (x) − g(x)) = (f (x)) − (g(x)).
dx dx dx

Constant Multiple Rule.

The derivative of a constant k multiplied by a function f is the same as the constant multiplied by
the derivative:
d d
(kf (x)) = k (f (x)).
dx dx

Example 4

Applying the Basic Derivative Rules

Find the derivative of f (x) = 2x5 + 7.

Solution :
We begin by applying the rule for differentiating the sum of two functions, followed by
the rules for differentiating constant multiples of functions and the rule for differentiating
powers. To better understand the sequence in which the differentiation rules are applied, we
use Leibniz notation throughout the solution:

d

f ′ (x) = 2x5 + 7
dx
d
d
= 2x5 + (7)
dx dx
d

=2 x5 + 0
dx


= 2 5x4
= 10x4 .

Example 5

Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = x2 − 4x + 6 at x = 1.

Solution :
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope. To find the point,
compute
f (1) = (1)2 − 4(1) + 6 = 3.

This gives us the point (1, 3). Since the slope of the tangent line at 1 is f ′ (1), we must first

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50

find f ′ (x). Using the definition of a derivative, we have

f ′ (x) = 2x − 4

so the slope of the tangent line is f′ (1) = −2. Using the point-slope formula, we see that the
equation of the tangent line is
y = −2(x − 1) + 3
y = −2x + 5

The Product Rule

Now that we have examined the basic rules, we can begin looking at some of the more advanced
rules. The first one examines the derivative of the product of two functions. Although it might
be tempting to assume that the derivative of the product is the product of the derivatives, similar
to the sum and difference rules, the product rule does not follow this pattern. To see why we
cannot use this pattern, consider the function f (x) = x2 , whose derivative is f ′ (x) = 2x and not
d d
(1) · (1) = 1 · 1 = 1.
dx dx

Theorem 2.5 (Product Rule): Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions. Then

d d d
(f (x)g(x)) = (f (x)) · g(x) + f (x) · (g(x)).
dx dx dx

That is,
(f (x)g(x))′ = f ′ (x) · g(x) + f (x) · g ′ (x).

This means that the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function
times the second function plus the first function times the derivative of the second function.

Example 6

Applying the Product Rule to Binomials

For j(x) = x2 + 2 3x3 − 5x , find j ′ (x) by applying the product rule.

Solution :

′


′
j ′ (x) = x2 + 23x3 − 5x + x2 + 2 3x3 − 5x




=(2x) 3x3 − 5x + x2 + 2 9x2 − 5
=6x4 − 10x2 + 9x4 − 5x2 + 18x2 − 10
=15x4 + 3x2 − 10.
 51

The Quotient Rule

Having developed and practiced the product rule, we now consider differentiating quotients of
functions. As we see in the following theorem, the derivative of the quotient is not the quotient of
the derivatives; rather, it is the derivative of the function in the numerator times the function in
the denominator minus the derivative of the function in the denominator times the function in the
numerator, all divided by the square of the function in the denominator. In order to better grasp
why we cannot simply take the quotient of the derivatives, keep in mind that

d

d
x3 3x2
x 2
= 2x, not dx = = 3x2 .
dx d 1
(x)
dx

Theorem 2.6 (The Quotient Rule): Let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable functions. Then

  d d
d f (x) (f (x)) · g(x) − f (x) · (g(x))
= dx dx .
dx g(x) (g(x))2

That is,  ′
f (x) (f (x))′ · g(x) − f (x) · (g(x))′
=
g(x) (g(x))2

Example 7

Applying the Quotient Rule

5x2
Use the quotient rule to find the derivative of k(x) = .
4x + 3

Solution :

′

′ 5x2 (4x + 3) − 5x2 (4x + 3)′
k (x) =
(4x + 3)2


10x(4x + 3) − 5x2 4
=
(4x + 3)2
20x2 + 30x
= .
(4x + 3)2

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52

Theorem 2.7 (Extended Power Rule): If k is a negative integer, then

d  k
x = kxk−1 .
dx

Extending the Product Rule

Let f (x), g(x) and h(x) be differentiable functions. Then

(f (x)g(x)h(x))′ = f ′ (x) · g(x) · h(x) + f (x) · g ′ (x) · h(x) + f (x) · g(x) · h′ (x)

Combining Differentiation Rules

As we have seen throughout the examples in this section, it seldom happens that we are called
on to apply just one differentiation rule to find the derivative of a given function. At this point,
by combining the differentiation rules, we may find the derivatives of any polynomial or rational
function. Later on we will encounter more complex combinations of differentiation rules. A good
rule of thumb to use when applying several rules is to apply the rules in reverse of the order in
which we would evaluate the function.

Example 8

Combining the Quotient Rule and the Product Rule

2x3 k(x)
For h(x) = , find h′ (x).
3x + 2

Solution :
This procedure is typical for finding the derivative of a rational function.

′

2x3 k(x) (3x + 2) − 2x3 k(x) (3x + 2)′
h′ (x) =
(3x + 2)2



6x2 k(x) + 2x3 k ′ (x) (3x + 2) − 2x3 k(x) (3)
=
(3x + 2)2
18x k(x) + 12x k(x) + 6x4 k ′ (x) + 4x3 k ′ (x) − 6x3 k(x)
3 2
=
(3x + 2)2
12x3 k(x) + 12x2 k(x) + 6x4 k ′ (x) + 4x3 k ′ (x)
=
(3x + 2)2

Example 9

Determining Where a Function Has a Horizontal Tangent

Determine the values of x for which f (x) = x3 − 7x2 + 8x + 1 has a horizontal tangent line.
 53

Solution :
To find the values of x for which f (x) has a horizontal tangent line, we must solve f ′ (x) = 0.
Since f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 14x + 8 = (3x − 2)(x − 4), we must solve (3x − 2)(x − 4) = 0. Thus we
2
see that the function has horizontal tangent lines at x = and x = 4.
3

Example 10

Finding a Velocity
t
The position of an object on a coordinate axis at time t is given by s(t) = 2 . What is
t +1
the initial velocity of the object?

Solution :
Since the initial velocity is v(0) = s′ (0), begin by finding s′ (t) by applying the quotient rule:


1 t2 + 1 − t(2t) 1 − t2
s′ (t) = = .
(t2 + 1)2 (t2 + 1)2
1 − 02
∴ v(0) = s′ (0) = = 1.
(02 + 1)2

Higher-Order Derivatives

The derivative of a function is itself a function, so we can find the derivative of a derivative. For
example, the derivative of a position function is the rate of change of position, or velocity. The
derivative of velocity is the rate of change of velocity, which is acceleration. The new function
obtained by differentiating the derivative is called the second derivative. Furthermore, we can
continue to take derivatives to obtain the third derivative, fourth derivative, and so on. Collectively,
these are referred to as higher-order derivatives. The notation for the higher-order derivatives of
y = f (x) can be expressed in any of the following forms:

f ′′ (x), f ′′′ (x), f (4) (x), . . . , f (n) (x)

y ′′ (x), y ′′′ (x), y (4) (x), . . . , y (n) (x)
d2 y d3 y d4 y dn y
, , , . . . ,
dx2 dx3 dx4 dxn
 
d2 y d dy
It is interesting to note that the notation for 2 may be viewed as an attempt to express
   dx   dx dx
d d dy d d2 y d3 y
more compactly. Analogously, = = .
dx dx dx dx dx2 dx3

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54

Example 11

Finding a Second Derivative

For f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 1, find f ′′ (x).

Solution :
Taking the derivative of f (x), we get f ′ (x) = 4x − 3.
Taking the derivative of f ′ (x), we get f ′′ (x) = 4.

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

One of the most important types of motion in physics is simple harmonic motion, which is asso-
ciated with such systems as an object with mass oscillating on a spring. Simple harmonic motion
can be described by using either sine or cosine functions. In this section we expand our knowledge
of derivative formulas to include derivatives of these and other trigonometric functions. We begin
with the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions and then use them to obtain formulas for the
derivatives of the remaining four trigonometric functions. Being able to calculate the derivatives of
the sine and cosine functions will enable us to find the velocity and acceleration of simple harmonic
motion.

Theorem 2.8 (The Derivatives of sin x and cos x): The derivative of the sine function is the cosine
and the derivative of the cosine function is the negative sine.

d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = − sin x
dx

Example 12

Differentiating a Function Containing sin x

Find the derivative of f (x) = 5x3 sin x.

Solution :
Using the product rule, we have

′
f ′ (x) = 5x3 · sin x + 5x3 · (sin x)′ = 15x2 sin x + 5x3 cos x.
 55

Example 13

Finding the Derivative of a Function Containing cos x

cos x
Find the derivative of g(x) = .
4x2

Solution :
By applying the quotient rule, we have


′
′ (cos x)′ 4x2 − (cos x) 4x2
g (x) =
(4x2 )2


(− sin x) 4x2 − (cos x)(8x)
=
16x4
−4x2 sin x − 8x cos x
=
16x4
−x sin x − 2 cos x
=
4x3

Theorem 2.9 (Derivatives of tan x, cot x, sec x, and csc x): The derivatives of the remaining trigono-
metric functions are as follows:
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
d
(cot x) = − csc2 x
dx
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
d
(csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx

Example 14

Finding the Derivative of Trigonometric Functions

Find the derivative of f (x) = csc x + x tan x.

Solution :
To find this derivative, we must use both the sum rule and the product rule. Using the sum
rule, we find
d d
f ′ (x) = (csc x) + (x tan x).
dx dx
By applying the product rule to the second term we obtain


f ′ (x) = − csc x cot x + (1)(tan x) + (x) sec2 x
= − csc x cot x + tan x + x sec2 x.

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56

Example 15

Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line

π
Find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of f (x) = cot x at x = .
4

Solution :
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope at that point. To find
the point, compute π  π
f = cot = 1.
4 4
π 
Thus the tangent line passes through the point , 1 . Next, find the slope by finding the
4
π
derivative of f (x) = cot x and evaluating it at .
4
π  π
f ′ (x) = − csc2 x and f ′ = − csc2 = −2.
4 4

Equation of the tangent line is  π

y = −2 x − +1
4

Derivative of the Exponential Function

The function f (x) = bx , b > 0, b ̸= 1 is called the general exponential function. Its inverse,
g(x) = logb x is called the general logarithmic function. In particular, the function E(x) = ex
is called the natural exponential function. Its inverse, L(x) = loge x = ln x is called the natural
logarithmic function.

Theorem 2.10 (Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function): Let E(x) = ex be the natural
exponential function. Then
E ′ (x) = ex .

Theorem 2.11 (Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function): If x > 0 and y = ln x, then

dy 1
= .
dx x

Theorem 2.12 (Derivative of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions): Let b > 0, b ̸= 1.
If y = logb x, then
dy 1
= .
dx x ln b
If y = bx , then
dy
= bx ln b.
dx
 57

Example 16

Applying Derivative Formulas

3x
Find the derivative of h(x) = x .
3 +2

Solution :
Use the quotient rule and Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions.

3x ln 3 (3x + 2) − 3x (3x ln 3)
h′ (x) =
(3x + 2)2
2 · 3x
=
(3x + 2)2

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We now turn our attention to finding derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. These deriva-
tives will prove invaluable in the study of integration later in this text. The derivatives of inverse
trigonometric functions are quite surprising in that their derivatives are actually algebraic functions.
Previously, derivatives of algebraic functions have proven to be algebraic functions and derivatives
of trigonometric functions have been shown to be trigonometric functions. Here, for the first time,
we see that the derivative of a function need not be of the same type as the original function.

Theorem 2.13 (Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions):

d
1
sin−1 x = √
dx 1 − x2
d
−1
cos−1 x = √
dx 1 − x2
d
1
tan−1 x =
dx 1 + x2
d
−1
cot−1 x =
dx 1 + x2
d
1
sec−1 x = √
dx |x| x2 − 1
d
−1
csc−1 x = √
dx |x| x2 − 1

Example 17

Applying Differentiation Formulas to an Inverse Sine Function

Find the derivative of h(x) = x2 sin−1 x.

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58

Solution :
By applying the product rule, we have

1
h′ (x) = 2x sin−1 x + x2 · √ .
1 − x2

2.2 EXERCISES

I. Find f ′ (x) for each function.

(1) f (x) = 5x3 − x + 1 (12) f (x) = x csc−1 x

(13) f (x) = 3x5 cot−1 x
(2) f (x) = 4x2 − 7x 10x
(14) f (x) =
ln 10
(3) f (x) = 8x4 + 9x2 − 1 (15) f (x) = xπ · π x
x3 + 2x2 − 4
(16) f (x) =
2 3
(4) f (x) = x4 + 4x − 2x + 1
3
x (17) f (x) =
x2
  x2 + 4
13 (18) f (x) =
(5) f (x) = 3x 18x4 + x2 − 4
x+1
x+9
(19) f (x) =
  x − 7x + 1
2
2 5 sec x
(6) f (x) = x2 2
+ 3 (20) f (x) =
x x x
tan x

(21) f (x) =
1 − sec x
(7) f (x) = (x + 2) 2x2 −3
1 − cot x
(22) f (x) =
1 + cot x
(8) f (x) = x2 cot x 1 + cos x
(23) f (x) =
1 − cos x
sec−1 x
(9) f (x) = sin x tan x (24) f (x) =
x2 + 5
3x + 5
(25) f (x) =
(10) f (x) = (x + cos x)(1 − sin x) cot−1 x
log2 x
(11) f (x) = x2 ex (26) f (x) =
cos−1 x

II. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given function at the indicated point.

(1) y = 3x2 + 4x + 1 at (0, 1). 2x

(3) y = at (−1, 1).
x−1
√ 2 3
(2) y = 2 x + 1 at (4, 5). (4) y = − 2 at (1, −1).
x x
 59

III. For the following exercises, find the requested higher-order derivative for the given functions.
d3 y
(1) of y = 3 cos x
dx3

d2 y
(2) of y = 3 sin x + x2 cos x
dx2

d4 y
(3) of y = 5 cos x
dx4
IV. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 3x2 − 11 at x = 2.
V. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 2x3 + 4x2 − 5x − 3 at x = −1.
4
VI. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = x2 + − 10 at x = 8.
x


VII. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph f (x) = 3x − x2 3 − x − x2 at x = 1.
VIII. Find the point on the graph of f (x) = x3 such that the tangent line at that point has an x
intercept of 6 .
IX. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (3, 3) and tangent to the graph of
6
f (x) = .
x−1
X. Find the values of x for which the line tangent to the graph of f (x) = 4x2 − 3x + 2 has a
tangent line parallel to the line y = 2x + 3.

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60

2.3 DERIVATIVES AS A RATE OF CHANGE

In this section we look at some applications of the derivative by focusing on the interpretation of the
derivative as the rate of change of a function. These applications include acceleration and velocity
in physics, population growth rates in biology, and marginal functions in economics.
Motion along a Line
Derivative is used to analyze the motion along a line. We have described velocity as the rate of
change of position. If we take the derivative of the velocity, we can find the acceleration, or the rate
of change of velocity. It is also important to introduce the idea of speed, which is the magnitude of
velocity. Thus, we can state the following mathematical definitions.
Rate of change

Let s(t) be a function giving the position of an object at time t.

The velocity of the object at time t is given by v(t) = s′ (t).
The speed of the object at time t is given by |v(t)|.
The acceleration of the object at t is given by a(t) = v ′ (t) = s′′ (t).

Example 1

Comparing Instantaneous Velocity and Average Velocity

A ball is dropped from a height of 64 feet. Its height above ground (in feet) t seconds later
is given by s(t) = −16t2 + 64.
(a) What is the instantaneous velocity of the ball when it hits the ground?
(b) What is the average velocity during its fall?

Solution :
The first thing to do is determine how long it takes the ball to reach the ground. To do this,
set s(t) = 0.

Solving −16t2 + 64 = 0, we get t = 2, so it takes 2 seconds for the ball to reach the ground.
(a) The instantaneous velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground is v(2). Since v(t) = s′ (t) =
 61

−32t, we obtain v(t) = −64 ft/s.

(b) The average velocity of the ball during its fall is

s(2) − s(0) 0 − 64
vave = = = −32 ft/s.
2−0 2

Example 2

Interpreting the Relationship between v(t) and a(t)

A particle moves along a coordinate axis in the positive direction to the right. Its position
at time t is given by s(t) = t3 − 4t + 2. Find v(1) and a(1), use these values to answer the
following questions.
(a) Is the particle moving from left to right or from right to left at time t = 1 ?
(b) Is the particle speeding up or slowing down at time t = 1 ?

Solution :
Begin by finding v(t) and a(t).

v(t) = s′ (t) = 3t2 − 4, and a(t) = v ′ (t) = s′′ (t) = 6t.

Evaluating these functions at t = 1, we obtain v(1) = −1 and a(1) = 6.

(a) Because v(1) < 0, the particle is moving from right to left.
(b) Because v(1) < 0 and a(1) > 0, velocity and acceleration are acting in opposite directions.
In other words, the particle is being accelerated in the direction opposite the direction in which
it is traveling, causing |v(t)| to decrease. The particle is slowing down.

Example 3

Position and Velocity

The position of a particle moving along a coordinate axis is given by s(t) = t3 − 9t2 + 24t + 4,
t ≥ 0.
(a) Find v(t).
(b) At what time(s) is the particle at rest? On what time intervals is the particle moving
from left to right? From right to left?
(c) Use the information obtained to sketch the path of the particle along a coordinate axis.

Solution :
(a) The velocity is the derivative of the position function: v(t) = s′ (t) = 3t2 − 18t + 24.
(b) When the particle is at rest v(t) = 0, so set 3t2 − 18t + 24 = 0. Factoring the left-hand
side of the equation produces 3(t − 2)(t − 4) = 0. Solving, we find that the particle is at rest
at t = 2 and t = 4.

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62

(c) The particle is moving from left to right when v(t) > 0 and from right to left when
v(t) < 0.
Figure 2.7 gives the analysis of the sign of v(t) for t ≥ 0, but it does not represent the axis
along which the particle is moving.

Figure 2.7 The sign of v(t) determines the direction of the particle.

Since 3t2 − 18t + 24 > 0 on [0, 2) ∪ (2, +∞), the particle is moving from left to right on these
intervals, and since 3t2 − 18t + 24 < 0 on (2, 4), the particle is moving from right to left on
this interval.
(d) Before we can sketch the graph of the particle, we need to know its position at the time it
starts moving (t = 0) and at the times that it changes direction (t = 2, 4). We have s(0) = 4,
s(2) = 24, and s(4) = 20. This means that the particle begins on the coordinate axis at 4
and changes direction at 0 and 20 on the coordinate axis. The path of the particle is shown
on a coordinate axis in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8 The path of the particle can be determined by analyzing v(t).

2.3 EXERCISES

I. A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time t is given by s(t) = t2 − 5t + 1.
Is the particle moving from right to left or from left to right at time t = 3 ?
II. For the following exercises, the given functions represent the position of a particle traveling
along a horizontal line. Find the velocity and acceleration functions. Determine the time
intervals when the object is slowing down or speeding up.

(1) s(t) = 2t3 − 3t2 − 12t + 8.

(2) s(t) = 2t3 − 15t2 + 36t − 10.
t
(3) s(t) = .
1 + t2
III. A rocket is fired vertically upward from the ground. The distance s in feet that the rocket
travels from the ground after t seconds is given by s(t) = −16t2 + 560t.

(1) Find the velocity of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.
 63

(2) Find the acceleration of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.

IV. The position function s(t) = t3 − 8t gives the position in miles of a freight train where east is
the positive direction and t is measured in hours.

(1) Determine the direction the train is traveling when s(t) = 0.

(2) Determine the direction the train is traveling when a(t) = 0.
(3) Determine the time intervals when the train is slowing down or speeding up.

V. A potato is launched vertically upward with an initial velocity of 100 ft/s from a potato gun
at the top of an 85-foot-tall building. The distance in feet that the potato travels from the
ground after t seconds is given by s(t) = −16t2 + 100t + 85.

(1) Find the velocity of the potato after 0.5 s and 5.75 s.
(2) Find the speed of the potato at 0.5 s and 5.75 s.
(3) Determine when the potato reaches its maximum height.
(4) Find the acceleration of the potato at 0.5 s and 1.5 s.
(5) Determine how long the potato is in the air.
(6) Determine the velocity of the potato upon hitting the ground.

VI. The position of a hummingbird flying along a straight line in t seconds is given by s(t) = 3t3 −7t
meters.

(1) Determine the velocity of the bird at t = 1sec.

(2) Determine the acceleration of the bird at t = 1sec.
(3) Determine the acceleration of the bird when the velocity equals 0.

VII. A ball is thrown downward with a speed of 8 ft/s from the top of a 64-foot-tall building.
After t seconds, its height above the ground is given by s(t) = −16t2 − 8t + 64.

(1) Determine how long it takes for the ball to hit the ground.
(2) Determine the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground.

VIII. A car driving along a freeway with traffic has traveled s(t) = t3 − 6t2 + 9t meters in t seconds.

(1) Determine the time in seconds when the velocity of the car is 0 .
(2) Determine the acceleration of the car when the velocity is 0 .

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64

2.4 THE CHAIN RULE

We have seen the techniques for differentiating basic functions (algebraic and transcendental) as
well as sums, differences, products, quotients, and constant multiples of these functions. However,


these techniques do not allow us to differentiate compositions of functions, such as h(x) = sin x3
or k(x) = 3x2 + 1. In this section, we study the rule for finding the derivative of the composition of
two or more functions.

Deriving the Chain Rule

When we have a function that is a composition of two or more functions, we could use all of the tech-
niques we have already learned to differentiate it. However, using all of those techniques to break
down a function into simpler parts that we are able to differentiate can get cumbersome. Instead,
we use the chain rule, which states that the derivative of a composite function is the derivative of
the outer function evaluated at the inner function times the derivative of the inner function.

Rule: The Chain Rule

Let f and g be functions. For all x in the domain of g for which g is differentiable at x and f is
differentiable at g(x), the derivative of the composite function

y = (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

is given by
dy
= f ′ (g(x)) · g ′ (x).
dx
Alternatively, if y is a function of u, and u is a function of x, then

dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx

Chain Rule for a Composition of Three Functions

For all values of x for which the function is differentiable, if

y = f (g(h(x))),

then
dy
= f ′ (g(h(x))) · g ′ (h(x)) · h′ (x).
dx
The Chain and Power Rules Combined
We can now apply the chain rule to composite functions, but note that we often need to use it with
other rules. For example, to find derivatives of functions of the form y = (g(x))n , we need to use the
chain rule combined with the power rule. To do so, we can think of y = f (g(x)) where f (x) = xn .
Then f (x) = nxn−1 . Thus f ′ (g(x)) = n(g(x))n−1 .
This leads us to the derivative of a power function using the chain rule,

dy
= n(g(x))n−1 · g ′ (x).
dx
 65

Rule: Power Rule for Composition of Functions

For all values of x for which the derivative is defined,

d
[(g(x))n ] = n(g(x))n−1 · g ′ (x).
dx

Combining the Chain Rule with Other Rules

Now that we can combine the chain rule and the power rule, we examine how to combine the chain
rule with the other rules we have learned. In particular, we can use it with the formulas for the
derivatives of trigonometric functions or with the product rule.
Theorem 2.14 (Using the Chain Rule with Trigonometric Functions): For all values of x for which
the derivative is defined,

d
[sin(g(x))] = cos g(g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
d
[cos(g(x))] = − sin(g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
d
[tan(g(x))] = sec2 (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
d
[cot(g(x))] = − csc2 (g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
d
[sec(g(x))] = sec(g(x)) tan(g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
d
[csc(g(x))] = − csc(g(x)) cot(g(x)) · g ′ (x)
dx
For all values of x for which the derivative is defined,

d h g(x) i
e = eg(x) · g ′ (x)
dx
d 1
[ln g(x)] = · g ′ (x)
dx g(x)

Example 1

Using the Chain and Power Rules

1
Find the derivative of h(x) = .
(3x + 1)2
2

Solution :
1
−2
First, rewrite h(x) = = 3x2 + 1
(3x2 + 1)2
Applying the power rule with g(x) = 3x2 + 1, we have

−3
h′ (x) = −2 3x2 + 1 · (6x).

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66

Rewriting back to the original form gives us

−12x
h′ (x) = .
(3x2 + 1)3

Example 2

Using the Chain and Power Rules with a Trigonometric Function

Find the derivative of y = sin3 x.

Solution :
First recall that sin3 x = (sin x)3 , so we can rewrite y = sin3 x as y = (sin x)3 .
Applying the power rule with g(x) = sin x, we obtain

dy
y ′ or = 3(sin x)2 · cos x = 3 sin2 x cos x.
dx

Example 3

Using the Chain on a Trigonometric Function

Find the derivative of f (x) = sec 4x5 + 2x .

Solution :
Taking g(x) = 4x5 + 2x and applying the chain rule to f (x) = sec(g(x)), we obtain




f ′ (x) = sec 4x5 + 2x tan 4x5 + 2x · 20x4 + 2




= 20x4 + 2 sec 4x5 + 2x tan 4x5 + 2x

Example 4

Differentiating a Composite of Three Functions

Find the derivative of y = cos4 7x2 + 1 .

Solution :


4
First, rewrite y as y = cos 7x2 + 1 .
Then applying the chain rule for three functions,

dy

3

= y ′ = 4 cos 7x2 + 1 · − sin 7x2 + 1 · (14x)
dx



= −56x cos3 7x2 + 1 sin 7x2 + 1

dy dy du
Leibniz’s notation for the chain rule: = · .
dx du dx
 67

2.4 EXERCISES

I. For the following exercises, given y = f (u) and u = g(x), find

dy
dx

by using

(1) y = 3u − 6, u = 2x2 −x
(4) y = cos u, u =
8
(2) y = 6u3 , u = 7x − 4
(3) y = sin u, u = 5x − 1 (5) y = tan u, u = 9x + 2
dy
II. Find for each function:
dx
√
(1) y = ln(sec x) (7) y = cos−1 ( x)

(2) y = csc(πx + 1) (8) y = sin(cos 7x)

√
(9) y = cot−1 4 − x2
(3) y = cot2 x
(10) y = cot3 (4x + 1)
(4) y = cos3 (πx)
√ (11) y = esin 3x
(5) y = csc−1 x
(12) y = (3x − 2)6
1
3
(6) y = (13) y = 3x2 + 1
sin2 x

III. Find the derivative of the following functions:

4
(1) y = 3x2 + 3x − 1 (12) y = e2x+5
 
(2) y = (5 − 2x)−2 1

(13) g(x) = sec−1
(3) f (x) = sin−1 x2 x

3 √
(4) y = 2x3 − x2 + 6x + 1 (14) f (x) = cot−1 4 − x2
√
(5) g(x) = (tan x + sin x)−3 (15) f (x) = e2x + 2x
 
x 7 7 ex − e−x
(6) y = + (16) f (x) =
7 x ex + e−x

3
(7) k(x) = 1 + tan−1 x (17) g(x) = x2 ln 9x


(8) h(x) = x2 cos4 x (18) h(x) = ln 4x3 + x
(9) y = sin5 x (19) g(x) = 4xex
2 −1

(10) y = tan(sec x)
5
(20) g(x) = log7 6x4 + 3
e−x 2 −4
(11) f (x) = (21) f (x) = 2x · log3 7x
x
2 −1
IV. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 4xex at the point where x = −1.

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 68

V. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of y = log2 (3x + 1) at x = 1.
1
VI. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of h(x) = at x = 2.
(3x − 5)2
x
VII. Find the equation of the tangent line to y = − sin at the origin.
2
 
6 8
VIII. Find the x-coordinates at which the tangent line to y = x − is horizontal.
x

2.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

We have already studied how to find equations of tangent lines to functions and the rate of change
of a function at a specific point. In all these cases we had the explicit equation for the function and
differentiated these functions explicitly. Suppose instead that we want to determine the equation
of a tangent line to an arbitrary curve or the rate of change of an arbitrary curve at a point. In
this section, we solve these problems by finding the derivatives of functions that define y implicitly
in terms of x.

Implicit Differentiation

In most discussions of math, if the dependent variable y is a function of the independent variable
x, we express y in terms of x. If this is the case, we say that y is an explicit function of x. For
example, when we write the equation y = x2 + 1, we are defining y explicitly in terms of x. On
the other hand, if the relationship between the function y and the variable x is expressed by an
equation where y is not expressed entirely in terms of x, we say that the equation defines y im-
plicitly in terms of x. For example, the equation y −x2 = 1 defines the function y = x2 +1 implicitly.

Implicit differentiation allows us to find slopes of tangents to curves that are clearly not functions
(they fail the vertical line test). We are using the idea that portions of y are functions that satisfy
the given equation, but that y is not actually a function of x.

In general, an equation defines a function implicitly if the function satisfies that equation. An
√
equation may define many different functions implicitly. For example, the functions y = 25 − x2
( √
25 − x2 if − 25 ≤ x < 0
y= √ , which are illustrated below, are just three of the many functions
− 25 − x2 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 25
defined implicitly by the equation x2 + y 2 = 25

If we want to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of x2 + y 2 = 25 at the point (3, 4), we
√
could evaluate the derivative of the function y = 25 − x2 at x = 3. On the other hand, if we want
√
the slope of the tangent line at the point (3, −4), we could use the derivative of y = − 25 − x2 .
However, it is not always easy to solve for a function defined implicitly by an equation. Fortunately,
the technique of implicit differentiation allows us to find the derivative of an implicitly defined
 69

The equation x2 + y 2 = 25 defines many functions implicitly.

dy
function without ever solving for the function explicitly. The process of finding using implicit
dx
differentiation is described in the following problem-solving strategy.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Implicit Differentiation

To perform implicit differentiation on an equation that defines a function y implicitly in terms of a
variable x, use the following steps:

1. Take the derivative of both sides of the equation. Keep in mind that y is a function of x.
d d dy
Consequently, whereas (sin x) = cos x, (sin y) = cos y because we must use the chain
dx dx dx
rule to differentiate sin y with respect to x.
dy
2. Rewrite the equation so that all terms containing are on the left and all terms that do not
dx
dy
contain are on the right.
dx
dy
3. Factor out on the left.
dx

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70
dy
4. Solve for by dividing both sides of the equation by an appropriate algebraic expression.
dx

Example 1

Using Implicit Differentiation

dy
Assuming that y is defined implicitly by the equation x2 + y 2 = 25, find .
dx

Solution :
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.

d
d
x2 + y 2 = (25)
dx dx
d
d

x2 + y2 = 0
dx dx
dy
2x + 2y =0
dx
dy dy −2x x
2y = −2x ⇒ = =− .
dx dx 2y y

Example 2

Using Implicit Differentiation and the Product Rule

dy
Assuming that y is defined implicitly by the equation x3 sin y + y = 4x + 3, find .
dx

Solution :
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x.

d
d
x3 sin y + y = (4x + 3)
dx dx
d
d
x3 sin y + (y) = 4
dx dx
dy dy
3x2 sin y + x3 cos y + =4
dx dx
dy 3

x cos y + 1 = 4 − 3x2 sin y
dx
dy 4 − 3x2 sin y
= 3
dx x cos y + 1

Example 3

Using Implicit Differentiation to Find a Second Derivative

d2 y
Find if x2 + y 2 = 25
dx2
 71

Solution :
dy x
In Example 1, we showed that = − . We can take the derivative of both sides of this
dx y
d2 y
equation to find .
dx2  
d2 y d x
2
= −
dx dx y
dy
−1 · y − (−x) ·
= dx
y2
 
x
−y + x · −
y
= 2
y
−y − x2
2
=
y3
d2 y
At this point we have found an expression for . If we choose, we can simplify the expression
dx2
further by recalling that x2 +y 2 = 25 and making this substitution in the numerator to obtain
d2 y −25
2
= 3 .
dx y

Finding Tangent Lines Implicitly

Now that we have seen the technique of implicit differentiation, we can apply it to the problem of
finding equations of tangent lines to curves described by equations.

Example 4

Finding a Tangent Line to a Circle

Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve x2 + y 2 = 25 at the point (3, −4).

Solution :
dy x
In Example 1, we found = − . The slope of the tangent line is found by substituting
dx y
(3, −4) into this expression. Consequently, the slope of the tangent line is

dy 3 3
=− = .
dx (3,−4) −4 4

Using the point (3, −4) and the slope 34 in the point-slope equation of the line, we obtain
the equation
3
y = (x − 3) + (−4) or
4
3 25
y = x−
4 4

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72

Example 5

Finding a Tangent Line to a Curve  

3 3
Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve y3 + x3 − 3xy = 0 at the point , .
2 2

Solution :
dy
Begin by finding .
dx
d
d
y 3 + x3 − 3xy = (0)
dx  dx
dy dy
3y 2 + 3x2 − 3(1)y + 3x =0
dx dx
dy

3y 2 − 3x = 3y − 3x2
dx
dy y − x2
= 2
dx y −x
 
3 3 dy y − x2
Next, substitute , into = 2 to find the slope of the tangent line:
2 2 dx y −x
 2
3 3
−
dy 2 2
(
3 3
) =  2 = −1.
dx , 3 3
2 2 −
2 2

Finally, substitute into the point-slope equation of the line to obtain

 
3 3
y = −1 x − + or
2 2
y = −x + 3.

Logarithmic Differentiation

At this point, we can take derivatives of functions of the form y = (f (x))n for certain values of
n, as well as functions of the form y = bf (x) , where b > 0 and b ̸= 1. Unfortunately, we still do
not know the derivatives of functions such as y = xx or y = (sin x)x . These functions require
a technique called logarithmic differentiation, which allows us to differentiate any function of the
form h(x) = (g(x))f (x) . It can also be used to convert a√very complex differentiation problem into
x 2x + 1
a simpler one, such as finding the derivative of y = x 3 . We outline this technique in the
e sin x
following problem-solving strategy.
 73

Problem-Solving Strategy: Using Logarithmic Differentiation

1. To differentiate y = h(x) using logarithmic differentiation, take the natural logarithm of both
sides of the equation to obtain ln y = ln h(x).

2. Use properties of logarithms to expand ln h(x) as much as possible.

1 dy
3. Differentiate both sides of the equation. On the left we will have .
y dx
dy
4. Multiply both sides of the equation by y to solve for .
dx
5. Replace y by h(x).

Example 6

Using Logarithmic Differentiation

tan x
Find the derivative of y = 2x4 + 1 .

Solution :
Use logarithmic differentiation to find this derivative.

tan x
ln y = ln 2x4 + 1


ln y = tan x ln 2x4 + 1
1 dy
1
= sec2 x ln 2x4 + 1 + tan x · 4 · 8x3
y dx  2x + 1 
dy
1
= y sec x ln 2x + 1 + tan x · 4
2 4 · 8x 3
dx  2x + 1 
dy
tan x
1
4
= 2x + 1 sec x ln 2x + 1 + tan x · 4
2 4 · 8x 3
dx 2x + 1

Example 7

Using Logarithmic Differentiation

√
x 2x + 1
Find the derivative of y = x 3 .
e sin x

Solution :
This problem really makes use of the properties of logarithms and the differentiation rules
given in this chapter.
√
x 2x + 1
ln y = ln x 3
e sin x
1
ln y = ln x + ln(2x + 1) 2 − ln ex − ln(sin x)3
1
= ln x + ln(2x + 1) − x − 3 ln(sin x)
2

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74

1 dy 1 1 1 1
= + · ·2−1−3· · cos x
y dx x 2 2x + 1 sin x
1 1
= + − 1 − 3 cot x
x 2x + 1 
dy 1 1
=y + − 1 − 3 cot x
dx x 2x + 1
√  
dy x 2x + 1 1 1
= x 3 + − 1 − 3 cot x
dx e sin x x 2x + 1

2.5 EXERCISES

dy
I. Find for y defined implicitly by the equation 4x5 + tan y = y 2 + 5x.
dx
dy
II. For the following exercises, use implicit differentiation to find .
dx
√
(1) x2 − y 2 = 4 (6) y x + 4 = xy + 8
(2) 6x2 + 3y 2 = 12 x
(7) −xy − 2 =
7
(3) x2 y = y − 7
(4) 3x3 − 9xy 2 = 5x3 (8) y sin(xy) = y 2 + 2

(5) xy − cos(xy) = 1 (9) x3 y + xy 3 = −8

III. Find the equation of the line tangent to the hyperbola x2 − y 2 = 16 at the point (5, 3).
IV. For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given
equation at the indicated point.

(1) x4 y − xy 3 = −2, (−1, −1) (4) xy 2 + sin(πy) − 2x2 = 10, (1, 2)

π 
(2) x2 y 2 + 5xy = 14, (2, 1) (5) xy + sin x = 1, ,0
2
π  x 3
(3) tan(xy) = y, ,1 (6) + 5x − 7 = − y, (1, 2)
4 y 4

V. For the equation x2 + 2xy − 3y 2 = 0, find the equation of the normal to the tangent line at
the point (1, 1).
VI. For the equation 2x3 + 2y 3 − 9xy = 0, find the equation of the normal to the tangent line at
the point (2, 1).
VII. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of x3 − x ln y + y 3 = 2x + 5 at the point
where x = 2.
 75
dy
VIII. For the following exercises, use logarithmic differentiation to find .
dx
(1) y = xx (5) y = (sin 2x)4x
√
ln x
(2) y = x x (6) y = x2 − 1

(3) y = (tan x)x (7) y = xcot x

x+1
(4) y = (ln x)ln x (8) y = √
3
x2 − 4

2.6 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

INTRODUCTION

In the two-dimensional coordinate system, parametric equations are useful for describing curves
that are not necessarily functions. The parameter is an independent variable that both x and y
depend on, and as the parameter increases, the values of x and y trace out a path along a plane
curve. For example, if the parameter is t (a common choice), then t might represent time. Then x
and y are defined as functions of time, and (x(t), y(t)) can describe the position in the plane of a
given object as it moves along a curved path.
If x and y are continuous functions of t on an interval I, then the equations

x = x(t) and y = y(t)

are called parametric equations and t is called the parameter. The set of points (x, y) obtained as t
varies over the interval I is called the graph of the parametric equations. The graph of parametric
equations is called a parametric curve or plane curve.

Now that we have introduced the concept of a parameterized curve, our next step is to learn how
to work with this concept in the context of calculus. For example, if we know a parameterization
of a given curve, is it possible to calculate the slope of a tangent line to the curve?
Another scenario: Suppose we would like to represent the location of a baseball after the ball leaves
a pitcher’s hand. If the position of the baseball is represented by the plane curve (x(t), y(t) ), then
we should be able to use calculus to find the speed of the ball at any given time. Furthermore, we
should be able to calculate just how far that ball has traveled as a function of time.

Derivatives of Parametric Equations

We start by asking how to calculate the slope of a line tangent to a parametric curve at a point.
Consider the plane curve defined by the parametric equations

x(t) = 2t + 3, y(t) = 3t − 4, −2 ≤ t ≤ 3.

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76
The graph of this curve appears in fig-
ure. It is a line segment starting at
(−1, −10) and ending at (9, 5).
Graph of the line segment described by
the given parametric equations. We can
eliminate the parameter by first solving
the equation x(t) = 2t + 3 for t :

x(t) = 2t + 3
x − 3 = 2t
x−3
t= .
2

Substituting this into y(t), we obtain

y(t) = 3t − 4
 
x−3
y=3 −4
2
3x 9
y= − −4
2 2
3x 17
y= − .
2 2
dy 3
The slope of this line is given by = . Next we calculate x′ (t) and y ′ (t). This gives x′ (t) = 2
dx 2
dy dy/dt 3
and y ′ (t) = 3. Notice that = = . This is no coincidence, as outlined in the following
dx dx/dt 2
theorem.
Theorem 2.15 (Derivative of Parametric Equations): Consider the plane curve defined by the
parametric equations x = x(t) and y = y(t). Suppose that x′ (t) and y ′ (t) exist, and assume that
dy
x′ (t) ̸= 0. Then the derivative is given by
dx

dy dy/dt y ′ (t)
= = ′ .
dx dx/dt x (t)

Example 1

Finding the Derivative of a Parametric Curve

dy
Calculate the derivative for each of the following parametrically defined plane curves.
dx
(a) x(t) = t2 − 3, y(t) = 2t − 1

(b) x(t) = 2t + 1, y(t) = t3 − 3t + 4

(c) x(t) = 5 cos t, y(t) = 5 sin t

 77

Solution :
(a) First calculate x′ (t) and y ′ (t) :
x′ (t) = 2t
y ′ (t) = 2.
Next substitute these into the equation:

dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt
dy 2
=
dx 2t
dy 1
= .
dx t

(b) First calculate x′ (t) and y ′ (t) :

x′ (t) = 2
y ′ (t) = 3t2 − 3.

Next substitute these into the equation:

dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt
dy 3t2 − 3
= .
dx 2

(c) First calculate x′ (t) and y ′ (t) :

x′ (t) = −5 sin t
y ′ (t) = 5 cos t.

Next substitute these into the equation:

dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt
dy 5 cos t
=
dx −5 sin t
dy
= − cot t.
dx

Example 2

Finding a Tangent Line

Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve defined by the equations

x(t) = t2 − 3, y(t) = 2t − 1, −3 ≤ t ≤ 4 when t = 2.

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78

Solution :
First find the slope of the tangent line, which means calculating x′ (t) and y ′ (t) :

x′ (t) = 2t and y ′ (t) = 2.

Next substitute these into the equation:

dy dy/dt
=
dx dx/dt
dy 2
=
dx 2t
dy 1
= .
dx t
dy 1
When t = 2, = , so this is the slope of the tangent line. Calculating x(2) and y(2) gives
dx 2

x(2) = (2)2 − 3 = 1 and y(2) = 2(2) − 1 = 3,

which corresponds to the point (1, 3) on the graph. Now use the point-slope form of the
equation of a line to find the equation of the tangent line:

y − y0 = m (x − x0 )
1
y − 3 = (x − 1)
2
1 1
y−3= x−
2 2
1 5
y = x+ .
2 2

Tangent line to the parabola described by the given parametric equations when t = 2.
 79

Second-Order Derivatives

Our next goal is to see how to take the second derivative of a function defined parametrically. The
second derivative of a function y = f (x) is defined to be the derivative of the first derivative; that
is,  
d2 y d dy
= .
dx2 dx dx
dy dy/dt dy
Since = , we can replace the y on both sides of this equation with . This gives us
dx dx/dt dx
 
d2 y d dy (d/dt)(dy/dx)
2
= = .
dx dx dx dx/dt

dy
If we know as a function of t, then this formula is straightforward to apply.
dx

Example 3

Finding a Second Derivative

d2 y
Calculate the second derivative for the plane curve defined by the parametric equations
dx2
x(t) = t − 3, y(t) = 2t − 1, −3 ≤ t ≤ 4.
2

Solution :
dy 2 1
From Example 2 we know that = = .
dx 2t t
We obtain
2
d y (d/dt)(dy/dx)
2
=
dx dx/dt
(d/dt)(1/t)
=
2t
−t −2
=
2t
1
= − 3.
2t

2.6 EXERCISES

I. For the following exercises, each set of parametric equations represents a line. Without elimi-
nating the parameter, find the slope of each line.
(1) x = 3 + t, y =1−t
(2) x = 8 + 2t, y=1
(3) x = 4 − 3t, y = −2 + 6t

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80

(4) x = −5t + 7, y = 3t − 1

II. For the following exercises, determine the slope of the tangent line, then find the equation of
the tangent line at the given value of the parameter.
π
(1) x = 3 sin t, y = 3 cos t, t=
4
π
(2) x = cos t, y = 8 sin t, t =
2
(3) x = 2t, y = t3 , t = −1
1 1
(4) x = t + , y = t − , t = 1
t t
√
(5) x = t, y = 2t, t = 4

d2 y
III. For the following exercises, find .
dx2
(1) x = t4 − 1, y = t − t2
(2) x = sin(πt), y = cos(πt)
(3) x = e−t , y = te2t
(4) x(t) = t2 − 4t, y(t) = 2t3 − 6t

dy
IV. For the following exercises, find at the value of the parameter.
dx
3π
(1) x = cos t, y = sin t, t=
4
√
(2) x = t, y = 2t + 4, t=9
1
(3) x = 4 cos(2πs), y = 3 sin(2πs), s=−
4
d2 y
V. For the following exercises, find at the given point without eliminating the parameter.
dx2
1 1
(1) x = t2 , y = t3 , t = 2
2 3
√
(2) x = t, y = 2t + 4, t = 1
 Chapter 3

APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

INTRODUCTION

A rocket is being launched from the ground and cameras are recording the event. A video camera
is located on the ground a certain distance from the launch pad. At what rate should the angle of
inclination (the angle the camera makes with the ground) change to allow the camera to record the
flight of the rocket as it heads upward?
A rocket launch involves two related quantities that change over time. Being able to solve this type
of problem is just one application of derivatives introduced in this chapter. We also look at how
derivatives are used to find maximum and minimum values of functions. As a result, we will be able
to solve applied optimization problems, such as maximizing revenue and minimizing surface area.

3.1 RELATED RATES

We have seen that for quantities that are changing over time, the rates at which these quantities
change are given by derivatives. If two related quantities are changing over time, the rates at which
the quantities change are related. For example, if a balloon is being filled with air, both the radius
of the balloon and the volume of the balloon are increasing. In this section, we consider several
problems in which two or more related quantities are changing and we study how to determine the
relationship between the rates of change of these quantities.

Setting up Related-Rates Problems

In many real-world applications, related quantities are changing with respect to time. For example,
if we consider the balloon example again, we can say that the rate of change in the volume, V , is
dV dr
related to the rate of change in the radius, r. In this case, we say that and are related rates
dt dt
because V is related to r. Here we study several examples of related quantities that are changing
with respect to time and we look at how to calculate one rate of change given another rate of change.

81
82

Example 1

Inflating a Balloon
A spherical balloon is being filled with air at the constant rate of 2 cm3 /sec (Figure 3.1).
How fast is the radius increasing when the radius is 3 cm ?

Solution :

Figure 3.1: As the balloon is being filled with air, both the radius and the volume are
increasing with respect to time.

The volume of a sphere of radius r centimeters is

4
V = πr3 cm3 .
3

Since the balloon is being filled with air, both the volume and the radius are functions of
time. Therefore, t seconds after beginning to fill the balloon with air, the volume of air in
the balloon is
4
V (t) = π[r(t)]3 cm3 .
3
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time and applying the chain rule,
we see that the rate of change in the volume is related to the rate of change in the radius by
the equation
V ′ (t) = 4π[r(t)]2 · r′ (t).

The balloon is being filled with air at the constant rate of 2 cm3 /sec, so V ′ (t) = 2 cm3 /sec.
Therefore,



2 cm3 /sec = 4π[r(t)]2 cm2 · r′ (t)cm/sec ,

which implies
1
r′ (t) = cm/sec.
2π[r(t)]2
When the radius r = 3 cm,
1
r′ (t) = cm/sec.
18π
 83

Problem-Solving Strategy: Solving a Related-Rates Problem

1. Assign symbols to all variables involved in the problem. Draw a figure if applicable.

2. State, in terms of the variables, the information that is given and the rate to be determined.

3. Find an equation relating the variables introduced in step 1 .

4. Using the chain rule, differentiate both sides of the equation found in step 3 with respect to
the independent variable. This new equation will relate the derivatives.

5. Substitute all known values into the equation from step 4, then solve for the unknown rate of
change.

Note that when solving a related-rates problem, it is crucial not to substitute known values too soon.
For example, if the value for a changing quantity is substituted into an equation before both sides of
the equation are differentiated, then that quantity will behave as a constant and its derivative will
not appear in the new equation found in step 4. We examine this potential error in the following
example.
Examples of the Process
Let’s now implement the strategy just described to solve several related-rates problems. The first
example involves a plane flying overhead. The relationship we are studying is between the speed
of the plane and the rate at which the distance between the plane and a person on the ground is
changing.

Example 2

An Airplane Flying at a Constant Elevation

An airplane is flying overhead at a constant elevation of 4000 ft. A man is viewing the plane
from a position 3000 ft from the base of a radio tower. The airplane is flying horizontally
away from the man. If the plane is flying at the rate of 600 ft/sec, at what rate is the
distance between the man and the plane increasing when the plane passes over the radio
tower?

Solution :
Step 1. Draw a picture, introducing variables to represent the different quantities involved.

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84

Figure 3.2: An airplane is flying at a constant height of 4000 ft.

The distance between the person and the airplane and the person and the place on the ground
directly below the airplane are changing. We denote those quantities with the variables s
and x, respectively.
As shown, x denotes the distance between the man and the position on the ground directly
below the airplane. The variable s denotes the distance between the man and the plane. Note
that both x and s are functions of time. We do not introduce a variable for the height of the
plane because it remains at a constant elevation of 4000ft. Since an object’s height above
the ground is measured as the shortest distance between the object and the ground, the line
segment of length 4000ft is perpendicular to the line segment of length x feet, creating a right
triangle.
Step 2. Since x denotes the horizontal distance between the man and the point on the ground
dx
below the plane, represents the speed of the plane. We are told the speed of the plane is
dt
dx
600ft/sec. Therefore, = 600ft/sec. Since we are asked to find the rate of change in the
dt
distance between the man and the plane when the plane is directly above the radio tower,
ds
we need to find when x = 3000ft.
dt
Step 3. From the Figure 3.2, we can use the Pythagorean theorem to write an equation
relating x and s :
[x(t)]2 + 40002 = [s(t)]2 .

Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time and using the fact that the derivative
of a constant is zero, we arrive at the equation

dx ds
x =s .
dt dt

Step 5. Find the rate at which the distance between the man and the plane is increasing
ds
when the plane is directly over the radio tower. That is, find when x = 3000 ft. Since
dt
dx
the speed of the plane is 600 ft/sec, we know that = 600 ft/sec. We are not given
dt
ds
an explicit value for s; however, since we are trying to find when x = 3000 ft, we can
dt
use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the distance s when x = 3000 and the height is
 85

4000 ft. Solving the equation

30002 + 40002 = s2
ds
for s, we have s = 5000 ft at the time of interest. Using these values, we conclude that
dt
is a solution of the equation
ds
(3000)(600) = (5000) .
dt
Therefore,
ds 3000 · 600
= = 360 ft/sec.
dt 5000

Example 3

Chapter Opener: A Rocket Launch

A rocket is launched so that it rises vertically. A camera is positioned 5000 ft from the
launch pad. When the rocket is 1000 ft above the launch pad, its velocity is 600 ft/sec.
Find the necessary rate of change of the camera’s angle as a function of time so that it stays
focused on the rocket.

Solution :
Step 1. Draw a picture introducing the variables.

Figure 3.3: A camera is positioned 5000 ft from the launch pad of the rocket.

The height of the rocket and the angle of the camera are changing with respect to time. We
denote those quantities with the variables h and θ, respectively.
Let h denote the height of the rocket above the launch pad and θ be the angle between the
camera lens and the ground.
Step 2. We are trying to find the rate of change in the angle of the camera with respect to time
dθ
when the rocket is 1000 ft off the ground. That is, we need to find when h = 1000 ft.
dt
dh
At that time, we know the velocity of the rocket is = 600 ft/sec.
dt
Step 3. Now we need to find an equation relating the two quantities that are changing with

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86

respect to time: h and θ. How can we create such an equation? Using the fact that we have
drawn a right triangle, it is natural to think about trigonometric functions. Recall that tan θ
is the ratio of the length of the opposite side of the triangle to the length of the adjacent
side. Thus, we have
h
tan θ = .
5000
This gives us the equation
h = 5000 tan θ.

Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time t, we obtain

dh dθ
= 5000 sec2 θ .
dt dt
dθ dh
Step 5. We want to find when h = 1000 ft. At this time, we know that = 600 ft/sec.
dt dt
2
We need to determine sec θ. Recall that sec θ is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse
to the length of the adjacent side. We know the length of the adjacent side is 5000 ft. To
determine the length of the hypotenuse, we use the Pythagorean theorem, where the length
of one leg is 5000 ft, the length of the other leg is h = 1000 ft, and the length of the
hypotenuse is c feet as shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4:

We see that
10002 + 50002 = c2

and we conclude that the hypotenuse is

√
c = 1000 26 ft.

Therefore, when h = 1000, we have

√ !2
2 1000 26 26
sec θ = = .
5000 25

dθ
Recall from step 4 that the equation relating to our known values is
dt
dh dθ
= 5000 sec2 θ .
dt dt
 87

dh 26
When h = 1000 ft, we know that = 600 ft/sec and sec2 θ = . Substituting these
dt 25
values into the previous equation, we arrive at the equation
 
26 dθ
600 = 5000 .
25 dt

dθ 3
Therefore, = rad/sec.
dt 26

Example 4

Water Draining from a Funnel

Water is draining from the bottom of a cone-shaped funnel at the rate of 0.03 ft3 /sec. The
height of the funnel is 2 ft and the radius at the top of the funnel is 1 ft. At what rate is
1
the height of the water in the funnel changing when the height of the water is ft ?
2

Solution :
Step 1. Draw a picture introducing the variables.

Figure 3.5: Water is draining from a funnel of height 2 ft and radius 1 ft.

The height of the water and the radius of water are changing over time. We denote these
quantities with the variables h and r, respectively.
Let h denote the height of the water in the funnel, r denote the radius of the water at its
surface, and V denote the volume of the water.
dh 1 dV
Step 2: We need to determine when h = ft. We know that = −0.03 ft/sec.
dt 2 dt
1
Step 3: The volume of water in the cone isV = πr2 h. From the figure, we see that we have
3
similar triangles. Therefore, the ratio of the sides in the two triangles is the same. Therefore,

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88

r 1 h
= or r = . Using this fact, the equation for volume can be simplified to
h 2 2
 2
1 h π
V = π h = h3 .
3 2 12

Step 4: Applying the chain rule while differentiating both sides of this equation with respect
to time t, we obtain
dV π dh
= h2 .
dt 4 dt
dh 1
Step 5: We want to find when h = ft. Since water is leaving at the rate of
dt 2
dV
0.03 ft3 /sec, we know that = −0.03 ft3 /sec. Therefore,
dt
 
π 12 dh
−0.03 = ,
4 2 dt

π dh
which implies −0.03 = .
16 dt
dh 0.48
It follows that =− = −0.153 ft/sec
dt π

3.1 EXERCISES

I. Answer the following:

(1) The side of a cube increases at a rate of 12 m/sec. Find the rate at which the volume of
the cube increases when the side of the cube is 4 m.
(2) The volume of a cube decreases at a rate of 10 m3 /sec. Find the rate at which the side of
the cube changes when the side of the cube is 2 m.
(3) The radius of a circle increases at a rate of 2 m/sec. Find the rate at which the area of
the circle increases when the radius is 5 m.
(4) The radius of a sphere decreases at a rate of 3 m/sec. Find the rate at which the surface
area decreases when the radius is 10 m.
(5) The radius of a sphere increases at a rate of 1 m/sec. Find the rate at which the volume
increases when the radius is 20 m.
(6) The radius of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 9 cm/sec. Find the radius of the sphere
when the volume and the radius of the sphere are increasing at the same numerical rate.
(7) A vertical cylinder is leaking water at a rate of 1ft3 /sec. If the cylinder has a height of
10ft and a radius of 1ft, at what rate is the height of the water changing when the height
is 6ft ?
 89

(8) A cylinder is leaking water, but you are unable to determine at what rate. The cylinder
has a height of 2 m and a radius of 2 m. Find the rate at which the water is leaking out
of the cylinder if the rate at which the height is decreasing is 10 m/min when the height
is 1 m.
(9) A 10-ft ladder is leaning against a wall. If the top of the ladder slides down the wall at
a rate of 2 ft/sec, how fast is the bottom moving along the ground when the bottom of
the ladder is 5 ft from the wall?

3.2 MAXIMA AND MINIMA

Given a particular function, we are often interested in determining the largest and smallest values
of the function. This information is important in creating accurate graphs. Finding the maximum
and minimum values of a function also has practical significance because we can use this method
to solve optimization problems, such as maximizing profit, minimizing the amount of material used
in manufacturing an aluminum can, or finding the maximum height a rocket can reach. In this
section, we look at how to use derivatives to find the largest and smallest values for a function.

Absolute Extrema

Consider the function f (x) = x2 + 1

over the interval (−∞, ∞). As x →
±∞, f (x) → ∞. Therefore, the func-
tion does not have a largest value. How-
ever, since x2 + 1 ≥ 1 for all real num-
bers x and x2 + 1 = 1 when x = 0, the
function has a smallest value, 1 , when
x = 0. We say that 1 is the absolute
minimum of f (x) = x2 + 1 and it occurs
at x = 0. We say that f (x) = x2 +1 does
not have an absolute maximum (see the
following figure 3.6).
The given function has an absolute min-
imum of 1 at x = 0. The function does
not have an absolute maximum.
Figure 3.6:
Absolute Extremum
Let f be a function defined over an interval I and let c ∈ I. We say f has an absolute
maximum on I at c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I. We say f has an absolute minimum on I at c
if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I. If f has an absolute maximum on I at c or an absolute minimum
on I at c, we say f has an absolute extremum on I at c.

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90

Before proceeding, let’s note two important issues regarding this definition. First, the term absolute
here does not refer to absolute value. An absolute extremum may be positive, negative, or zero.
Second, if a function f has an absolute extremum over an interval I at c, the absolute extremum
is f (c). The real number c is a point in the domain at which the absolute extremum occurs. For
1
example, consider the function f (x) = 2 over the interval (−∞, ∞). Since
x +1

1
f (0) = 1 ≥ = f (x)
x2 +1

for all real numbers x, we say f has an absolute maximum over (−∞, ∞) at x = 0. The absolute
maximum is f (0) = 1. It occurs at x = 0, as shown in Figure 3.8.

1
Figure 3.7: f (x) = x3 on (−∞, ∞) No absoluteFigure 3.8: f (x) = 2 on (−∞, ∞) Absolute
x +1
maximum No absolute minimum maximum of 1 at x = 0 No absolute minimum

1
Figure 3.9: f (x) = on (−∞, ∞)
x2 +1
 91

f (x) = cos(x) on (−∞, ∞) Absolute maximum of 1 at x = 0, ±2π, ±4π . . . Absolute minimum of

−1 at x = ±π, ±3π . . .
Graphs in Figure 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9 show several possibilities for absolute extrema for functions with
a domain of (−∞, ∞). A function may have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum,
just one extremum, or neither. Figure 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9 show some of the different possibilities
regarding absolute extrema. However, the following theorem, called the Extreme Value Theorem,
guarantees that a continuous function f over a closed, bounded interval [a, b] has both an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum.
Theorem 3.1 (Extreme Value Theorem): If f is a continuous function over the closed, bounded
interval [a, b], then there is a point in [a, b] at which f has an absolute maximum over [a, b] and
there is a point in [a, b] at which f has an absolute minimum over [a, b].

Local Extrema and Critical Points

Consider the function f shown in Figure 3.15. The

graph can be described as two mountains with
a valley in the middle. The absolute maximum
value of the function occurs at the higher peak, at
x = 2. However, x = 0 is also a point of interest.
Although f (0) is not the largest value of f , the
value f (0) is larger than f (x) for all x near 0 .
We say f has a local maximum at x = 0. Sim-
ilarly, the function f does not have an absolute
minimum, but it does have a local minimum at
x = 1 because f (1) is less than f (x) for x near 1 .
Figure 3.10: Caption
f (x) defined on (−∞, ∞)
Local maxima at x = 0 and x = 2
Local minimum at x = 1 Figure 3.15 This function f has two local maxima and one local minimum.
The local maximum at x = 2 is also the absolute maximum.
Local Extremum
A function f has a local maximum at c if there exists an open interval I containing c such
that I is contained in the domain of f and f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ I. A function f has a local
minimum at c if there exists an open interval I containing c such that I is contained in the
domain of f and f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ I. A function f has a local extremum at c if f has a
local maximum at c or f has a local minimum at c.

Note that if f has an absolute extremum at c and f is defined over an interval containing c, then
f (c) is also considered a local extremum. If an absolute extremum for a function f occurs at an
endpoint, we do not consider that to be a local extremum, but instead refer to that as an endpoint
extremum.

Given the graph of a function f , it is sometimes easy to see where a local maximum or local min-

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92

imum occurs. However, it is not always easy to see, since the interesting features on the graph of
a function may not be visible because they occur at a very small scale. Also, we may not have a
graph of the function. In these cases, how can we use a formula for a function to determine where
these extrema occur?

To answer this question, let’s look at Figure 3.8 again. The local extrema occur at x = 0, x = 1,
and x = 2. Notice that at x = 0 and x = 1, the derivative f ′ (x) = 0. At x = 2, the derivative f ′ (x)
does not exist, since the function f has a corner there. In fact, if f has a local extremum at a point
x = c, the derivative f ′ (c) must satisfy one of the following conditions: either f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) is
undefined. Such a value c is known as a critical point and it is important in finding extreme values
for functions.
Critical Point
Let c be an interior point in the domain of f . We say that c is a critical point of f if f ′ (c) = 0
or f ′ (c) is undefined.

As mentioned earlier, if f has a local extremum at a point x = c, then c must be a critical point of
f . This fact is known as Fermat’s theorem.
Theorem 3.2 (Fermat’s Theorem): If f has a local extremum at c and f is differentiable at c, then
f ′ (c) = 0.
Theorem 3.3 (Location of Absolute Extrema): Let f be a continuous function over a closed,
bounded interval I. The absolute maximum of f over I and the absolute minimum of f over I must
occur at endpoints of I or at critical points of f in I.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Locating Absolute Extrema over a Closed Interval

Consider a continuous function f defined over the closed interval [a, b].

1. Evaluate f at the endpoints x = a and x = b.

2. Find all critical points of f that lie over the interval (a, b) and evaluate f at those critical
points. 3. Compare all values found in (1) and (2). From Theorem 3.3, the absolute extrema
must occur at endpoints or critical points. Therefore, the largest of these values is the absolute
maximum of f . The smallest of these values is the absolute minimum of f .

Example 1

Locating Absolute Extrema

For each of the following functions, find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum over
the specified interval and state where those values occur.

(a) f (x) = −x2 + 3x − 2 over [1, 3].

2
(b) f (x) = x2 − 3x 3 over [0, 2].
 93

Solution :
(a) Step 1. Evaluate f at the endpoints x = 1 and x = 3.

f (1) = 0 and f (3) = −2

Step 2. Since f ′ (x) = −2x + 3, f ′ is defined for all real numbers x. Therefore, there are no
critical points where the derivative is undefined. It remains to check ′
 where f (x) = 0. Since
3 3 3
f ′ (x) = −2x + 3 = 0 at x = and is in the interval [1, 3], f is a candidate for an
2 2   2 

3 3 1
absolute extremum of f over [1, 3]. We evaluate f and find f = .
2 2 4
Step 3. We set up the following table to compare the values found in steps 1 and 2 .
x f (x) Conclusion
1 0
3 1
Absolute maximum
2 4
3 −2 Absolute minimum
1
From the table, we find that the absolute maximum of f over the interval [1, 3] is , and it
4
3
occurs at x = . The absolute minimum of f over the interval [1, 3] is −2, and it occurs at
2
x = 3.
(b) Step 1. Evaluate f at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 2.
2
f (0) = 0 and f (2) = 4 − 3(2) 3 ≈ −0.762

Step 2. The derivative of f is given by

2 2x4/3 − 2
f ′ (x) = 2x − =
x1/3 x1/3

for x ̸= 0. The derivative is zero when 2x4/3 − 2 = 0, which implies x = ±1. The derivative
is undefined at x = 0. Therefore, the critical points of f are x = 0, 1, −1. The point x = 0 is
an endpoint, so we already evaluated f (0) in step 1 . The point x = −1 is not in the interval
of interest, so we need only evaluate f (1). We find that

f (1) = −2

Step 3. We set up the following table to compare the values found in steps 1 and 2.
x f (x) Conclusion
0 0 Absolute maximum
1 −2 Absolute minimum
2 −0.762
We conclude that the absolute maximum of f over the interval [0, 2] is zero, and it occurs at
x = 0. The absolute minimum is −2, and it occurs at x = 1.

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Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph

Earlier in this chapter we stated that if a function f has a local extremum at a point c, then c must
be a critical point of f . However, a function is not guaranteed to have a local extremum at a critical
point. For example, f (x) = x3 has a critical point at x = 0 since f ′ (x) = 3x2 is zero at x = 0, but
f does not have a local extremum at x = 0. Using the results from the previous section, we are
now able to determine whether a critical point of a function actually corresponds to a local extreme
value. In this section, we also see how the second derivative provides information about the shape
of a graph by describing whether the graph of a function curves upward or curves downward.

The First Derivative Test

Corollary 3 of the Mean Value Theorem showed that if the derivative of a function is positive over an
interval I then the function is increasing over I. On the other hand, if the derivative of the function
is negative over an interval I, then the function is decreasing over I as shown in the following figure.

Figure 3.11: f is increasing Figure 3.12: f is decreasing

Figure 3.13: f is increasing Figure 3.14: f is decreasing

Both functions 3.11 and 3.13 are increasing over the interval (a, b). At each point x, the derivative
f ′ (x) > 0. Both functions 3.12 and 3.14 are decreasing over the interval (a, b). At each point x, the
derivative f ′ (x) < 0.
A continuous function f has a local maximum at point c if and only if f switches from increasing to
decreasing at point c. Similarly, f has a local minimum at c if and only if f switches from decreasing
 95

to increasing at c. If f is a continuous function over an interval I containing c and differentiable

over I, except possibly at c, the only way f can switch from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa)
at point c is if f ′ changes sign as x increases through c. If f is differentiable at c, the only way
that f ′ can change sign as x increases through c is if f ′ (c) = 0. Therefore, for a function f that is
continuous over an interval I containing c and differentiable over I, except possibly at c, the only
way f can switch from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa) is if f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) is undefined.
Consequently, to locate local extrema for a function f , we look for points c in the domain of f such
that f ′ (c) = 0 or f ′ (c) is undefined. Recall that such points are called critical points of f .
Note that f need not have a local extrema at a critical point. The critical points are candidates for
local extrema only. In Figure 3.15, we show that if a continuous function f has a local extremum, it
must occur at a critical point, but a function may not have a local extremum at a critical point. We
show that if f has a local extremum at a critical point, then the sign of f ′ switches as x increases
through that point.

Figure 3.15:

The function f has four critical points: a, b, c, and d. The function f has local maxima at a and
d, and a local minimum at b. The function f does not have a local extremum at c. The sign of f ′
changes at all local extrema.
Using Figure 3.15, we summarize the main results regarding local extrema.

• If a continuous function f has a local extremum, it must occur at a critical point c.

• The function has a local extremum at the critical point c if and only if the derivative f ′
switches sign as x increases through c.

• Therefore, to test whether a function has a local extremum at a critical point c, we must
determine the sign of f ′ (x) to the left and right of c.

This result is known as the first derivative test.

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96

Theorem 3.4 (First Derivative Test): Suppose that f is a continuous function over an interval
I containing a critical point c. If f is differentiable over I, except possibly at point c, then f (c)
satisfies one of the following descriptions:

1. If f ′ changes sign from positive when x < c to negative when x > c, then f (c) is a local
maximum of f .

2. If f ′ changes sign from negative when x < c to positive when x > c, then f (c) is a local
minimum of f .

3. If f ′ has the same sign for x < c and x > c, then f (c) is neither a local maximum nor a local
minimum of f .

Problem-Solving Strategy: Using the First Derivative Test

Consider a function f that is continuous over an interval I.

1. Find all critical points of f and divide the interval I into smaller intervals using the critical
points as endpoints.

2. Analyze the sign of f ′ in each of the subintervals. If f ′ is continuous over a given subinterval
(which is typically the case), then the sign of f ′ in that subinterval does not change and,
therefore, can be determined by choosing an arbitrary test point x in that subinterval and by
evaluating the sign of f ′ at that test point. Use the sign analysis to determine whether f is
increasing or decreasing over that interval.

3. Use First Derivative Test and the results of step 2 to determine whether f has a local maximum,
a local minimum, or neither at each of the critical points.

Example 2

Using the First Derivative Test to Find Local Extrema

Use the first derivative test to find the location of all local extrema for f (x) = x3 −3x2 −9x−1.
Use a graphing utility to confirm your results.

Solution :
Step 1. The derivative is f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 6x − 9. To find the critical points, we need to find
where f ′ (x) = 0.
Factoring the polynomial, we conclude that the critical points must satisfy

3x2 − 6x − 9 = 3(x − 3)(x + 1) = 0.

Therefore, the critical points are x = 3, −1. Now divide the interval (−∞, ∞) into the smaller
intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 3) and (3, ∞).
Step 2. Since f ′ is a continuous function, to determine the sign of f ′ (x) over each subinterval,
it suffices to choose a point over each of the intervals (−∞, −1), (−1, 3) and (3, ∞) and
determine the sign of f ′ at each of these points. For example, let’s choose x = −2, x = 0,
 97

and x = 4 as test points.

Interval Test Point Sign of f ′ (x) Conclusion
(−∞, −1) x = −2 (+)(−)(−) = + f is increasing.
(−1, 3) x=0 (+)(−)(+) = − f is decreasing.
(3, ∞) x=4 (+)(+)(+) = + f is increasing.
′
Step 3. Since f switches sign from positive to negative as x increases through 1, f has a local
maximum at x = −1. Since f ′ switches sign from negative to positive as x increases through
3, f has a local minimum at x = 3.

Concavity and Points of Inflection

We now know how to determine where a function is increasing or decreasing. However, there is
another issue to consider regarding the shape of the graph of a function. If the graph curves, does
it curve upward or curve downward? This notion is called the concavity of the function. Figure
3.17 shows a function f with a graph that curves upward. As x increases, the slope of the tangent
line increases. Thus, since the derivative increases as x increases, f ′ is an increasing function. We
say this function f is concave up. Figure ?? shows a function f that curves downward. As x
increases, the slope of the tangent line decreases. Since the derivative decreases as x increases, f ′
is a decreasing function. We say this function f is concave down.

Figure 3.17: f is increasing Figure 3.18: f is decreasing

Figure 3.19: f is increasing Figure 3.20: f is decreasing

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98

In Figure 3.17 and 3.19, since f ′ is increasing over the interval (a, b), we say f is concave up over
(a, b).

In Figure 3.18 and 3.20, since f ′ is decreasing over the interval (a, b), we say f is concave down over
(a, b).

Concavity

Let f be a function that is differentiable over an open interval I. If f ′ is increasing over I,

we say f is concave up over I. If f ′ is decreasing over I, we say f is concave down over I.

In general, without having the graph of a function f , how can we determine its concavity? By
definition, a function f is concave up if f ′ is increasing. From Corollary 3, we know that if f ′ is
a differentiable function, then f ′ is increasing if its derivative f ′′ (x) > 0. Therefore, a function f
that is twice differentiable is concave up when f ′′ (x) > 0. Similarly, a function f is concave down if
f ′ is decreasing. We know that a differentiable function f ′ is decreasing if its derivative f ′′ (x) < 0.
Therefore, a twice-differentiable function f is concave down when f ′′ (x) < 0. Applying this logic is
known as the concavity test.
Theorem 3.5 (Test for Concavity): Let f be a function that is twice differentiable over an interval
I.
(i) If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I, then f is concave up over I.
(ii) If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I, then f is concave down over I.
We conclude that we can determine the concavity of a function f by looking at the second deriva-
tive of f . In addition, we observe that a function f can switch concavity. However, a continuous
function can switch concavity only at a point x if f ′′ (x) = 0 or f ′′ (x) is undefined. Consequently,
to determine the intervals where a function f is concave up and concave down, we look for those
values of x where f ′′ (x) < 0 or f ′′ (x) is undefined. When we have determined these points, we
divide the domain of f into smaller intervals and determine the sign of f ′′ over each of these smaller
intervals. If f ′′ changes sign as we pass through a point x, then f changes concavity. It is important
to remember that a function f may not change concavity at a point x even if f ′′ (x) = 0 or f ′′ (x) is
undefined. If, however, f does change concavity at a point a and f is continuous at a, we say the
point (a, f (a)) is an inflection point of f .

Inflection point

If f is continuous at a and f changes concavity at a, the point (a, f (a)) is an inflection point
of f .
 99

Figure 3.21:

Since f ′′ (x) > 0 for x < a, the function f is concave up over the interval (−∞, a). Since f ′′ (x) < 0
for x > a, the function f is concave down over the interval (a, ∞). The point is an inflection point
of f .

Example 3

Testing for Concavity

For the function f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 30, determine all intervals where f is concave up and
all intervals where f is concave down. List all inflection points for f . Use a graphing utility
to confirm your results.

Solution :
To determine concavity, we need to find the second derivative f ′′ (x). The first derivative is
f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 12x + 9, so the second derivative is f ′′ (x) = 6x − 12. If the function changes
concavity, it occurs either when f ′′ (x) = 0 or f ′′ (x) is undefined. Since f ′′ is defined for all
real numbers x, we need only find where f ′′ (x) = 0. Solving the equation 6x − 12 = 0, we see
that x = 2 is the only place where f could change concavity. We now test points over the
intervals (−∞, 2) and (2, ∞) to determine the concavity of f . The points x = 0 and x = 3
are test points for these intervals.

Interval Test Point Sign of f ′′ (x) Conclusion

(−∞, 2) x=0 − f is concave down.
(2, ∞) x=3 + f is concave up.

We conclude that f is concave down over the interval (−∞, 2) and concave up over the interval
(2, ∞). Since f changes concavity at x = 2, the point (2, f (2)) = (2, 32) is an inflection point.
Figure 3.22 confirms the analytical results.

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100

Figure 3.22:

The given function has a point of inflection at (2, 32) where the graph changes concavity.

We now summarize, in the table below, the information that the first and second derivatives of a
function f provide about the graph of f , and illustrate this information in Figure 3.22.

Sign of f ′ Is f increasing or decreasing Sign of f ′′ Concavity

Positive Increasing Positive Concave up
Positive Increasing Negative Concave down
Negative Decreasing Positive Concave up
Negative Decreasing Negative Concave down

Figure 3.23:

Consider a twice-differentiable function f over an open interval I. If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I, the
 101

function is increasing over I. If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I, the function is decreasing over I. If f ′′ (x) > 0
for all x ∈ I, the function is concave up. If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I, the function is concave down on I.

The Second Derivative Test

The first derivative test provides an analytical tool for finding local extrema, but the second deriva-
tive can also be used to locate extreme values. Using the second derivative can sometimes be a
simpler method than using the first derivative. We know that if a continuous function has a local
extremum, it must occur at a critical point. However, a function need not have a local extremum at
a critical point. Here we examine how the second derivative test can be used to determine whether
a function has a local extremum at a critical point.

Let f be a twice differentiable function such

that f ′ (a) = 0 and f ′′ is continuous over an
open interval I containing a. Suppose f ′ (a) < 0.
Since f ′′ is continuous over I, f ′′ (x) < 0 for all
x ∈ I (Figure 3.24). Then, by Corollary 3, f ′ is a
decreasing function over I. Since f ′ (a) = 0, we
conclude that for all x ∈ I, f ′ (x) > 0 if x < a
and f ′ (x) < 0 if x > a. Therefore, by the first
derivative test, f has a local maximum at x = a.
On the other hand, suppose there exists a point
b such that f ′ (b) = 0 but f ′′ (b) > 0. Since f ′′
is continuous over an open interval I containing
b, then f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I (Figure 3.24).
Then, by Corollary 3, f ′ is an increasing function
over I. Since f ′ (b) = 0, we conclude that for all
x ∈ I, f ′ (x) < 0 if x < b and f ′ (x) > 0 if x > b. Figure 3.24:
Therefore, by the first derivative test, f has a
local minimum at x = b.

Consider a twice-differentiable function f such that f ′′ is continuous. Since f ′ (a) = 0 and f ′′ (a) < 0,
there is an interval I containing a such that for all x in I, f is increasing if x < a and f is decreasing
if x > a. As a result, f has a local maximum at x = a. Since f ′ (b) = 0 and f ′′ (b) > 0, there is an
interval I containing b such that for all x in I, f is decreasing if x < b and f is increasing if x > b.
As a result, f has a local minimum at x = b.

Theorem 3.6 (Second Derivative Test): Suppose f ′ (c) = 0, f ′′ is continuous over an interval
containing c.

(a) If f ′′ (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.

(b) If f ′′ (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.

(c) If f ′′ (c) = 0, then the test is inconclusive.

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Example 4

Using the Second Derivative Test

Use the second derivative to find the location of all local extrema for f (x) = x5 − 5x3 .

Solution :
To apply the second derivative test, we first need to find critical points c where f ′ (c) = 0.
The derivative is f ′ (x) = 5x4 − 15x2 .

√
Therefore, f ′ (x) = 5x4 − 15x2 = 5x2 x2 − 3 = 0 when x = 0, ± 3.
To determine whether f has a local extremum at any of these points, we need to evaluate


the sign of f ′′ at these points. The second derivative is f ′′ (x) = 20x3 − 30x = 10x 2x2 − 3 .

In the following table, we evaluate the second derivative at each of the critical points and use the
second derivative test to determine whether f has a local maximum or local minimum at any of
these points.

x f ′′ (x) Conclusion
√ √
− 3 −30 3 Local maximum
0 0 Second derivative test is inconclusive
√ √
3 30 3 Local minimum
√
By the second derivative test, we conclude that f has a local maximum at x = − 3 and f has
√
a local minimum at x = 3. The second derivative test is inconclusive at x = 0. To determine
whether f has a local extrema at x = 0, we apply the first derivative test. To evaluate the sign of

√ √
f ′ (x) = 5x2 x2 − 3 for x ∈ (− 3, 0) and x ∈ (0, 3), let x = −1 and x = 1 be the two test points.
Since f ′ (−1) < 0 and f ′ (1) < 0, we conclude that f is decreasing on both intervals and, therefore,
f does not have a local extrema at x = 0 as shown in the following graph.

Figure 3.25:
√ √
The function f has a local maximum at x = − 3 and a local minimum at x = 3
 103

3.2 EXERCISES

I. For the following exercises, find the critical points in the domains of the following functions.

(1) y = 4x3 − 3x (4) y = ln(x − 2)

√ √
(2) y = 4 x − x2 (5) y = 4 − x2
1 1
(3) y = (6) y = x +
x−1 x

II. For the following exercises, find the local and/or absolute maxima for the functions over the
specified domain.

x
(1) f (x) = x2 + 3 over [−1, 4] (4) y = over [0, 100]
1+x
2 √ √
(2) y = x2 + over [1, 4] (5) y = x − x3 over [0, 4]
x
√
(3) y = 9 − x over [1, 9]

III. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 over the interval
[1, 4].
3
IV. Use the first derivative test to locate all local extrema forf (x) = −x3 + x2 + 18x.
2
3
V. For f (x) = −x3 + x2 + 18x, find all intervals where f is concave up and all intervals where
2
f is concave down.
3
VI. Consider the function f (x) = −x3 + x2 + 18x. The points c = 3, −2 satisfy f ′ (c) = 0. Use
2
the second derivative test to determine whether f has a local maximum or local minimum at
those points.
VII. For the following exercises, determine (i) intervals where f is increasing or decreasing, (ii) local
minima and maxima of f , (iii) intervals where f is concave up and concave down, and (iv) the
inflection points of f .

(1) f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x + 2 (5) f (x) = x + x2 − x3

(2) f (x) = x2 − 6x
(6) f (x) = x2 + x + 1
(3) f (x) = x3 − 6x2
(4) f (x) = x4 − 6x3 (7) f (x) = x3 + x4

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104

3.3 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important theorems in calculus. We look at some of
its implications at the end of this section. First, let’s start with a special case of the Mean Value
Theorem, called Rolle’s theorem.

Theorem 3.7 (Rolle’s Theorem): Informally, Rolle’s theorem states that if the outputs of a differ-
entiable function f are equal at the endpoints of an interval, then there must be an interior point c
where f ′ (c) = 0. Figures 3.26, 3.27, and 3.28 illustrates this theorem.

Figure 3.26: Figure 3.27: Figure 3.28:

If a differentiable function f satisfies f (a) = f (b), then its derivative must be zero at some point(s)
between a and b.

Theorem 3.8 (Rolle’s Theorem): Let f be a continuous function over the closed interval [a, b] and
differentiable over the open interval (a, b) such that f (a) = f (b). There then exists at least one
c ∈ (a, b) such that f ′ (c) = 0.

Example 1

Using Rolle’s Theorem

For the given function, verify that the function satisfies the criteria stated in Rolle’s theorem
and find all values c in the given interval where f ′ (c) = 0.

f (x) = x2 + 2x

Solution :
Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable everywhere. In addition, f (−2) =
0 = f (0). Therefore, f satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. We conclude that there exists
at least one value c ∈ (−2, 0) such that f ′ (c) = 0. Since f ′ (x) = 2x + 2 = 2(x + 1), we see
that f ′ (c) = 2(c + 1) = 0 implies c = −1.
 105

The Mean Value Theorem and Its Meaning

Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem. In Rolle’s theorem, we consider
differentiable functions f defined on a closed interval [a, b] with f (a) = f (b). The Mean Value
Theorem generalizes Rolle’s theorem by considering functions that do not necessarily have equal
value at the endpoints. Consequently, we can view the Mean Value Theorem as a slanted version
of Rolle’s theorem (Figure 3.29). The Mean Value Theorem states that if f is continuous over
the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval (a, b), then there exists a point
c ∈ (a, b) such that the tangent line to the graph of f at c is parallel to the secant line connecting
(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).

Figure 3.29: f is increasing

The Mean Value Theorem says that for a function that meets its conditions, at some point the
tangent line has the same slope as the secant line between the ends. For this function, there are
two values C1 and C2 such that the tangent line to f at c1 and c2 has the same slope as the secant line.

Theorem 3.9 (Mean Value Theorem): Let f be continuous over the closed interval [a, b] and
differentiable over the open interval (a, b). Then, there exists at least one point c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) = .
b−a

Example 2

Verifying that the Mean Value Theorem Applies

√
For f (x) = x over the interval [0, 9], show that f satisfies the hypothesis of the Mean Value
Theorem, and therefore there exists at least one value c ∈ (0, 9) such that f ′ (c) is equal to
the slope of the line connecting (0, f (0)) and (9, f (9)). Find these values c guaranteed by the
Mean Value Theorem.

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106

Solution :
√
We know that f (x) = x is continuous over [0, 9] and differentiable over (0, 9). Therefore, f
satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem, and there must exist at least one value
c ∈ (0, 9) such that f ′ (c) is equal to the slope of the line connecting (0, f (0)) and (9, f (9)) (see
Figure 3.30). To determine which value(s) of c are guaranteed, first calculate the derivative
1
of f . The derivative f ′ (x) = √ . The slope of the line connecting (0, f (0)) and (9, f (9)) is
2 x
given by √ √
f (9) − f (0) 9− 0
=
9−0 9−0
3
=
9
1
=
3
1
We want to find c such that f ′ (c) = . That is, we want to find c such that
3
1 1
√ = .
2 c 3

9
Solving this equation for c, we obtain c = . At this point, the slope of the tangent line
4
equals the slope of the line joining the endpoints.

Figure 3.30:

The slope of the tangent line at c = 9/4 is the same as the slope of the line segment connecting
(0, 0) and (9, 3).
 107

Example 3

Mean Value Theorem and Velocity

If a rock is dropped from a height of 100 ft, its position t seconds after it is dropped until
it hits the ground is given by the function s(t) = −16t2 + 100.

(a) Determine how long it takes before the rock hits the ground.

(b) Find the average velocity vavg of the rock for when the rock is released and the rock hits
the ground.

(c) Find the time t guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem when the instantaneous velocity
of the rock is vavg .

Solution :
(a) When the rock hits the ground, its position is s(t) = 0. Solving the equation
5
−16t2 + 100 = 0 for t, we find that t = ± sec. Since we are only considering t ≥ 0, the ball
2
5
will hit the ground sec after it is dropped.
2

(b) The average velocity is given by

 
5
s − s(0)
2
vavg =
5
−0
2
0 − 100
=
5
2
= −40 ft/sec.

(c) The instantaneous velocity is given by the derivative of the position function. Therefore,
we need to find a time t such that v(t) = s′ (t) = vavg = −40 ft/sec. Since s(t) is continuous
over the interval [0, 5/2] and differentiable over the interval (0, 5/2), by the Mean Value
Theorem, there is guaranteed to be a point c ∈ (0, 5/2) such that
 
5
s − s(0)
2
s′ (c) = = −40.
5
−0
2

Taking the derivative of the position function s(t), we find that s′ (t) = −32t. Therefore,
5
the equation reduces to s′ (c) = −32c = −40. Solving this equation for c, we have c = .
4
5
Therefore, sec after the rock is dropped, the instantaneous velocity equals the average
4
velocity of the rock during its free fall: −40 ft/sec.

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108

Figure 3.31:

At time t = 5/4sec, the velocity of the rock is equal to its average velocity from the time it
is dropped until it hits the ground.

Corollaries of the Mean Value Theorem

Let’s now look at three corollaries of the Mean Value Theorem. These results have important
consequences, which we use in upcoming sections.
At this point, we know the derivative of any constant function is zero. The Mean Value Theorem
allows us to conclude that the converse is also true. In particular, if f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in some
interval I, then f (x) is constant over that interval. This result may seem intuitively obvious, but it
has important implications that are not obvious, and we discuss them shortly.

Corollary 1: Functions with a Derivative of Zero

Let f be differentiable over an interval I. If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I, then f ′ (x) = constant for all
x ∈ I.

Corollary 2: Constant Difference Theorem

If f and g are differentiable over an interval I and f ′ (x) = g ′ (x) for all x ∈ I, then f (x) = g(x) + C
for some constant C.

Corollary 3: Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Let f be continuous over the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval (a, b)

• If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is an increasing function over [a, b].

• If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is a decreasing function over [a, b].
 109

3.3 EXERCISES

I. Verify that the function f (x) = 2x2 − 8x + 6 defined over the interval [1, 3] satisfies the
conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Find all points C guaranteed by Rolle’s theorem.
II. For the following exercises, determine whether the Mean Value Theorem applies for the func-
tions over the given interval [a, b]. Justify your answer.
 
(1) f (x) = x3 over [0, 2] 3
(5) y = ln(2x + 3) over − , 0
2
(2) y = x3 + 2x + 1 over [0, 6] √
(6) y = 9 − x2 over [−3, 3]
(3) f (x) = (x − 1)10 over [0, 2]  
1 1
(4) y = ex over [0, 1] (7) y = x + over ,4
x 2

III. Suppose a ball is dropped from a height of 200 ft. Its position at time t is s(t) = −16t2 + 200.
Find the time t when the instantaneous velocity of the ball equals its average velocity.

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110

3.4 OPTIMIZATION

One common application of calculus is calculating the minimum or maximum value of a function.
For example, companies often want to minimize production costs or maximize revenue. In manu-
facturing, it is often desirable to minimize the amount of material used to package a product with
a certain volume. In this section, we show how to set up these types of minimization and maxi-
mization problems and solve them by using the tools developed in this chapter.

Solving Optimization Problems over a Closed, Bounded Interval

The basic idea of the optimization problems that follow is the same. We have a particular quantity
that we are interested in maximizing or minimizing. However, we also have some auxiliary condition
that needs to be satisfied. For example, in Example 1, we are interested in maximizing the area of
a rectangular garden. Certainly, if we keep making the side lengths of the garden larger, the area
will continue to become larger. However, what if we have some restriction on how much fencing we
can use for the perimeter? In this case, we cannot make the garden as large as we like. Let’s look
at how we can maximize the area of a rectangle subject to some constraint on the perimeter.

Example 1

Maximizing the Area of a Garden

A rectangular garden is to be con-

structed using a rock wall as one side
of the garden and wire fencing for the
other three sides (Figure 3.32). Given
100 ft of wire fencing, determine the
dimensions that would create a gar-
den of maximum area. What is the
maximum area?

Figure 3.32:

Solution :
We want to determine the measurements x and y that will create a garden with a maximum
area using 100 ft of fencing.
Let x denote the length of the side of the garden perpendicular to the rock wall and y denote
the length of the side parallel to the rock wall. Then the area of the garden is

A = x · y.
 111

We want to find the maximum possible area subject to the constraint that the total fencing
is 100 ft. From Figure 3.33, the total amount of fencing used will be 2x + y. Therefore, the
constraint equation is
2x + y = 100

Solving this equation for y, we have y = 100 − 2x. Thus, we can write the area as

A(x) = x · (100 − 2x) = 100x − 2x2

Before trying to maximize the area function A(x) = 100x − 2x2 , we need to determine the
domain under consideration. To construct a rectangular garden, we certainly need the lengths
of both sides to be positive. Therefore, we need x > 0 and y > 0. Since y = 100 − 2x, if
y > 0, then x < 50. Therefore, we are trying to determine the maximum value of A(x)
for x over the open interval (0, 50). We do not know that a function necessarily has a
maximum value over an open interval. However, we do know that a continuous function
has an absolute maximum (and absolute minimum) over a closed interval. Therefore, let’s
consider the function A(x) = 100x − 2x2 over the closed interval [0, 50]. If the maximum
value occurs at an interior point, then we have found the value x in the open interval (0, 50)
that maximizes the area of the garden. Therefore, we consider the following problem:
Maximize A(x) = 100x − 2x2 over the interval [0, 50]
As mentioned earlier, since A is a continuous function on a closed, bounded interval, by the
extreme value theorem, it has a maximum and a minimum. These extreme values occur either
at endpoints or critical points. At the endpoints, A(x) = 0. Since the area is positive for all
x in the open interval (0, 50), the maximum must occur at a critical point. Differentiating
the function A(x), we obtain
A′ (x) = 100 − 4x

Figure 3.33:

Therefore, the only critical point is x = 25 (Figure 3.33). We conclude that the maximum
area must occur when x = 25. Then we have y = 100 − 2x = 100 − 2(25) = 50. To maximize

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112

the area of the garden, let x = 25 ft and y = 50 ft. The area of this garden is 1250ft2 .
To maximize the area of the garden, we need to find the maximum value of the function
A(x) = 100x − 2x2 .

Determine the maximum area if we want to make the same rectangular garden as in Figure 3.33,
but we have 200 ft of fencing.
Now let’s look at a general strategy for solving optimization problems similar to Example 1.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Solving Optimization Problems

1. Introduce all variables. If applicable, draw a figure and label all variables.

2. Determine which quantity is to be maximized or minimized, and for what range of values of
the other variables (if this can be determined at this time).

3. Write a formula for the quantity to be maximized or minimized in terms of the variables. This
formula may involve more than one variable.

4. Write any equations relating the independent variables in the formula from step 3. Use these
equations to write the quantity to be maximized or minimized as a function of one variable.

5. Identify the domain of consideration for the function in step 4 based on the physical problem
to be solved.

6. Locate the maximum or minimum value of the function from step 4. This step typically
involves looking for critical points and evaluating a function at endpoints.

Now let’s apply this strategy to maximize the volume of an open-top box given a constraint on the
amount of material to be used.

Example 2

Maximizing the Volume of a Box

An open-top box is to be made from a 24 in. by 36 in. piece of cardboard by removing a
square from each corner of the box and folding up the flaps on each side. What size square
should be cut out of each corner to get a box with the maximum volume?

Solution :
Step 1: Let x be the side length of the square to be removed from each corner (Figure 3.4).
Then, the remaining four flaps can be folded up to form an open-top box. Let V be the
volume of the resulting box.
 113

Figure 3.34:

A square with side length x inches is removed from each corner of the piece of cardboard.
The remaining flaps are folded to form an open-top box.
Step 2: We are trying to maximize the volume of a box. Therefore, the problem is to maximize
V.
Step 3: As mentioned in step 2, are trying to maximize the volume of a box. The volume of
a box is V = L · W · H, where L, W , and H are the length, width, and height, respectively.
Step 4: From Figure 3.4, we see that the height of the box is x inches, the length is 36 − 2x
inches, and the width is 24 − 2x inches. Therefore, the volume of the box is

V (x) = (36 − 2x)(24 − 2x)x = 4x3 − 120x2 + 864x

Step 5: To determine the domain of consideration, let’s examine Figure . Certainly, we need
x > 0. Furthermore, the side length of the square cannot be greater than or equal to half
the length of the shorter side, 24 in.; otherwise, one of the flaps would be completely cut
off. Therefore, we are trying to determine whether there is a maximum volume of the box
for x over the open interval (0, 12). Since V is a continuous function over the closed interval
[0, 12], we know V will have an absolute maximum over the closed interval. Therefore, we
consider V over the closed interval [0, 12] and check whether the absolute maximum occurs
at an interior point.
Step 6: Since V (x) is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval [0, 12], V
must have absolute maximum (and an absolute minimum). Since V (x) = 0 at the endpoints
and V (x) > 0 for 0 < x < 12, the maximum must occur at a critical point. The derivative is

V ′ (x) = 12x2 − 240x + 864.

To find the critical points, we need to solve the equation

12x2 − 240x + 864 = 0.

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114

Dividing both sides of this equation by 12 , the problem simplifies to solving the equation

x2 − 20x + 72 = 0.

Using the quadratic formula, we find that the critical points are
p √ √
20 ± (−20)2 − 4(1)(72) 20 ± 112 20 ± 4 7 √
x= = = = 10 ± 2 7
2 2 2
√
Since 10 + 2 7 is not in the domain of consideration, the only critical point we need to
√ √
consider is 10 − 2 7. Therefore, the volume is maximized if we let x = 10 − 2 7in. The
√ √
maximum volume is V (10 − 2 7) = 640 + 448 7 ≈ 1825 in. 3 as shown in the following
graph.

Figure 3.35:

Maximizing the volume of the box leads to finding the maximum value of a cubic polynomial.

Example 3

Minimizing Travel Time

An island is 2mi due north of its closest point along a straight shoreline. A visitor is staying
at a cabin on the shore that is 6mi west of that point. The visitor is planning to go from the
cabin to the island. Suppose the visitor runs at a rate of 8mph and swims at a rate of 3mph.
How far should the visitor run before swimming to minimize the time it takes to reach the
island?

Solution :
Step 1: Let x be the distance running and let y be the distance swimming (Figure 3.36). Let
T be the time it takes to get from the cabin to the island.
 115

Figure 3.36:

How can we choose x and y to minimize the travel time from the cabin to the island?
Step 2: The problem is to minimize T .
Step 3: To find the time spent traveling from the cabin to the island, add the time spent
running and the time spent swimming. Since Distance = Rate × Time (D = R × T ), the
time spent running is
Drunning x
Trunning = = ,
Rrunning 8
and the time spent swimming is

Dswimming y
Tswimming = =
Rswimming 3

Therefore, the total time spent traveling is

x y
T = +
8 3

Step 4: From Figure 3.36, the line segment of y miles forms the hypotenuse of a right triangle
with legs of length 2mi and 6−xmi. Therefore, by the Pythagorean theorem, 22 +(6−x)2 = y 2 ,
p
and we obtain y = (6 − x)2 + 4. Thus, the total time spent traveling is given by the function
p
x (6 − x)2 + 4
T (x) = +
8 3

Step 5: From Figure 3.36, we see that 0 ≤ x ≤ 6. Therefore, [0, 6] is the domain of consider-
ation.
Step 6: Since T (x) is a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval, it has a maximum
and a minimum. Let’s begin by looking for any critical points of T over the interval [0, 6].

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116

The derivative is  −1/2

′ 1 1 (6 − x)2 + 4
T (x) = − · 2(6 − x)
8 2 3
1 (6 − x)
= − p .
8 3 (6 − x)2 + 4

If T ′ (x) = 0, then
1 6−x
= p
8 3 (6 − x)2 + 4
Therefore,
p
3 (6 − x)2 + 4 = 8(6 − x).

Squaring both sides of this equation, we see that if x satisfies this equation, then x must
satisfy
 
9 (6 − x)2 + 4 = 64(6 − x)2 ,

which implies
55(6 − x)2 = 36.

We conclude that if x is a critical point, then x satisfies

36
(x − 6)2 = .
55

Therefore, the possibilities for critical points are

6
x=6± √ .
55

6
Since x = 6 + √ is not in the domain, it is not a possibility for a critical point. On the
55
6
other hand, x = 6 − √ is in the domain. Since we squared both sides of Equation 4.6 to ar-
55
6
rive at the possible critical points, it remains to verify that x = 6− √ satisfies Equation 4.6.
55
6 6
Since x = 6 − √ does satisfy that equation, we conclude that x = 6 − √ is a critical
55 55
point, and it is the only one.

To justify that the time is minimized for this value of x, we just need to check the values
of T (x) at the endpoints x = 0 and x = 6, and compare them with the value of T (x) at
6
the critical point x = 6 − √ . We find that T (0) ≈ 2.108 h and T (6) ≈ 1.417 h, whereas
  55
6
T 6− √ ≈ 1.368 h.
55

Therefore, we conclude that T has a local minimum at x ≈ 5.19¬mi.

 117

3.4 EXERCISES

I. For the following exercises, set up and evaluate each optimization problem.

(1) You are constructing a cardboard box with the dimensions 2 m by 4 m. You then cut
equal-size squares from each corner so you may fold the edges. What are the dimensions
of the box with the largest volume?
(2) Find the positive integer that minimizes the sum of the number and its reciprocal
(3) Find two positive integers such that their sum is 10 , and minimize and maximize the sum
of their squares.

II. For the following exercises, consider the construction of a pen to enclose an area.

(1) You have 400 ft of fencing to construct a rectangular pen for cattle. What are the dimen-
sions of the pen that maximize the area?
(2) You have 800 ft of fencing to make a pen for hogs. If you have a river on one side of your
property, what is the dimension of the rectangular pen that maximizes the area?
(3) You need to construct a fence around an area of 1600 ft. What are the dimensions of
the rectangular pen to minimize the amount of material needed?

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118

3.5 L’HOSPITAL’S RULE

Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule

L’Hôpital’s rule can be used to evaluate limits involving the quotient of two functions. Consider

f (x)
lim .
x→a g(x)

If lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 ̸= 0, then

x→a x→a

f (x) L1
lim = .
x→a g(x) L2

However, what happens if lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0 ? We call this one of the indeterminate
x→a x→a
0
forms, of type . This is considered an indeterminate form because we cannot determine the exact
0
f (x)
behavior of as x → a without further analysis. We have seen examples of this earlier in the
g(x)
text. For example, consider
x2 − 4 sin x
lim and lim .
x→2 x − 2 x→0 x

For the first of these examples, we can evaluate the limit by factoring the numerator and writing

x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
lim = lim = lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4.
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2 x→2

sin x
For lim we were able to show, using a geometric argument, that
x→0 x

sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

0 0
We state LHôpitals rule formally for the indeterminate form . Also note that the notation does
0 0
0
not mean we are actually dividing zero by zero. Rather, we are using the notation to represent
0
a quotient of limits, each of which is zero.

Theorem 3.10 ( L’Hôpital’s Rule 0/0 case): Suppose f and g are differentiable functions over an
open interval containing a, except possibly at a. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then
x→a x→a

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′ ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

assuming the limit on the right exists or is ∞ or −∞. This result also holds if we are considering
one-sided limits, or if a = ∞ and −∞.
 119

Example 1

Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule (0/0 Case)

Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.
1 − cos x
(a) lim
x→0 x
sin(πx)
(b) lim
x→1 ln x
e1/x − 1
(c) lim
x→∞ 1/x
sin x − x
(d) lim
x→0 x2

Solution :
(a) Since the numerator 1 − cos x → 0 and the denominator x → 0, we can apply L’Hôpital’s
rule to evaluate this limit. We have
d
1 − cos x (1 − cos x)
lim = lim dx
x→0 x x→0 d
(x)
dx
sin x
= lim
x→0 1
lim (sin x)
= x→0
lim (1)
x→0
0
=
1
=0

(b) As x → 1, the numerator sin(πx) → 0 and the denominator ln(x)) → 0. Therefore, we

can apply L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain

sin(πx) π cos(πx)
lim = lim
x→1 ln x x→1 1/x
= lim (πx) cos(πx)
x→1

= (π · 1)(−1)
= −π
 
1
(c) As x → ∞, the numerator e1/x − 1 → 0 and the denominator → 0. Therefore, we
x

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120

can apply L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain

 
−1
e1/x
e1/x − 1 x2
lim = lim  
x→∞ 1 x→∞ −1
x x2
= lim e1/x
x→∞
0
=e
= 1.

(d) As x → 0, both the numerator and denominator approach zero. Therefore, we can apply
L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain

sin x − x cos x − 1
lim 2
= lim
x→0 x x→0 2x

Since the numerator and denominator of this new quotient both approach zero as x → 0, we
apply L’Hôpital’s rule again. In doing so, we see that

cos x − 1 − sin x
lim = lim = 0.
x→0 2x x→0 2

Therefore, we conclude that

sin x − x
lim =0
x→0 x2

Example 2

x
Evaluate lim
x→0 tan x

Solution :
f (x)
We can also use L’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate limits of quotients in which f (x) → ±∞
g(x)
and g(x) → ±∞.

Limits of this form are classified as indeterminate forms of type ∞/∞. Again, note that we
are not actually dividing ∞ by ∞.

Since ∞ is not a real number, that is impossible; rather, ∞/∞. is used to represent a quotient
of limits, each of which is ∞ or −∞.
 121

L’Hôpital’s Rule ( ∞/∞ Case)

Suppose f and g are differentiable functions over an open interval containing a, except possibly at
a. Suppose lim f (x) = ∞ (or −∞ ) and lim g(x) = ∞ (or −∞ ). Then,
x→a x→a

f (x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim ′
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

assuming the limit on the right exists or is ∞ or −∞. This result also holds if the limit is infinite,
if a = ∞ or −∞, or the limit is one-sided.

Example 3

Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.

3x + 5
(a) lim
x→∞ 2x + 1
ln x
(b) lim
x→0+ cot x

Solution :
(a) Since 3x + 5 and 2x + 1 are first-degree polynomials with positive leading coefficients,
lim (3x + 5) = ∞ and lim (2x + 1) = ∞. Therefore, we apply L’Hôpital’s rule and obtain
x→∞ x→∞

3x + 5 3 3
lim = lim = .
x→∞ 2x + 1/x x→∞ 2 2

Note that this limit can also be calculated without invoking L’Hôpital’s rule. Earlier in the
chapter we showed how to evaluate such a limit by dividing the numerator and denominator
by the highest power of x in the denominator. In doing so, we saw that

3x + 5 3 + 5/x 3
lim = lim = .
x→∞ 2x + 1 x→∞ 2x + 1/x 2

L’Hôpital’s rule provides us with an alternative means of evaluating this type of limit.
(b) Here, lim ln x = −∞ and lim cot x = ∞. Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule and
x→0+ x→0+
obtain
ln x 1/x 1
lim = lim = lim .
x→0+ cot x x→0 − csc x x→0 −x csc2 x
+ 2 +

Now as x → 0+ , csc2 x → ∞. Therefore, the first term in the denominator is approaching

zero and the second term is getting really large. In such a case, anything can happen with
the product. Therefore, we cannot make any conclusion yet. To evaluate the limit, we use
the definition of csc x to write

1 sin2 x
lim = lim .
x→0+ −x csc2 x x→0+ −x

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122

Now lim sin2 x = 0 and lim x = 0, so we apply L’Hôpital’s rule again. We find
x→0+ x→0+

sin2 x 2 sin x cos x 0

lim = lim = = 0.
x→0+ −x x→0+ −1 −1

We conclude that
ln x
lim = 0.
x→0+ cot x

As mentioned, L’Hôpital’s rule is an extremely useful tool for evaluating limits. It is important to
f (x)
remember, however, that to apply L’Hôpital’s rule to a quotient , it is essential that the limit
g(x)
f (x) 0 ∞
of be of the form or . Consider the following example.$
g(x) 0 ∞

Example 4

When L’Hôpital’s Rule Does Not Apply

x2 + 5
Consider lim . Show that the limit cannot be evaluated by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.
x→1 3x + 4

Solution :
Because the limits of the numerator and denominator are not both zero and are not both
infinite, we cannot apply L’Hôpital’s rule. If we try to do so, we get

d

x2 + 5 = 2x
dx

and
d
(3x + 4) = 3.
dx
At which point we would conclude erroneously that

x2 + 5 2x 2
lim = lim = .
x→1 3x + 4 x→1 3 3


However, since lim x2 + 5 = 6 and lim (3x + 4) = 7, we actually have
x→1 x→1

x2 + 5 6
lim = .
x→1 3x + 4 7

We can conclude that

d

x2 + 5 x2 + 5
lim ̸= lim dx
x→1 3x + 4 x→1 d
(3x + 4)
dx
 123

3.5 EXERCISES

I. For the following exercises, evaluate the limit.

ex x−a
(1) lim . (7) lim , a ̸= 0.
x→∞ x x→a x2 − a2
x−1 sin x − tan x
(2) lim (8) lim
x→1 sin x x→0 x3
ex x−a
(3) lim k . (9) lim 3 , a ̸= 0.
x→∞ x x→a x − a3
√ √
(1 + x)n − 1 1+x− 1−x
(4) lim (10) lim
x→0 x x→0 x
ln x x−a
(5) lim . (11) lim n , a ̸= 0.
x→∞ xk x→a x − an
(1 + x)n − 1 − nx ex − x − 1
(6) lim (12) lim
x→0 x2 x→0 x2

II. For the following exercises, determine whether you can apply L’Hôpital’s rule directly. Explain
why or why not. Then, indicate if there is some way you can alter the limit so you can apply
L’Hôpital’s rule.

tan x (7) lim x2/x

(1) lim √ x→0
x→0 x
x−1 (8) lim x2x
(2) lim
x→1 ln x x→0+

(3) lim x2 ln x x2
x→0+ (9) lim
x→0 1/x
(4) lim (x + 1)1/x
x→0
ex
(5) lim x 1/x (10) lim
x→∞ x→∞ x
√ √
x− 3x sin x − x
(6) lim (11) lim
x→1 x−1 x→0 x2

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124
 Chapter 4

ANTIDERIVATIVES AND
INTEGRATION

4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES

At this point, we have seen how to calculate derivatives of many functions and have been introduced
to a variety of their applications. We now ask a question that turns this process around: Given a
function f , how do we find a function with the derivative f and why would we be interested in such
a function?
We answer the first part of this question by defining anti-derivatives. The anti-derivative of a func-
tion f is a function with a derivative f . Why are we interested in anti-derivatives? The need for
anti-derivatives arises in many situations, and we look at various examples throughout the remain-
der of the text. Here we examine one specific example that involves rectilinear motion. In our
examination in Derivatives of rectilinear motion, we showed that given a position function s(t) of
an object, then its velocity function v(t) is the derivative of s(t) - that is, v(t) = s′ (t). Furthermore,
the acceleration a(t) is the derivative of the velocity v(t) - that is, a(t) = v ′ (t) = s′′ (t). Now suppose
we are given an acceleration function a, but not the velocity function v or the position function s.
Since a(t) = v ′ (t), determining the velocity function requires us to find an anti-derivative of the
acceleration function. Then, since v(t) = s′ (t), determining the position function requires us to find
an anti-derivative of the velocity function. Rectilinear motion is just one case in which the need
for anti-derivatives arises. We will see many more examples throughout the remainder of the text.
For now, let’s look at the terminology and notation for anti-derivatives, and determine the anti-
derivatives for several types of functions. We examine various techniques for finding anti-derivatives
of more complicated functions later in the text.

The Reverse of Differentiation

At this point, we know how to find derivatives of various functions. We now ask the opposite
question. Given a function f , how can we find a function with derivative f ? If we can find a
function F with derivative f , we call F an anti-derivative of f .

125
126

Anti-derivative
A function F is an anti-derivative of the function f if

F ′ (x) = f (x)

for all x in the domain of f .

Consider the function f (x) = 2x. Knowing the power rule of differentiation, we conclude that
F (x) = x2 is an anti-derivative of f since F ′ (x) = 2x. Are there any other anti-derivatives of f ?
Yes; since the derivative of any constant C is zero, x2 + C is also an anti-derivative of 2x. Therefore,
x2 + 5 and x2 − 2 are also anti-derivatives. Are there any others that are not of the form x2 + C
for some constant C ? The answer is no.
From Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem, we know that if F and G are differentiable functions
such that F ′ (x) = G′ (x), then F (x) − G(x) = C for some constant C. This fact leads to the
following important theorem.

Theorem 4.1 (General Form of an anti-derivative): Let F be an anti-derivative of f over an

interval I. Then,
(i) for each constant C, the function F (x) + C is also an anti-derivative of f over I;
(ii) if G is an anti-derivative of f over I, there is a constant C for which G(x) = F (x) + C over I.
In other words, the most general form of the anti-derivative of f over I is F (x) + C.

Example 1

Finding anti-derivatives
For each of the following functions, find all anti-derivatives.

(a) f (x) = 3x2

1
(b) f (x) =
x
(c) f (x) = cos x

(d) f (x) = ex

Solution :
(a) Because
d

x3 = 3x2
dx
then F (x) = x3 is an anti-derivative of 3x2 . Therefore, every anti-derivative of 3x2 is of the
form x3 + C for some constant C, and every function of the x3 + C is an anti-derivative of
3x2 .
 127

(b) Let f (x) = ln |x|. For x > 0, f (x) = ln x and

d 1
(ln x) = .
dx x

For x < 0, f (x) = ln(−x) and

Therefore,
d 1 1
(ln(−x)) = · (−1) = .
dx −x x
d 1
(ln |x|) =
dx x
1 1
Thus, F (x) = ln |x| is an anti-derivative of . Therefore, every anti-derivative of is of
x x
the form ln |x| + C for some constant C and every function of the form ln |x| + C is an
1
anti-derivative of .
x

(c) We have
d
(sin x) = cos x,
dx
so F (x) = sin x is an anti-derivative of cos x. Therefore, every anti-derivative of cos x is
of the form sin x + C for some constant C and every function of the form sin x + C is an
anti-derivative of cos x.

(d) Since
d x
(e ) = ex ,
dx
then F (x) = ex is an anti-derivative of ex. Therefore, every anti-derivative of ex is of the
form ex + C for some constant C and every function of the form ex + C is an anti-derivative
of ex .

Indefinite Integrals

We now look at the formal notation used to represent anti-derivatives and examine some of their
properties. These properties allow us to find anti-derivatives of more complicated functions. Given
df
a function f , we use the notation f ′ (x) or to denote the derivative of f . Here we introduce
dx
notation for anti-derivatives. If F is Zan anti-derivative of f , we say that F (x) + C is the most
general anti-derivative of f and write f (x)dx = F (x) + C.
Z Z
The symbol is called an integral sign, and f (x)dx is called the indefinite integral of f .

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128

Indefinite Integral

Given a function f , the indefinite integral of f , denoted

Z
f (x)dx

is the most general anti-derivative of f . If F is an anti-derivative of f , then

Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C.

The expression f (x) is called the integrand and the variable x is the variable of integration.

Given the terminology introduced in

this definition, the act of finding the
anti-derivatives of a function f is usu-
ally referred to as integrating f .
For a function f and an anti-derivative
F , the functions F (x) + C, where C is
any real number, is often referred to as
the family of anti-derivatives of f . For
example, since x2 is an anti-derivative
of 2x and any anti-derivative of 2x is of
the form x2 + C, we write
Z
2xdx = x2 + C.

The collection of all functions of the

form x2 + C, where C is any real num-
ber, is known as the family of anti-
derivatives of 2x. Figure 4.1 shows
a graph of this the family of anti- Figure 4.1:
derivatives of 2x consists of all functions
of the form x2 + C, where C is any real
number.
For some functions, evaluating indefinite integrals follows directly from properties of derivatives.
For example, for n ̸= −1, Z
xn+1
xn dx = + C,
n+1
Which comes directly from
 
d xn+1 1
= · (n + 1)xn = xn .
dx n+1 n+1

This fact is known as the power rule for integrals.

 129

Theorem 4.2 (Power Rule for Integrals): For n ̸= −1,

Z
xn+1
xn dx = +C
n+1

Evaluating indefinite integrals for some other functions is also a straightforward calculation. The
following table 4.1 lists the indefinite integrals for several common functions.

Differentiation Formula Indefinite Integral

Z
d
(k) = 0 kdx = kx + C
dx
Z
d xn+1
(xn ) = nxn−1 xn dx = +C
dx n+1
Z
d 1 1
(ln |x|) = dx = ln |x| + C
dx x x
Z
d x
(e ) = ex ex dx = ex + C
dx
Z
d x ax
(a ) = ax ln a ax dx = +C
dx ln a
Z
d
(sin x) = cos x cos xdx = sin x + C
dx
Z
d
(cos x) = − sin x sinx xdx = − cos x + C
dx
Z
d
(tan x) = sec 2 x sec2 xdx = tan x + C
dx
Z
d
(cot x) = − csc2 x csc2 xdx = − cot x + C
dx
Z
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x sec2 tan xdx = sec x + C
dx
Z
d
(csc x) = csc x cot x csc x cot xdx = − csc x + C
dx
Z
d
1 1
sin−1 x = √ √ dx = sin−1 x + C
dx 1 − x2 1−x 2
Z
d
1 1
tan−1 x = 2 dx = tan−1 x + C
dx x +1 x2 +1
Z
d
1 1
sec−1 |x| = √ √ dx = sec−1 |x| + C
dx x x2 − 1 x x2 − 1
Table 4.1: Integration Formulas

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130

From the definition of indefinite integral of f , we know

Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C

if and only if F is an anti-derivative of f . Therefore, when claiming that

Z
f (x)dx = F (x) + C

it is important to check whether this statement is correct by verifying that F ′ (x) = f (x).

Example 2

Verifying an Indefinite Integral Z

Each of the following statements is of the form f (x)dx = F (x) + C. Verify that each
statement is correct by showing that F ′ (x) = f (x).
Z
x2
(a) (x + ex ) dx = + ex + C
2
Z
(b) xex dx = xex − ex + C

Solution :
(a) Since  
d x2
+ ex + C = x + ex ,
dx 2
The statement Z
x2
(x + ex ) dx = + ex + C
2
is correct.
x2
Note that we are verifying an indefinite integral for a sum. Furthermore, and ex
2
are anti-derivatives of x and ex , respectively, and the sum of the anti-derivatives is an
anti-derivative of the sum. We discuss this fact again later in this section.

(b) Using the product rule, we see that

d
(xex − ex + C) = ex + xex − ex = xex .
dx

Therefore, the statement Z

xex dx = xex − ex + C

is correct.

Note that we are verifying an indefinite integral for a product. The anti-derivative xex − ex is
x2 ex
not a product of the anti-derivatives. Furthermore, the product of anti-derivatives, is not an
2
 131

anti-derivative of xex since  

d x2 ex x2 ex
= xex + ̸= xex .
dx 2 2
In general, the product of anti-derivatives is not an anti-derivative of a product.

Theorem 4.3 (Properties of Indefinite Integrals): Let F and G be anti-derivatives of f and g,

respectively, and let k be any real number. Sums and Differences
Z
(f (x) ± g(x))dx = F (x) ± G(x) + C

Constant Multiples Z
kf (x)dx = kF (x) + C

From this theorem, we can evaluate any integral involving a sum, difference, or constant multiple of
functions with anti-derivatives that are known. Evaluating integrals involving products, quotients,
or compositions is more complicated. In the next example, we examine how to use this theorem to
calculate the indefinite integrals of several functions.

Example 3

Evaluating Indefinite Integrals

Evaluate each of the following indefinite integrals:
Z


(a) 5x3 − 7x2 + 3x + 4 dx

Z √
x2 + 4 3 x
(b) dx
x
Z
4
(c) dx
1 + x2
Z
(d) tan x cos xdx

Solution :
(a) Using Properties of Indefinite Integrals, we can integrate each of the four terms in the
integrand separately. We obtain
Z Z Z Z Z


5x3 − 7x2 + 3x + 4 dx = 5x3 dx + 7x2 dx + 3xdx + 4dx.

From the second part of Properties of Indefinite Integrals, each coefficient can be written in

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132

front of the integral sign, which gives

Z Z Z Z Z Z Z Z
3 2 3 2
5x dx + 7x dx + 3xdx + 4dx = 5 x dx + 7 x dx + 3 xdx + 4 1dx

Using the power rule for integrals, we conclude that

Z

5 7 3
5x3 − 7x2 + 3x + 4 dx = x4 − x3 + x2 + 4x + C
4 3 2

(b) Rewrite the integrand as √ √

x2 + 4 3 x x2 4 3 x
= +
x x x
4
= x + 2/3 .
x
Then, to evaluate the integral, integrate each of these terms separately. Using the power rule,
we have Z   Z Z
4
x + 2/3 dx = xdx + 4 x−2/3 dx
x
1 1
= x2 + 4   x(−2/3)+1 + C
2 −2
+1
3
1
= x2 + 12x1/3 + C
2
(c) Using Properties of Indefinite Integrals, write the integral as
Z
1
4 dx
1 + x2

1
Then, use the fact that tan−1 x is an anti-derivative of to conclude that
1 + x2
Z
4
dx = 4 tan−1 x + C.
1 + x2

(d) Rewrite the integrand as

sin x
tan x cos x = cos x
cos x
= sin x
Therefore, Z Z
tan x cos xdx = sin xdx

= − cos x + C.
 133

Initial-Value Problems
We look at techniques for integrating a large variety of functions involving products, quotients, and
compositions later in the text. Here we turn to one common use for anti-derivatives that arises
often in many applications: solving differential equations.

A differential equation is an equation that relates an unknown function and one or more of its
derivatives. The equation
dy
= f (x)
dx
is a simple example of a differential equation. Solving this equation means finding a function y with
a derivative f . Therefore, the solutions of Equation 4.1 are the anti-derivatives of f . If F is one
anti-derivative of f , every function of the form y = F (x)+C is a solution of that differential equation.

For example, the solutions of

dy
= 6x2
dx
are given by Z
y= 6x2 dx = 2x3 + C.

Sometimes we are interested in determining whether a particular solution curve passes through a
certain point (x0 , y0 ) - that is, y (x0 ) = y0 . The problem of finding a function y that satisfies a
differential equation
dy
= f (x)
dx
with the additional condition
y (x0 ) = y0

is an example of an initial-value problem. The condition y (x0 ) = y0 is known as an initial condition.

For example, looking for a function y that satisfies the differential equation

dy
= 6x2
dx

and the additional condition

y(1) = 5

is an example of an initial-value problem. Since the solutions of the differential equation are
y = 2x3 + C, to find a function y that also satisfies the initial condition, we need to find C
such that y(1) = 2(1)3 + C = 5.

From this equation, we see that C = 3, and we conclude that y = 2x3 + 3 is the solution of this
initial-value problem as shown in the following graph.

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134

Figure 4.2:

dy
Some of the solution curves of the differential equation = 6x2 are displayed. The function
dx
y = 2x3 + 3 satisfies the differential equation and the initial condition y(1) = 5.

Example 4

Solving an Initial-Value Problem

Solve the initial-value problem
dy
= sin x, y(0) = 5.
dx

Solution :
dy
First we need to solve the differential equation. If = sin x, then
dx
Z
y= sin xdx = − cos x + C.

Next we need to look for a solution y that satisfies the initial condition. The initial condition
y(0) = 5 means we need a constant C such that − cos x + C = 5. Therefore,

C = 5 + cos(0) = 6.

The solution of the initial value problem is y = − cos x + 6.

Initial-value problems arise in many applications. Next we consider a problem in which a driver
applies the brakes in a car. We are interested in how long it takes for the car to stop. Recall that
the velocity function v(t) is the derivative of a position function s(t), and the acceleration a(t) is the
derivative of the velocity function. In earlier examples in the text, we could calculate the velocity
from the position and then compute the acceleration from the velocity. In the next example we
work the other way around. Given an acceleration function, we calculate the velocity function. We
then use the velocity function to determine the position function.
 135

Example 5

Decelerating Car
A car is traveling at the rate of 88 ft/sec (60mph) when the brakes are applied. The car
begins decelerating at a constant rate of 15 ft/sec.

(a) How many seconds elapse before the car stops?

(b) How far does the car travel during that time?

Solution :
(a) First we introduce variables for this problem. Let t be the time (in seconds) after the
brakes are first applied. Let a(t) be the acceleration of the car (in feet per seconds squared)
at time t. Let v(t) be the velocity of the car (in feet per second) at time t. Let s(t) be the
car’s position (in feet) beyond the point where the brakes are applied at time t. The car is
traveling at a rate of 88 ft/sec. Therefore, the initial velocity is v(0) = 88 ft/sec. Since
the car is decelerating, the acceleration is

a(t) = −15 ft/sec.

The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity,v ′ (t) = −15

Therefore, we have an initial-value problem to solve:v ′ (t) = −15, v(0) = 88.
Integrating, we find thatv(t) = −15t + C.
Since v(0) = 88, C = 88. Thus, the velocity function is v(t) = −15t + 88.
To find how long it takes for the car to stop, we need to find the time t such that the velocity
88
is zero. Solving −15t + 88 = 0, we obtain t = sec.
15

(b) To find how far the car travels during this time, we need to find the position of the car
88
after sec. We know the velocity v(t) is the derivative of the position s(t). Consider the
15
initial position to be s(0) = 0. Therefore, we need to solve the initial-value problem

s′ (t) = −15t + 88, s(0) = 0.

Integrating, we have
15 2
s(t) = − t + 88t + C.
2
Since s(0) = 0, the constant is C = 0. Therefore, the position function is

15 2
s(t) = − t + 88t.
2
 
88 88
After t = sec, the position is s ≈ 258.133 ft.
15 15

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136

4.1 EXERCISES

I. For the following exercises, show that F (x) are anti-derivatives of f (x).

(1) F (x) = x2 + 4x + 1, f (x) = 2x + 4 (3) F (x) = cos x, f (x) = − sin x

(2) F (x) = x2 ex , f (x) = ex x2 + 2x (4) F (x) = ex , f (x) = ex

II. For the following exercises, find the anti-derivative of the function.

1 (7) f (x) = ex + 3x − x2
(1) f (x) = +x
x2
(8) f (x) = 2 sin x + sin(2x)
(2) f (x) = 5x4 + 4x5
(9) f (x) = x − 1 + 4 sin(2x)
(3) f (x) = x + 12x2
(10) f (x) = sec2 x + 1
1
(4) f (x) = √
x (11) f (x) = csc x cot x + 3x
√ 3
(5) f (x) = ( x) (12) f (x) = 4 csc x cot x − sec x cot x
(6) f (x) = ex − 3x2 + sin x (13) f (x) = 8 sec x(sec x − 4 tan x)

III. For the following exercises, evaluate the integral.

Z Z
√ √
(1) (−1)dx (5) (4 x + 4 x)dx
Z Z  
√
(2) (4x + x)dx (6) x−1/3 − x2/3 dx
Z Z
3x2 + 2 14x3 + 2x + 1
(3) dx (7) dx
x2 x3
Z Z


(4) (sec x tan x + 4x)dx (8) ex + e−x dx

IV. For the following exercises, solve the initial value problem.

(1) f ′ (x) = x−3 , f (1) = 1 (4) f ′ (x) = x3 − 8x2 + 16x + 1, f (0) = 0

√
(2) f ′ (x) = x + x2 , f (0) = 2 2 x2
√ (5) f ′ (x) = − , f (1) = 0
π  2 x2 2
′ 2
(3) f (x) = cos x + sec x, f =2+
4 2

V. A car is being driven at a rate of 40mph when the brakes are applied. The car decelerates at
a constant rate of 10 ft/sec2 . How long does the car take to stop? How far the car travels
in the time it takes to stop?
VI. You are merging onto the freeway, accelerating at a constant rate of 12 ft/sec2 . How long
does it take you to reach merging speed at 60mph ? How far does the car travel to reach
merging speed?
 137

4.2 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

If f (x) is a function defined on an interval [a, b], the definite integral of f from a to b is denoted
Z b
as f (x)dx and it gives the area bounded by the curve y = f (x), the lines x = a, x = b and the
a
x-axis.

Figure 4.3: An area (shaded region) bounded by the curve f (x), the x-axis, the line x = a to the
left, and the line x = b at right.

Although the notation for indefinite integrals may look similar to the notation for a definite integral,
they are not the same. A definite integral is a number. An indefinite integral is a family of func-
tions. Later in this chapter we examine how these concepts are related. However, close attention
should always be paid to notation so we know whether we’re working with a definite integral or an
indefinite integral.

Integral notation goes back to the late seventeenth century and is one of the contributions of Got-
tfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who is often
Z considered to be the codiscoverer of calculus, along with Isaac
Newton. The integration symbol is an elongated S, suggesting sigma or summation. On a definite
integral, above and below the summation symbol are the boundaries of the interval, . The numbers
a and b are x-values and are called the limits of integration; specifically, a is the lower limit and
b is the upper limit. We call the function f (x) the integrand, and the dx indicates that f (x) is a
function with respect to x, called the variable of integration.

Properties of the Definite Integral

The properties of indefinite integrals apply to definite integrals as well. Definite integrals also
have properties that relate to the limits of integration. These properties, along with the rules of
integration that we examine later in this chapter, help us manipulate expressions to evaluate definite
integrals.

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138
Z b Z b Z b
1. f (x)dx = f (t)dt = f (u)du
a a a
Z a
2. f (x)dx = 0
a
Z b Z a
3. f (x)dx = − f (x)dx
a b
Z b Z c Z b
4. f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx where c is any real number between a and b.
a a c

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

In this section we look at some more powerful and useful techniques for evaluating definite inte-
grals. These new techniques rely on the relationship between differentiation and integration. This
relationship was discovered and explored by both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
(among others) during the late 1600s and early 1700s, and it is codified in what we now call the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which has two parts that we examine in this section. Its very
name indicates how central this theorem is to the entire development of calculus.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: Integrals and anti-derivatives

As mentioned earlier, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an extremely powerful theorem that
establishes the relationship between differentiation and integration, and gives us a way to evaluate
definite integrals. The theorem is comprised of two parts, the first of which, the Fundamental The-
orem of Calculus, Part 1, is stated here. Part 1 establishes the relationship between differentiation
and integration.

Theorem 4.4 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1): If f (x) is continuous over an interval
[a, b], and the function F (x) is defined by
Z x
F (x) = f (t)dt,
a

then F ′ (x) = f (x) over [a, b].

There is a reason it is called the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Not only does it establish
a relationship between integration and differentiation, but also it guarantees that any integrable
function has an anti-derivative. Specifically, it guarantees that any continuous function has an anti-
derivative.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2: The Evaluation Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, is perhaps the most important theorem in calcu-
lus. After tireless efforts by mathematicians for approximately 500 years, new techniques emerged
that provided scientists with the necessary tools to explain many phenomena. Using calculus, as-
tronomers could finally determine distances in space and map planetary orbits. Everyday financial
 139

problems such as calculating marginal costs or predicting total profit could now be handled with
simplicity and accuracy. Engineers could calculate the bending strength of materials or the three-
dimensional motion of objects. Our view of the world was forever changed with calculus. After
finding approximate areas by adding the areas of n rectangles, the application of this theorem is
straightforward by comparison. It almost seems too simple that the area of an entire curved region
can be calculated by just evaluating an anti-derivative at the first and last endpoints of an interval.

Theorem 4.5 (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2): If f is continuous over the interval
[a, b] and F (x) is any anti-derivative of f (x), then
Z b
f (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

We often see the notation F (x)|ba to denote the expression F (b) − F (a). We use this vertical bar
and associated limits a and b to indicate that we should evaluate the function F (x) at the upper
limit (in this case, b ), and subtract the value of the function F (x) evaluated at the lower limit (in
this case, a ).

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (also known as the evaluation theorem) states that
if we can find an anti-derivative for the integrand, then we can evaluate the definite integral by
evaluating the anti-derivative at the endpoints of the interval and subtracting.

Example 1

Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem Zof Calculus

2

Use The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 to evaluate t2 − 4 dt.
−2

Solution :
Recall the power rule for anti-derivatives:
Z
xn+1
xn dx = + C.
n+1

Use this rule to find the anti-derivative of the function and then apply the theorem. We have
Z 2
t3
t2 − 4 dt = − 4t|2−2
−2 3
 3   
(2) (−2)3
= − 4(2) − − 4(−2)
3 3
   
8 −8 32
= −8 − +8 =−
3 3 3

Notice that we did not include the "+ C " term when we wrote the anti-derivative. The reason

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140

is that, according to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, any anti-derivative works.
So, for convenience, we chose the anti-derivative with C = 0. If we had chosen another anti-
derivative, the constant term would have canceled out. This always happens when evaluating
a definite integral.

Example 2

Evaluating a Definite Integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,

Part 2Evaluate the following integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2:
Z 9
x−1
√ dx
1 x

Solution :
First, eliminate the radical by rewriting the integral using rational exponents.

Then, separate the numerator terms by writing each one over the denominator:
Z Z 9 
9
x−1 x 1
dx = − dx
1 x1/2 1 x1/2 x1/2

Use the properties of exponents to simplify:

Z 9  Z 9 
x 1
− dx = x1/2 − x−1/2 dx
1 x1/2 x1/2 1

Now, integrate using the power rule:

  9
Z 9 
  x3/2 x1/2
x1/2 − x−1/2 dx =  −
1
3 1 
 2 2 
1
 
 (9)3/2   (9)1/2 (1)3/2 (1)1/2 
= − − −
31   3 1 

 22  2  2
2 2
= (27) − 2(3) − (1) − 2(1)
3 3
2 40
= 18 − 6 − + 2 =
3 3
 141

4.2 EXERCISES

I. In the following exercises, evaluate each definite integral using the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, Part 2.
Z Z Z √
1
2
4
2− t
(1) x − 3x dx +
2
x − 3x dx
2
(10) dt
−1 1 1 t2
Z −2 Z π
(t + 2)(t − 3)dt
4
(2) (11) sec2 θdθ
3
Z 0
3

Z 16
(3) t2 − 9 4 − t2 dt dt
3
(12)
Z 1 t1/4
3
Z
x + 3x − 5 dx
2 π
(4) 4
−2 (13) sec θ tan θdθ
Z 1 0
(5) x99 dx Z 2π

Z
0 (14) cos θdθ
8  0
(6) 4t5/2 − 3t3/2 dt
4 Z π
Z 4  (15) 4 csc θ cot θdθ
1
(7) x − 2 dx
2 π
3
1 x
4 Z π
Z 2 2
2 (16) sin θdθ
(8) 3
dx 0
1 x Z
Z 4 π
2
1 csc2 θdθ
(9) √ dx (17)
π
1 2 x 4

4.3 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gave us a method to evaluate integrals. The drawback of
this method, though, is that we must be able to find an anti-derivative, and this is not always
easy. In this section we examine a technique, called integration by substitution, to help us find
anti-derivatives. Specifically, this method helps us find anti-derivatives when the integrand is the
result of a chain-rule derivative.
At first, the approach to the substitution procedure may not appear very obvious. However, it is
primarily a visual task - that is, the integrand shows you what to do; it is a matter of recognizing the
form
Z of the function. So, what are we supposedZto see? We are looking for an integrand of the form

3
f [g(x)]g ′ (x)dx. For example, in the integral x2 − 3 2xdx, we have f (x) = x3 , g(x) = x2 − 3
and g ′ (x) = 2x. Then,

3
f [g(x)]g ′ (x) = x2 − 3 (2x)

and we see that our integrand is in the correct form.

The method is called substitution because we substitute part of the integrand with the variable
u and part of the integrand with du. It is also referred to as change of variables because we are

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142

changing variables to obtain an expression that is easier to work with for applying the integration
rules.
Theorem 4.6 ( Substitution with Indefinite Integrals): Let u = g(x), where g ′ (x) is continuous
over an interval, let f (x) be continuous over the corresponding range of g, and let F (x) be an
anti-derivative of f (x). Then,
Z Z
′
f [g(x)]g (x)dx = f (u)du

= F (u) + C
= F [g(x)] + C

Problem-Solving Strategy: Integration by Substitution

1. Look carefully at the integrand and select an expression g(x) within the integrand to set equal
to u. Let’s select g(x) such that g ′ (x) is also part of the integrand.

2. Substitute u = g(x) and du = g ′ (x)dx into the integral.

3. We should now be able to evaluate the integral with respect to u. If the integral can’t be
evaluated, we need to go back and select a different expression to use as u.

4. Evaluate the integral in terms of u.

5. Write the result in terms of x and the expression g(x).

Example 1

Using Substitution to Find an anti-derivative Z

4
Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of 6x 3x2 + 4 dx.

Solution :
The first step is to choose an expression for u. We choose u = 3x2 +4, because then du = 6xdx,
and we already have du in the integrand. Write the integral in terms of u :
Z Z

4
6x 3x + 4 dx = u4 du.
2

Remember that du is the derivative of the expression chosen for u, regardless of what is inside
the integrand. Now we can evaluate the integral with respect to u :
Analysis Z
u5
u4 du = +C
5

5
3x2 + 4
= +C
5
We can check our answer by taking the derivative of the result of integration. We should
 143

1
5
obtain the integrand. Picking a value for C of 1 , we let y = 3x2 + 4 + 1. We have
5
1
5
y= 3x2 + 4 + 1,
5

so  
′ 1
4
y = 5 3x2 + 4 6x
5

4
= 6x 3x2 + 4 .
This is exactly the expression we started with inside the integrand.

Example 2

Using Substitution with Alteration Z p

Use substitution to find the anti-derivative of z z 2 − 5dz.

Solution :
Z

1/2
Rewrite the integral as z z2 − 5 dz. Let u = z 2 − 5 and du = 2zdz. Now we have a
problem because du = 2zdz and the original expression has only zdz. We have to alter our
expression for du or the integral in u will be twice as large as it should be. If we multiply
1
both sides of the du equation by we can solve this problem. Thus,
2

u = z2 − 5
du = 2zdz
1 1
du = (2z)dz = zdz
2 2
1
Write the integral in terms of u, but pull the outside the integration symbol:
2
Z Z

1/2 1
z z −5
2
dz = u1/2 du.
2

Integrate the expression in u :

Z   3/2
1 1/2 1 u
u du = +C
2 2 3
  2 
1 2
= u3/2 + C
2 3
1
= u3/2 + C
3

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144

1 2
3/2
= z −5 +C
3

Example 3

Using Substitution with Integrals ofZTrigonometric Functions

sin t
Use substitution to evaluate the integral dt.
cos3 t

Solution :
We know the derivative of cos t is − sin t, so we set u = cos t. Then du = − sin tdt. Substi-
tuting into the integral, we have
Evaluating the integral, we get
Z Z
sin t du
dt = −
cos t
3 u3
Z Z
du
− = − u−3 du
u3
 
1
=− − u−2 + C.
2

Putting the answer back in terms of t, we get

Z
sin t 1
dt = 2 + C
cos t
3 2u
1
= + C.
2 cos2 t

Example 4

Using Substitution with an Exponential Z Function

2 2x3
Use substitution to evaluate the integral 3x e dx.

Solution :
Here we choose to let u equal the expression in the exponent on e. Let u = 2x3 and du =
6x2 dx. Again, du is off by a constant multiplier; the original function contains a factor of
1
3x2 , not 6x2 . Multiply both sides of the equation by so that the integrand in u equals the
2
integrand in x. Thus, Z Z
3 1
3x2 e2x dx = eu du.
2
Integrate the expression in u and then substitute the original expression in x back into the u
integral: Z
1 1 1 3
eu du = eu + C = e2x + C.
2 2 2
 145

4.3 EXERCISES

I. In the following exercises, find the anti-derivative using the indicated substitution.
Z Z

3
(1) (x + 1)4 dx; u = x + 1 (7) (x − 1) x2 − 2x dx; u = x2 − 2x
Z
Z
(2) (x − 1)5 dx; u = x − 1

2
(8) x2 − 2x x3 − 3x2 dx; u = x3 − 3x2
Z
(3) (2x − 3)−7 dx; u = 2x − 3 Z
Z (9) cos3 θdθ; u = sin θ
−11
(4) (3x − 2) dx; u = 3x − 2

Z ( Hint: cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ
x
(5) √ dx; u = x2 + 1 Z
x2 + 1 sin3 θdθ; u = cos θ
Z (10)
x

(6) √ dx; u = 1 − x2
1−x 2 ( Hint: sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ

II. In the following exercises, use a suitable change of variables to determine the indefinite integral.
Z Z
(1) e2x dx (14) cos2 (πt) sin(πt)dt
Z Z

10
(2) e−3x dx (15) 1 − cos3 θ cos2 θ sin θdθ
Z Z Z
(3) x
2 dx (d) 3−x dx (16)
4
2x3 ex dx
Z Z
(4) x(1 − x)99 dx (17) x2 e−x dx
3

Z Z
x2 √
(5) 2 dx (18) ex 1 + ex dx
(x3 − 3)
Z Z

10
(6) t 1 − t2 dt (19) esin x cos xdx
Z
Z
(7) (11x − 7)−3 dx
(20) sin2 x cos3 xdx
Z
x3 Z
(8) √ dx
1 − x2 (21) etan x sec2 xdx
Z

(9) (7x − 11)4 dx (Hint: sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
Z Z ln x
y5 e
(10) dy (22) dx
x
(1 − y 3 )3/2 Z
Z


(23) t sin t2 cos t2 dt
(11) cos3 θ sin θdθ
Z Z



(12) 7
sin θ cos θdθ (24) t2 cos2 t3 sin t3 dt
Z Z
eln(1−t)
(13) cos θ(1 − cos θ) sin θdθ 99
(25) dt
1−t

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146

4.4 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

By now we have a fairly thorough

Z procedure for how to evaluate many basic integrals. However,


although we can integrate x sin x2 dx by using the substitution, u = x2 , something as simple
Z
looking as x sin xdx defies us. Many students want to know whether there is a product rule for
integration. There isn’t, but there is a technique based on the product rule for differentiation that
allows us to exchange one integral for another. We call this technique integration by parts.

The Integration-by-Parts Formula

If h(x) = f (x)g(x), then by using the product rule, we obtain h′ (x) = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x).
Although
Z at Z
first it may seem counterproductive, let’s now integrate both sides of this equation:
′


h (x)dx = f ′ (x)g(x) + f (x)g ′ (x) dx.
This gives us Z Z
h(x) = f (x)g(x) = g(x)f ′ (x)dx + f (x)g ′ (x)dx.
Z
Now we solve for f (x)g ′ (x)dx :

Z Z
f (x)g ′ (x)dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f ′ (x)dx.

By making the substitutions u = f (x) and v = g(x), which in turn make du = f ′ (x)dx and
dv = g ′ (x)dx, we have the more compact form
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu.

Theorem 4.7 (Integration by Parts): Let u = f (x) and v = g(x) be functions with continuous
derivatives. Then, the integration-byparts formula for the integral involving these two functions is:
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu.

Example 1

Using Integration by Parts Z

Use integration by parts with u = x and dv = sin xdx to evaluate x sin xdx.

Solution :
R
By choosing u = x, we have du = 1dx. Since dv = sin xdx, we get v = sin xdx = − cos x.
 147

It is handy to keep track of these values as follows:

u =x dv = sin xdx
R
du = 1dx v = sin xdx = − cos x

Applying the integration-by-parts formula results in

Analysis Z Z
x sin xdx = (x)(− cos x) − (− cos x)(1dx)
Z
= −x cos x + cos xdx

= −x cos x + sin x + C.

At this point, there are probably a few items that need clarification. First of all, you may be
curious about what would have happened if we had chosen u = sin x and dv = x. If we had done
1
so, then we would have du = cos x and v = x2 . Thus, after applying integration by parts, we have
Z Z 2
1 2 1 2
x sin xdx = x sin x − x cos xdx.
2 2
Unfortunately, with the new integral, we are in no better position than before. It is important to
keep in mind that when we apply integration by parts, we may need to try several choices for u and
dv before finding a choice that works.

R
Second, you may wonder why, when we find v = sin xdx = − cos x, we do not use v = − cos x + K.
To see that it makes no difference, we can rework the problem using v = − cos x + K :
Z Z
x sin xdx = (x)(− cos x + K) − (− cos x + K)(1dx)
Z Z
= −x cos x + Kx + cos xdx − Kdx

= −x cos x + Kx + sin x − Kx + C
= −x cos x + sin x + C.

As you can see, it makes no difference in the final solution.

Last, we can check to make sure that our anti-derivative is correct by differentiating −x cos x +
sin x + C :
d
(−x cos x + sin x + C) = (−1) cos x + (−x)(− sin x) + cos x
dx
= x sin x
Therefore, the anti-derivative checks out.
The natural question to ask at this point is: How do we know how to choose u and dv? Sometimes
it is a matter of trial and error; however, the acronym LIATE can often help to take some of the
guesswork out of our choices. This acronym stands for Logarithmic Functions, Inverse Trigono-
metric Functions, Algebraic Functions, Trigonometric Functions, and Exponential Functions. This
mnemonic serves as an aid in determining an appropriate choice for u.

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148

The type of function in the integral that appears first in the list should be our first choice of u. For
example, if an integral contains a logarithmic function and an algebraic function, we should choose
u to be the logarithmic function, because L comes before A in LIATE. The integral in Example 1
has a trigonometric function (sin x) and an algebraic function (x). Because A comes before T in
LIATE, we chose u to be the algebraic function. When we have chosen u, dv is selected to be the
remaining part of the function to be integrated, together with dx.

Why does this mnemonic work? Remember that whatever we pick to be dv must be something
we can integrate. Since we do not have integration formulas that allow us to integrate simple
logarithmic functions and inverse trigonometric functions, it makes sense that they should not be
chosen as values for dv. Consequently, they should be at the head of the list as choices for u.
Thus, we put LI at the beginning of the mnemonic. (We could just as easily have started with
IL, since these two types of functions won’t appear together in an integration-by-parts problem.)
The exponential and trigonometric functions are at the end of our list because they are fairly easy
to integrate and make good choices for dv. Thus, we have TE at the end of our mnemonic. (We
could just as easily have used ET at the end, since when these types of functions appear together it
usually doesn’t really matter which one is u and which one is dv.) Algebraic functions are generally
easy both to integrate and to differentiate, and they come in the middle of the mnemonic.

Example 2

Using Integration
Z by Parts
ln x
Evaluate dx
x3

Solution :
Begin by rewriting the integral:
Z Z
ln x
dx = x−3 ln xdx.
x3

Since this integral contains the algebraic function x−3 and the logarithmic function ln x,
choose u = ln x, since L comes before A in LIATE. After we have chosen u = ln x, we must
choose dv = x−3 dx.
1 R 1
Next, since u = ln x, we have du = dx. Also, v = x−3 dx = − x−2 . Summarizing,
x 2

u = ln x dv = x−3 dx
1 R 1
du = dx v = x−3 dx = − x−2 .
x 2
 149

Substituting into the integration-by-parts formula gives

Z Z   Z   
ln x 1 1 1
dx x ln xdx = (ln x) − x−2
−3
− − x−2 dx
x3 2 2 x
Z
1 −2 1 −3
= − x ln x + − x dx
2 2
1 −2 1 −2
= − x ln x − x + C
2 4
1 1
− 2 ln x − 2 + C.
2x 4x

Example 3

ApplyingZ Integration by Parts More Than Once

Evaluate x2 e3x dx

Solution :
R 1
Using LIATE, choose u = x2 and dv = e3x dx. Thus, du = 2xdx and v = e3x dx = e3x .
3
Therefore,
u = x2 dv = e3x dx
R 1
du = 2xdx v = e3x dx = e3x .
3
Substituting into the integration-by-parts formula gives
Z Z
1 2 3x 2 3x
x e dx = x e −
2 3x
xe dx.
3 3
Z
2 3x
We still cannot integrate e dx directly, but the integral now has a lower power on x.
3
We can evaluate this new integral by using integration by parts again. To do this, choose
2 R 2 3x 2
u = x and dv = e3x dx. Thus, du = dx and v = e dx = e3x . Now we have
3 3 9
2
u =x dv = e3x
3
R 2 3x 2
du = dx v = e dx = e3x .
3 9
Substituting into the integration-by-parts formula gives
Z  Z 
1 2 3x 2 3x
x e dx = x2 e3x −
2 3x
xe − e dx .
3 9 9
After evaluating the last integral and simplifying, we obtain
Z
1 2 2
x2 e3x dx = x2 e3x − xe3x + e3x + C.
3 9 27

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150

4.4 EXERCISES

I. Evaluate the integrals by using integration by parts.

Z Z
(1) x cos xdx (8) x2 cos xdx
Z Z
4x
(2) xe dx (9) x2 ln xdx
Z Z
2 x
(3) x e dx (10) ln xdx
Z Z
−x
(4) xe dx (11) ex sin xdx
Z Z
(5) x sin 2xdx (12) ex cos xdx
Z Z
(6) x cos 3xdx (13) tan−1 xdx
Z Z
(7) x sec xdx 2
(14) sin−1 xdx