1.

Early Foundations (Pre-17th Century)

 Input:
o Manual input using tools like tally marks and abacus beads for
counting.
 Processing:
o Basic mental calculations and simple manual tools (e.g., abacus
for addition and subtraction).
 Output:
o Results displayed via physical objects (e.g., abacus beads moved
for counting).
 Storage:
o No permanent data storage—results were ephemeral and done in
real-time.
 Usage:
o Early civilizations used these tools for basic arithmetic and record-
keeping.
o The abacus was widely used in trade, accounting, and education
for thousands of years.

2. Mechanical Era (17th - 19th Century)

 Input:
o Manual input using gears, dials, and manual setting (e.g.,
mechanical keys on Pascaline).
 Processing:
o Mechanical calculation using gears, levers, and pulleys (e.g.,
Pascaline and Step Reckoner).
 Output:
o Results displayed on dials, printed paper (for Babbage's
machines), or via gears.
  Storage:
o No true storage—calculations were performed in real-time, often
requiring reset after each use.
 Usage:
o Primarily for mathematical calculations (e.g., addition,
subtraction, multiplication).
o Used in engineering, finance, and science.

3. Electro-Mechanical Era (1900s - 1940s)

 Input:
o Punched cards (Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine), keyboards (for
inputting data into early electromechanical devices).
 Processing:
o Electromechanical components (e.g., relays and rotating drums)
to process data (e.g., Zuse Z3, Hollerith's system).
 Output:
o Printed output (on paper) or punched tape for storage and further
processing.
 Storage:
o Punched cards and tape were used to temporarily store data.
 Usage:
o Data processing for things like census calculations, business
applications, and scientific research.
o Examples include Hollerith's Tabulating System and Zuse Z3 for
computing tasks.

4. Electronic Era (1940s - 1950s)

 Input:
o Punch cards, keyboards, and manual input.
  Processing:
o Early electronic circuits using vacuum tubes for computation (e.g.,
ENIAC, UNIVAC).
 Output:
o Printed reports, visual output on teletypes, and stored data on
magnetic tapes.
 Storage:
o Magnetic tape, vacuum tubes, and paper tapes for temporary
data storage.
 Usage:
o Business, military (e.g., ENIAC for ballistics), and scientific
research (e.g., UNIVAC for census data processing).

5. Transistor Era (1950s - 1960s)

 Input:
o Keyboards, punched cards, and mouse (beginning of input
devices).
 Processing:
o Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller,
more reliable, and more energy-efficient (e.g., IBM 1401).
 Output:
o Printed results, terminal output (early CRT monitors).
 Storage:
o Magnetic tapes, disk drives, and punch cards for temporary and
permanent data storage.
 Usage:
o Business, scientific, and government applications.
o Early use in data processing, banking, and military for complex
calculations.
6. Integrated Circuit (IC) Era (1960s - 1970s)
 Input:
o Keyboards, mice, punch cards, and early graphical interfaces
(mouse for early PCs).
 Processing:
o Integrated Circuits (ICs) and microprocessors (e.g., Intel 4004)
replaced individual transistors, leading to personal computers.
 Output:
o CRT monitors, printers, and early displays.
 Storage:
o Floppy disks, hard drives, and tape drives for both temporary and
permanent data storage.
 Usage:
o Personal computing becomes possible.
o Early personal computers like the Altair 8800, Apple II, and
Commodore PET become available for home and small business
use.

7. Personal Computer Era (1980s - 1990s)

 Input:
o Keyboards, mice, scanners, and joysticks (gaming).
 Processing:
o Microprocessors (e.g., Intel 80386, Pentium) enable personal and
office computing, supporting multitasking.
 Output:
o Monitors (CRT, later LCD), printers, speakers, and audio output.
 Storage:
 o Hard drives, floppy disks, CD-ROMs, tape backups for software
and data storage.
 Usage:
o Home computing, office productivity (word processing,
spreadsheets), gaming, and early networking (modems for dial-up
internet).
o Graphical User Interface (GUI) becomes mainstream with Apple
Macintosh and Windows.

8. Internet & Networking Era (1990s - 2000s)

 Input:
o Keyboards, mice, microphones, webcams.
 Processing:
o Faster microprocessors (e.g., Pentium processors) and web
servers drive internet-based applications.
 Output:
o Monitors (used for web browsers), email, social media, online
services.
 Storage:
o Hard drives, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and cloud storage.
 Usage:
o World Wide Web drives e-commerce, online communication, and
file sharing.
o Rise of Google, Amazon, eBay, Yahoo! and Facebook.

9. Mobile & Cloud Computing Era (2000s - Present)

 Input:
o Touchscreens, voice commands, gesture controls (e.g.,
smartphones, voice assistants like Siri).
  Processing:
o Multi-core processors, cloud computing, smartphones, and
tablets revolutionize personal and business computing.
 Output:
o Smartphone screens, tablet displays, voice output, virtual
assistants.
 Storage:
o Cloud storage (Google Drive, iCloud), SSDs, flash drives, and
external drives.
 Usage:
o Smartphones, tablets, and cloud computing become the norm for
personal use, business operations, and social media.
o Remote work, collaboration tools (e.g., Google Workspace,
Microsoft 365), and entertainment (streaming services like Netflix,
Spotify).

10. Quantum Computing & AI Era (Present & Future)

 Input:
o Voice, gestures, brain-machine interfaces (e.g., experimental).
 Processing:
o Quantum computing using qubits and AI powered by advanced
machine learning algorithms.
 Output:
o AI-driven systems, self-driving cars, voice assistants, and
autonomous systems.
 Storage:
o Quantum storage, cloud storage for massive data processing
needs.
 Usage:
 o AI, machine learning, and quantum computing are transforming
healthcare, cryptography, finance, and automated systems (e.g.,
self-driving cars, smart cities).

Summary of Key Evolution in Computing Eras:

Era Input Processing Output Storage Usage
Mental Manual
Early Tally marks, Basic arithmetic,
calculation, results, None
Foundations abacus record-keeping, trade
abacus abacus
Mechanical Dials, Arithmetic,
Mechanical
(17th-19th Gears, dials printed None engineering, scientific
calculation
C) output calculations
Printed
Electro- Punched Punched
Electromechanical output, Data processing,
Mechanical cards, cards,
components punched scientific, business use
(1900s) switches tape
tape
Magnetic
Printed
Electronic Punch cards, tapes, Business, military,
Vacuum tubes output,
(1940s-50s) keyboard vacuum scientific research
tapes
tubes
Magnetic
Keyboards, Printed
Transistor tapes, Business, research,
punched Transistors output,
(1950s-60s) disk early computers
cards terminals
drives
Floppy
Integrated CRT
Keyboards, disks, Personal computing,
Circuit Microprocessors monitors,
mice hard small businesses
(1970s) printers
drives
Keyboards, Monitors, Hard
PC Era Home, office, gaming,
mice, Microprocessors printers, disks,
(1980s-90s) early internet use
scanners speakers CDs, flash
Internet Era Keyboards, Faster processors, Web Cloud, Web browsing, e-
Era Input Processing Output Storage Usage
(1990s- mice, browsers, hard commerce, online
web servers
2000s) microphones monitors drives communication
Mobile &
Smartphone Cloud Smartphones, apps,
Cloud Era Touchscreens, Multi-core
screens, storage, cloud computing,
(2000s- voice processors, cloud
voice SSDs remote work
Present)
Quantum & AI systems, Quantum AI, quantum
Voice, Quantum
AI Era autonomous & cloud computing, self-
gestures, AI computing, AI
(Present) devices storage driving, smart systems