OPERATING SYSTEM

1.1 Introduction to Computer

1.1.1 Definition
A computer is a device that processes digitalized data according to a set of instructions
stored in its memory.

1.1.2 History & Generation of Computer

- First Generation (1940-1956): Used vacuum tubes, operated on binary code.
- Second Generation (1956-1963): Utilized transistors, smaller and faster than first
generation.
- Third Generation (1963-1971): Integrated circuits, further size reduction, lower power
consumption.
- Fourth Generation (1972-2010): Microprocessor technology, smaller, portable, and
more efficient.
- Fifth Generation (2010-present): Includes advanced software capabilities like AI and
quantum computing.

1.1.3 Applications of Computer

- Home: Bill payments, entertainment, education.
- Medical Field: Patient management, robotic surgery.
- Entertainment: Online streaming, gaming.
- Industry: Inventory management, virtual design.
- Education: Online classes, digital resources.
- Government: Data processing, defence applications.
- Banking: Transaction processing, ATM operations.
- Business: Operations management, analytics.

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1.1.4 Advantages of Computer

- Stores large amounts of data, enhances productivity, enables connectivity, automates
tasks, aids physically challenged individuals.

1.1.5 Terms related to Computer

Hardware: Physical components like CPU, RAM, and storage devices.

CPU: Central Processing Unit, the chip that processes instructions from applications.

Bit: Smallest unit of data in computing, either 0 or 1. Bits form larger units like bytes (8
bits), kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes.

RAM: Random Access Memory, used to store data actively processed by the CPU.

Secondary Storage: Long-term storage devices like hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-
state drives (SSD).

ROM: Read-Only Memory, stores essential system information and is not modifiable.

Input/Output Devices (I/O Devices): Hardware used to input data (e.g., keyboard) and
output information (e.g., printer).

Software: Programs and applications that run on computers.

Algorithm: Step-by-step procedure for solving problems, crucial in computing for tasks
like route optimization.

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API (Application Programming Interface): Software intermediary enabling

communication between different applications.

Boolean: Programming logic using binary choices (True/False) to make decisions.

Bug: Programming error causing unexpected issues in software.

Camel Case: Writing convention capitalizing the first letter of compound words (e.g.,
StretchLength).

Code: Commands and instructions in programming languages to create and manage

software.

Compiling: Process of converting high-level code into machine-readable instructions.

Conditional Statements: Programming logic defining actions based on specified

conditions (e.g., If-Then statements).

Integrated Development Environment (IDE): Software for coding with features like
debugging tools and syntax highlighting.

Latency: Time delay between input and output, critical in applications needing real-
time responsiveness.

Scripts: Instructions for automated tasks or dynamic content generation in

programming.

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Structured Data: Organized and cleaned data for efficient manipulation and use in
applications.

Syntax: Rules governing the structure and format of programming languages.

Generation Of Computers

Time
Generation Key Technology Characteristics Examples
Period
- Huge, room-sized -
1940s - Consumed lots of
1st Vacuum Tubes ENIAC, UNIVAC
1950s power - Used machine
language
- Smaller and more
efficient - Introduced
1950s - IBM 7090, CDC
2nd Transistors assembly language -
1960s 1604
Still large, but more
manageable
- Much smaller due to
ICs - More reliable and
IBM
1960s - Integrated Circuits faster - Introduced
3rd System/360,
1970s (ICs) high-level
PDP-8
programming
languages
- Led to the
development of
personal computers -
1970s - Apple II, IBM
4th Microprocessors Graphical User
Present PC
Interface (GUI) - Huge
increase in accessibility
and applications
- AI and machine
learning for smart
Artificial AI: Siri, Alexa,
Present applications - Quantum
Intelligence, Quantum
5th and computing in research
Quantum Computing:
Beyond phase - Integration of
Computing IBM Quantum
internet in everyday
devices

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1.1.6 Characteristics of Computer

- Speed: Processes millions of instructions per second.
- Storage: Utilizes primary and secondary storage.
- Diligence: Consistently performs tasks without fatigue.
- Versatility: Capable of diverse operations with accuracy.

Hardware:
- Divided into four categories: Input Devices, Output Devices, Secondary Storage
Devices, Internal Components.
- Physical components like hard drives, monitors, CPU, scanners, printers.
- Can be touched and seen.
- Prone to physical wear and damage over time.
- Cannot be infected by viruses.

Software:
- Divided into two categories: Application Software, System Software.
- Developed using programming languages.
- Cannot be physically touched but can be used and seen on a screen.
- Can be affected by bugs and glitches.
- Can be infected by viruses.

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1.1.7 Block Diagram and Working Principle of Computer

Input Unit:
- Receives data from external sources like keyboard, mouse, scanner.
- Converts user-entered data into machine-readable binary form.
- Transmits converted data to the computer's main memory.
CPU (Central Processing Unit):
- Acts as the brain of the computer, controlling all tasks.
- Comprises two units: ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit).
- ALU performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, etc.) and logical operations (AND,
OR).
- CU manages and coordinates the execution of instructions and tasks within the
computer.
Memory Unit:
- Stores data to be processed or already processed.

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- Primary memory (RAM) is temporary, used for current operations, directly accessible
by the CPU.
- Secondary memory (e.g., hard disk) is permanent, for long-term storage even when
power is off.
Output Unit:
- Displays processed data to users through devices like monitors or printers.
- Converts binary data into human-readable form for output.

1.1.8 Types of Computers

Classification on the Basis of Working:

Analog Computers:
- Process continuous analog data such as temperature, pressure, etc.
- Ideal for applications where data is directly received from measuring instruments.
- Output is typically in the form of dial readings or graphs.
Digital Computers:
- Operate on discrete digital data represented as binary digits (0s and 1s).
- Perform arithmetic and logical operations, suitable for numeric and non-numeric data
processing.
- Commonly used in accounting, calculators, and various computing tasks.

Hybrid Computers:
- Combine features of both analog and digital computers.
- Utilize analog speed for processing and digital accuracy and memory capabilities.
- Used in specialized applications like scientific calculations and real-time data
processing.

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Classification on the Basis of Size:

Supercomputers:
- High-performance computers designed for intensive computational tasks.
- Used in scientific research, weather forecasting, and aerospace applications.
- Handle large databases and complex simulations.

Mainframe Computers:
- Powerful computers used for large-scale data processing and enterprise-level
applications.
- Commonly found in institutions, financial sectors, and large organizations for
transaction processing and data management.

Minicomputers:
- Intermediate in size and capability between mainframes and microcomputers.
- Also known as midrange computers, used by small to medium-sized organizations for
specific computing tasks.

Microcomputers (Personal Computers):

- Include desktops, laptops, and palmtop computers.
- Designed for individual use and smaller-scale applications.
- Used widely in offices, homes, and educational settings for general computing needs.

1.1.8.3 Classification of Computers on the Basis of Processor XT, AT

Computer types based on processors and architecture

1. 8088/8086:
- Processor: Intel's early 16-bit processors.
- Era: Introduced in the early 1980s.

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- Usage: Basic computing tasks, early business applications, and educational

purposes.
- Example: IBM PC, IBM PC/XT.
2. 80286 (286):
- Processor: Intel's first 32-bit processor.
- Era: Introduced in the mid-1980s.
- Example: IBM PC/AT.
- Usage: More advanced business applications, early graphical user interfaces (GUIs),
and basic gaming.
3. 80386 (386):
- Processor: Intel's 32-bit processor with improved capabilities.
- Era: Introduced in the late 1980s.
- Usage: Multitasking operating systems (OS), CAD (Computer-Aided Design), and
more sophisticated business software.
- Example: Compaq Deskpro 386.
4. 80486 (486):
- Processor: Intel's enhanced version of the 386 with better performance.
- Era: Introduced in the early 1990s.
- Usage: Advanced business applications, early multimedia software, and mid-1990s
gaming.
- Example: IBM PS/1, Compaq Deskpro 486.
5. Pentium (P5):
- Processor: Intel's fifth-generation microprocessor.
- Era: Introduced in 1993.
- Usage: Multimedia applications (audio/video editing), 3D gaming, and early internet
browsing.
- Example: IBM Aptiva, Compaq Presario.
6. Pentium II, III, IV:
- Processor: Successive generations of Intel's Pentium series, improving performance
and capabilities.
- Era: Introduced in the late 1990s and early 2000s.
- Usage: High-end multimedia production, internet applications, and more
demanding gaming.
- Examples: Dell Dimension series (Pentium II, III), Dell OptiPlex series (Pentium IV).
7. Core Series (Core 2 Duo, Core i3/i5/i7/i9):
- Processor: Intel's Core microarchitecture, focusing on performance, efficiency, and
multi-core processing.
- Era: Introduced in the mid-2000s to present.

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- Usage: Modern gaming, professional content creation (video editing, 3D modeling),

and multitasking with multiple applications.
- Examples: Dell XPS series, HP Pavilion series.
8. AMD Processors (Athlon, Ryzen):
- Processor: AMD's processors offering competition to Intel with various generations
and models.
- Era: From the late 1990s to present.
- Usage: Gaming (especially high-performance gaming), productivity tasks (office
applications, programming), and content creation (video editing, streaming).
- Examples: AMD Athlon series, AMD Ryzen series.

XT-class (8-Bit Systems):

- XT-class computers are based on 8-bit processors like the Intel 8088.
- They feature an 8-bit ISA bus for system expansion.
- Support real mode processing only.
- Limited to 1MB of RAM, slower floppy drive speeds (250Kbps), and fewer hardware
interrupts (8).
- Have unidirectional keyboard interfaces and lack CMOS memory/clock.

AT-class (16/32/64-Bit Systems):

- AT-class computers feature more advanced processors starting from Intel 286 and
higher.
- Support multiple processor modes: real, protected, and virtual.
- Utilize broader bus slot widths (16/32/64-bit) and various slot types such as ISA, EISA,
MCA, PCI, etc.
- Handle larger RAM capacities (up to 16MB initially, later expanding to 4GB or more),
faster floppy controllers (250/300/500/1000 Kbps), and more hardware interrupts
(16).
- Incorporate bidirectional keyboard interfaces and standardize on MC146818-
compatible CMOS memory/clock.

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Differences between XT and AT Systems:

- Processor Support: XT supports older x86 processors, while AT supports 286 and
above.
- Processor Modes: XT operates in real mode only; AT supports real, protected, and
virtual modes.
- Bus Slot Width: XT uses an 8-bit ISA bus; AT uses wider bus slots (16/32/64-bit).
- Expansion Slots: XT limited to ISA slots; AT supports various advanced slot types.
- System Capabilities: AT systems offer enhanced memory management, wider data
access (32/64-bit), and more diverse hardware compatibility compared to XT systems.

1.2 Memory

1.2.1 Units, Representation

Memory units are used to measure the amount of data stored. The smallest unit is the
bit, representing a binary digit (0 or 1). A nibble consists of 4 bits, and a byte comprises
8 bits, which is the smallest unit capable of representing a data item or character.
Units and Descriptions:
- Bit: Basic unit of data in binary form (0 or 1).
- Nibble: Group of 4 bits.
- Byte: Group of 8 bits; smallest unit capable of representing a data item.

Memory Storage Units:

- Kilobyte (kB): 1 KB = 1024 Bytes.
- Megabyte (MB): 1 MB = 1024 kB.
- Gigabyte (GB): 1 GB = 1024 MB.

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1.2.2 Types of Primary Memory

Primary Memory: First accessed by the processor, holding data and instructions
actively used by the computer.

RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage that holds data and instructions
while the computer is running. It is volatile, meaning data is lost when the computer is
turned off.

ROM (Read Only Memory): Stores permanent system instructions that are read-only
and do not change. Includes types like PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

Types of Primary Storage:

- Read Only Memory (ROM): Non-volatile memory storing permanent system
instructions.
- Random Access Memory (RAM): Volatile memory used for active data and
instructions during processing.
- Flash Memory: Non-volatile, used for storage like SSDs and USB drives.
- Cache Memory: High-speed memory for temporary storage of frequently accessed
data.
Secondary Storage:
- Includes fixed (internal) and removable media like hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state
drives (SSDs), CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray disks, pen drives, magnetic tapes, and zip disks.

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1.3 CPU (Central Processing Unit) and Motherboard

Motherboard:
The motherboard is the main circuit board in a computer. It houses the CPU, memory
(RAM), connectors for hard drives and optical drives, expansion cards (such as video
and audio cards), and ports (like USB ports). It acts as the central hub connecting all
components.

Hard Disk:
The hard drive is where software, documents, and files are stored long-term. Data
remains stored even when the computer is turned off. Faster hard drives improve
computer startup and program loading times.

SSD (Solid State Drive):

Similar to a hard disk drive (HDD), an SSD also stores data but uses flash-based
memory. It provides faster data access speeds and is more durable because it has no
moving parts.

RAM (Random Access Memory):

RAM is the computer's short-term memory where data is temporarily stored while the
computer is running. It allows the CPU to access data quickly for processing tasks. RAM
is volatile, meaning it loses data when the computer is turned off.

ROM (Read Only Memory):

ROM is a type of memory that retains its contents even when the computer is powered
off. It stores firmware and permanent system instructions that do not change.

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Processor / CPU:
The CPU, or processor, is the "brain" of the computer located on the motherboard. It
executes commands and processes data. A faster CPU can execute instructions more
quickly, but overall computer speed depends on multiple factors, not just the
processor's speed.

SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) / Power Supply Unit:

The SMPS converts the power from a wall outlet into the type of power needed by the
computer components. It distributes power through cables to the motherboard and
other parts of the computer.

Connecting Wires:
- 20 + 4 Pin ATX / Motherboard Connector: Main connector supplying power to the
motherboard and connected components.
- CPU 4 + 4 Pin Connector: Provides power to the CPU.
- SATA Power Connector: Powers SATA devices like hard disks and DVD drives.
- PCI-e 6 Pin / PCI-e 8 Pin Connector: Supplies power to mid to high-range graphics
cards.
- Floppy 4 Pin Connector: Powers floppy drives (less commonly used now).
- Peripheral 4 Pin Molex Connector: Powers IDE devices, fans, and case lights.

1.4 Input and Output Devices

Input Devices:
Input devices allow data to enter the computer system.
- Keyboard: Most common input device for entering alphanumeric data and
commands.

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- Mouse: Controls the cursor's movement on the screen; types include mechanical and
optical.
- Scanner: Converts printed images or text into digital form for computer use.
- Microphone: Captures audio input for recording or voice commands.
- Bar code reader: Scans bar codes for inputting data into the computer.
- Graphics tablet: Allows users to draw directly onto the tablet using a stylus.

Output Devices:

Output devices provide information or results from the computer.

- Monitor: Displays visual output from the computer; types include CRT, LCD, TFT, and
LED.
- Speaker: Outputs audio or sound from the computer system.
- Printer:
A printer is an output device that produces text or images on paper.
- Printing creates a 'hard copy' of digital data.
- Printers vary in speed and print quality.
- There are two main types:
- Impact Printers: Use a mechanical mechanism to strike an inked ribbon, creating
characters on paper.
- Non-Impact Printers: Use technologies like inkjet or laser to spray or fuse ink onto
paper without direct impact.
- Joystick:
A joystick is an input device with a pivoting stick on a base.
- It reports its angle or direction to control devices.
- Used primarily in gaming for navigating virtual environments.

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- Also utilized in various industries for remote control applications, such as cranes,
surveillance cameras, and robotic devices.

- Plotter:
A plotter is an output device that draws shapes on paper based on computer
commands.
- Unlike printers, plotters use pens to draw continuous lines instead of dots.
- Multicolor plotters can draw in different colors using multiple pens.
- Commonly used in engineering for precise technical drawings and large-format
printing needs.

- Digital Camera:
A digital camera captures photos directly into digital memory.
- Replaced traditional film cameras in most applications.
- Integrated into smartphones and standalone devices.
- Professional cameras offer high-definition images for detailed photography needs.
Input/Output Devices (I/O Devices):
I/O devices facilitate interaction between the computer and external environments.
- Connected to device controllers within the system unit.
- Examples include hard disks, which transfer data between main memory and storage.

Connecting Ports:

Serial Port:
A serial port transfers data one bit at a time through a single wire or pair of wires.
- Also known as COM ports, they use a 9-pin D-shaped connector.
- Commonly used for connecting devices like modems, mice, and specialized
equipment.

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- Older technology, now used for specific devices such as security cameras and GPS
receivers.

Parallel Port:
A parallel port sends multiple bits of data simultaneously, allowing high-bandwidth
connections.
- Uses a DB25 female pin connector with a Centronics connector on the device end.
- Versatile for peripherals like printers, scanners, and external drives.
- Named for parallel communication, enabling faster data transfer compared to serial
ports.

USB Port:
USB (Universal Serial Bus) ports are standard interfaces for digital data communication.
- Facilitates connections between personal computers and consumer electronics.
- Supports both wired and wireless configurations, providing data transfer and power
supply.
- Widely used across various devices for efficient connectivity and compatibility.

1.4.4 Installation of Scanner and Printer:

Printer Installation:
- Wired Connection: Connect your printer using a cable to your device. It will
automatically install the necessary drivers, allowing you to use it immediately.

- Wireless Connection: Follow these steps:

1. Go to Start > Settings > Devices > Printers & scanners > Add a printer or scanner.
2. Select your printer from the list of nearby devices and click Add device.
3. If your printer isn't found, troubleshoot using the provided steps.

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Connecting Monitor, Mouse, Keyboard to System Unit:

To set up your monitor, mouse, and keyboard:
1. Identify the graphics adapter port at the back of your computer.
2. Plug your keyboard and mouse into the available USB ports.
3. Connect a standard monitor to the graphics adapter for display.
4. Power on your computer and monitor.
5. Wait for the server's indicator light to signal readiness.
6. Proceed with operating system installation and updates as needed.

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Operating System
Definition of Operating System
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user
and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of application
programs.

Functions of OS
● Memory Management
Keeps tracks of primary memory. Allocates and Deallocates memory to and from
the Processes
● Processor Management
Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. Allocates and Deallocates
processor (CPU) to and from the Processes.
● Device Management
Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller. Allocates and Deallocates I/O devices to and from the Processes.
● File Management
Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system. Allocates and Deallocates resources to and from the
Processes.
● Security
It prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by providing passwords.
● Control over system performance
Recording delays between request for a service and response from the system.
● Job accounting
Keeps tracks of time and resources.
● Error detecting aids
Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting aids.
● Coordination between other software and users
Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers, and other
software to the various users of the computer systems.

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Types of Operating System

There are four types of operating systems −

• Real-time operating system
• Single-User/Single-Tasking operating system
• Single-User/Multitasking operating system
• Multi-User/Multitasking operating system
Real-time operating system
Real-time operating system is designed to run real-time applications. It can be both
single- and multi-tasking. Examples include Abbasi, AMX RTOS, etc. Real-Time Types: -
Hard Real-Time [No missed Deadline], Firm Real-Time [Infrequently missed deadlines],
Soft Real-Time [Frequently missed deadline]
Advantages
• It works very fast.
• It is time saving, as it need not be loaded from memory.
• Since it is very small, it occupies less space in memory.
Single-User/Single-Tasking OS
An operating system that allows a single user to perform only one task at a time is
called a Single-User Single-Tasking Operating System. Functions like printing a
document, downloading images, etc., can be performed only one at a time. Examples
include MS-DOS, Palm OS, etc.
Advantages
• This operating system occupies less space in memory.
Disadvantages
• It can perform only a single task at a time.
Single-User/Multitasking OS
An operating system that allows a single user to perform more than one task at a time
is called Single-User Multitasking Operating System. Examples include Microsoft
Windows and Macintosh OS.
Advantages
• It is time saving as it performs multiple tasks at a time yielding high
productivity.

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Disadvantages
• This operating system is highly complex and occupies more space.
Multiuser/Multitasking OS
It is an operating system that permits several users to utilize the programs that are
concurrently running on a single network server. The single network server is termed
as "Terminal server". "Terminal client" is a software that supports user sessions.
Examples include UNIX, MVS, etc.
Advantages
• It is highly productive as it performs multiple tasks at a time.
• It is time saving as we do not have to make changes in many desktops,
instead can make changes only to the server.
Disadvantages
• If the connection to the server is broken, user cannot perform any task
on the client as it is connected to that server.
File System
• What is a File System?
Imagine you have a huge cabinet where you keep all your papers
organized in different folders, and each folder is labelled for different kinds of
papers. A file system does something similar for your computer's storage disk
(like a hard drive). It is a method the computer uses to organize, store, and
manage files on the disk. Just like your cabinet's folders, the computer has
directories (or folders) to group files together.
• Why It is Important?
Without a file system, your computer would not know where one file
ends and another begins. There would be no way to find anything! It is like
dumping all your papers on the floor instead of keeping them in labelled folders.
The file system keeps everything tidy and tells the computer exactly where each
piece of data is stored, how big it is, and what it is called. It also makes sure you
do not have two files with the exact same name in the same place, which would
be confusing.

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• How It Works?
On the disk, data is stored in tiny spaces called sectors. The file system
groups these sectors into blocks to efficiently store files. When you save a file,
the file system decides where to put it on the disk, keeps track of where it put
it, and notes down how much space it takes up. This way, when you want to
open the file later, the file system knows right where to find it.
Types of File Systems
While there are many file systems out there, NTFS is the one you will
most commonly find on modern Windows computers. It is designed to be
efficient and secure, with features that help keep your data safe. Other systems
like FAT32 are older and simpler, good for devices like USB flash drives because
they work with almost any computer. Apple devices, like iPhones and Macs, use
their own type of file system called HFS+.
NTFS (New Technology File System): This is the most modern file system
used by Windows for system drives and many other storage devices. It supports
large files and volumes, has robust security features (like encryption and file
permissions), and includes mechanisms for data recovery.
FAT32 (File Allocation Table 32): An older file system that offers great
compatibility across many devices, including non-Windows systems. It is simple
and widely used for USB flash drives and external hard drives. However, it has
limitations, such as a maximum file size of 4GB and a maximum volume size of
8TB (with Windows typically limiting FAT32 volumes to 32GB).
exFAT (Extended File Allocation Table): Designed as a modern
replacement for FAT32, exFAT removes the file and volume size limitations of
FAT32. It is optimized for flash drives and is supported by a wide range of
devices, including cameras, smartphones, and consoles, making it ideal for
transferring large files between devices and operating systems.

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• Partitions and File Systems

Sometimes, a single storage disk can be split into parts, called partitions,
and each part can use a different file system. It is a bit like having one drawer
for shirts and another for pants, even though they are both part of the same
dresser. For example, one part of your hard drive could use NTFS for Windows,
while another part uses a different file system compatible with another
operating system or purpose.

Types of file systems

• 1. Disk File Systems
Think of a library where you can quickly find and grab any book you want,
no matter where it is. Disk file systems work like this for data stored on hard
drives. They are good at letting lots of people (or computer programs) grab
different pieces of data at the same time, without having to wait in line.
• 2. Flash File Systems
Imagine using a notebook made of special paper that lets you write and
erase easily without wearing out. Flash file systems are designed for this kind of
memory (like USB sticks or SSDs) because they are good at handling the unique
way these devices read, write, and store data.
• 3. Tape File Systems
Think about storing your favourite songs on a long music tape. You can
record a lot of songs, but if you want to listen to the last one, you must fast-
forward through all the rest. Tape file systems manage data on magnetic tapes,
which are great for storing huge amounts of data cheaply, even though it's
slower to find and access specific pieces of data.
• 4. Database File Systems
Instead of keeping files in traditional folders, imagine organizing
everything by information tags—like sorting music by artist, album, or genre.

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Database file systems do something similar by using details about the files (such
as type or author) to manage and retrieve them, rather than where they are
stored.
• 5. Transactional File Systems
Let us say you're rearranging a deck of cards. If you get interrupted
(maybe your friend calls you to go outside), you want to be able to pick up where
you left off without the deck being a mess. Transactional file systems make sure
that when software updates or changes are made, everything either completes
successfully or rolls back to the start if there is a problem, preventing partial
updates that could cause errors.
• 6. Network File Systems
Imagine accessing your friend's bookshelf in their house from your own
home to borrow books. Network file systems let computers access files stored
on a server somewhere else, as if those files were stored on their own local
drives, making sharing, and managing files across different locations easier.
• 7. Shared Disk File Systems
Think of a communal garden where everyone in the neighbourhood can
come and plant their flowers. A shared disk file system allows many computers
to access and store data on the same storage device. It is like everyone sharing
the garden, but the system makes sure two people do not try to plant in the
exact same spot at the same time, to avoid mix-ups and ensure everything runs
smoothly.

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What is Linux?
Linux is an open-source operating system kernel which manages hardware resources
and provides the foundation for running software applications. It is initially developed
by Linus Torvalds in 1991.
Features
Linux is a versatile operating system known for its:
➢ Portability: Works across different hardware platforms.
➢ Open Source: Source code freely available, developed by a collaborative
community.
➢ Multi-User: Supports multiple users accessing resources simultaneously.
➢ Multiprogramming: Allows multiple applications to run concurrently.
➢ Hierarchical File System: Organizes files in a standard structure.
➢ Shell: Offers a command interpreter for executing operations and applications.
➢ Security: Ensures user security through features like password protection and
controlled access to files.
Components of LINUX
1. Kernel: Core of Linux, manages system tasks and hardware communication.
2. System Library: Aids programs in talking to the kernel without hardware
knowledge.
3. System Utility: Specialized tools for tasks like file management or network setup
In Linux, processes are:
1. Instances: When a program/command runs, it gets its own instance from the
system, including all resources it might need.
2. Creation: Each command execution starts a new process, like when using "pwd"
to show the current directory.
3. Identification: Processes are assigned a unique 5-digit number called a Process
ID (PID).

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4. Reuse: Once a PID is used, it can be assigned to a new process since all
combinations are eventually used.
5. Uniqueness: At any time, no two processes share the same PID, crucial for
tracking each process.
Thread Management
A thread is like a mini-task within a program and the threads help the program do
things simultaneously.
Thread Management: Threads are handled by a special library called Thread Library in
user space.
Blocking Calls: If one thread waits for something, the whole process waits.
Kernel Access: Only one thread can talk to the core part of the operating system
(kernel) at a time. This means that multiple threads cannot work together efficiently
on computers with multiple processors.
File Management in Linux is straightforward:
1. Regular Files: These are your everyday files like text files, images, or programs. You
can create them with commands like "touch". They make up most of what you see on
Linux.
2. Directories: Think of these as folders in Windows. They hold lists of file names and
their details. The root directory ("/") is the base, "/home/" holds user folders, "/bin/"
has essential programs, "/boot/" has boot files, etc. You can make new directories with
"mkdir" command.
3. Special Files: These represent physical devices like printers used for input/output
operations. They are important for device communication. You can find them in the file
system, just like regular files or directories.
The Linux File System is like an organized library for your computer:
- Structured Collection: It is a well-organized collection of files stored on a disk or
partition.

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- Partitions: Memory segments where data is stored. Each partition typically has its
own file system.
- Data Storage: Data is stored on hard disks or similar storage types, like Flash RAM or
SSD.
- Reasons for Maintenance:
 Ensures data is not lost when the computer is turned off.
 Hard drives are cheaper than RAM, so it is a cost-effective storage
solution.
- Sections:
 Root Directory (/): Base of the file system hierarchy.
 Storage Format: Different formats like EXT3, EXT4, BTRFS, XFS, etc.
 Partitions or Logical Volumes: Each with its own file system.
- Purpose: Built-in layer of the Linux OS for managing storage, organizing files, and
handling file information like names, sizes, and creation dates.
- Handling Unsupported Formats: If there is an unsupported file format, you can
download software to manage it.
The Linux File System Structure is like a tree:
- Hierarchical Structure: It is organized like a tree with a root directory and
subdirectories branching out from it. You can access all directories starting from the
root.
- Partition and File Systems: Usually, a partition has one file system, but it can have
more.
- Design for Non-Volatile Storage: It has made to manage and provide space for data
that stays even when the computer is turned off.
- Namespace: Defines how files are named and organized. It also sets rules for file
names and the use of directories.
- Metadata: Describes each file's details like size, creation date, and where it is stored
on the disk.

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- API: Helps programs interact with the file system, like creating, deleting, and copying
files.
- Virtual File System: The combination of API and algorithm that defines how files are
arranged. It is called a Linux virtual file system, and it is accessed by the kernel and
developers using a single set of commands.
- System Driver: Needed to connect the virtual file system to the actual file system on
the disk.
Linux File System Features are:
- Tree Structure: Files are organized in a tree-like structure, with the root directory ("/")
at the top.
- Path Specification: Uses forward slashes ("/") to separate components in file paths,
unlike Windows which uses backslashes ("\").
- Partition, Directories, and Drives: No drive letters like Windows. Linux treats
partitions, network devices, and directories uniformly.
- Case Sensitivity: Recognizes the difference between lowercase and uppercase file
names and commands.
- File Extensions: Files may have extensions like ".txt", but it is not mandatory. This can
cause confusion for beginners, especially in the shell.
- Hidden Files: Linux distinguishes between standard and hidden files. Hidden files,
often configuration files, are preceded by a dot (".") in their names, like ".ignore". They
are typically not displayed in file managers unless specified.
Linux offers various file systems:
1. Ext, Ext2, Ext3, and Ext4:
- Ext: Originally for MINIX OS, no longer used.
- Ext2: First Linux FS, manages up to 2TB.
- Ext3: Upgrade of Ext2 with backward compatibility, but no file recovery or disk
snapshot support.
- Ext4: Faster, default FS for SSDs in Linux.

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2. JFS (Journaled File System): Developed by IBM for AIX Unix. Good for stability and
limited CPU power.
3. ReiserFS: Improved performance over Ext3 but has some drawbacks. Not widely
used.
4. XFS: High-speed file system developed for parallel I/O processing. Used by NASA for
large storage servers.
5. Btrfs (B-tree File System): Offers fault tolerance, repair system, and extensive storage
configuration. Not recommended for production systems.
6. Swap File System: Used for memory paging during system hibernation. Needed even
if the system does not hibernate, with swap space usually equal to RAM size.
Backup and Recovery in CentOS(Community Enterprise Operating System):
Backup Strategy:
- 3-2-1 Rule: Keep 3 copies of your data on 2 different types of storage, with 1 copy
offsite.
- Backup Mediums: Use different storage types like SSDs, RAID arrays, and USB drives.
- Offsite Backup: Keep one copy of your data offsite, like on USB drives rotated out
regularly, or consider cloud backups.
System Recovery:
- Bare Metal Restore: Plan for a scenario where you need to rebuild your entire system
from scratch.
- Advantage of CentOS: CentOS makes system recovery easier compared to Windows.
- Recovery Methods: Use disk images for server configurations and keep redundant
backups following the 3-2-1 rule.
- Secure Storage: Protect sensitive files with encrypted backups, possibly stored in a
secure safe accessible only to trusted personnel.
File-Level Backups with rsync:
- rsync Utility: A handy tool for efficiently syncing directories of files either locally or
over SSH.

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- Command-Line Scripting: rsync can be scripted for automated backups.

- Incremental Backups: rsync only transfers the parts of files that have changed, saving
time and bandwidth.
- Common Options: Explore and use different options for creating and restoring
backups.
In short, stick to the 3-2-1 rule, have a plan for full system recovery, and use efficient
tools like rsync for backup and recovery in CentOS.
Linux Commands
1. cat: Displays or creates files.
- Create: `cat > filename`
- Display: `cat filename`

2. tail: Shows the last 10 lines of a file.

- Syntax: `tail filename`

3. wc: Counts lines, words, and characters in a file.

- Syntax: `wc filename`

4. sort: Sorts file contents alphabetically.

- Syntax: `sort filename`

5. mkdir: Creates a new directory.

- Syntax: `mkdir dirname`

6. cd: Changes the current directory.

- Syntax: `cd dirname`

7. rmdir: Deletes an empty directory.

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- Syntax: `rmdir dirname`

8. pwd: Shows the current directory path.

- Syntax: `pwd`

9. cp: Copies files or directories.

- Syntax: `cp source destination`

10. more: Displays file content one screen at a time.

- Syntax: `more filename`

11. passwd: Changes a user's password.

- Syntax: `passwd username`

12. mv: Moves or renames files or directories.

- Syntax: `mv source destination`

13. mail: Sends emails from the command line.

- Syntax: `mail -s "Subject" recipient`

14. who: Lists currently logged-in users.

- Syntax: `who`

15. whoami: Displays the current user.

- Syntax: `whoami`

16. chmod: Changes file or directory permissions.

- Syntax: `chmod options permissions filename`

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17. kill: Terminates processes.

- Syntax: `kill [options] pid`

18. write: Sends messages to other users.

- Syntax: `write username`

19. wall: Sends a message to all logged-in users.

- Syntax: `wall message`

20. news: Displays system news items.

- Syntax: `news`

21. diff: Compares two files line by line.

- Syntax: `diff file1 file2`

22. cmp: Compares two files byte by byte.

- Syntax: `cmp file1 file2`

23. merge: Merges files, typically used in version control.

- Syntax: `merge file1 file2 file3`

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SRI PADMAJA TYPEWRITING & COMPUTER SCHOOL,
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