GLOBAL INSTGLOBAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY OF

TECHNOLOGY

Presented By:
Manish Kumar Jha
Department of CSE

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 INTRODUCTION OF SUBJECT
An electronic device which is
COMPUTER
capable of receiving information
(data) in a particular form and of
performing a sequence of operations
in accordance with a predetermined.

A graphic is an image or visual

GRAPHICS
representation of an object.

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 Computer graphics is an art of
drawing pictures, lines, charts, etc
using computers with the help of
Computer programming. Computer graphics
Graphics
is made up of number of pixels.
Pixel is the smallest graphical
picture or unit represented on
the computer screen.

Multimedia means
that computer information can be
Multi-Media represented through audio, video,
and animation in addition to
traditional media (i.e., text, graphics
drawings, images).

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Computer Graphics is the creation of pictures with the
help of a computer. The end product of the computer
graphics is a picture it may be a business graph,
drawing, and engineering.
Computer graphics is a broad area of computer science,
incorporating elements of:
 Graphic design

 Mathematical models of places and entities within

them
 Graphics hardware, libraries, and window systems
API's
 User interfaces and graphical input

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 Suppose a shoe manufacturing company want to show the sale
of shoes for five years. For this vast amount of information is
to store. So a lot of time and memory will be needed. This
method will be tough to understand by a common man.
 In this situation graphics is a better alternative. Graphics tools
are charts and graphs. Using graphs, data can be represented
in pictorial form. A picture can be understood easily just with a
single look.
 Interactive computer graphics work using the concept of two-
way communication between computer users. The computer
will receive signals from the input device, and the picture is
modified accordingly. Picture will be changed quickly when we
apply command.

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The main objective is to introduce to the students the concepts of
computer graphics. It starts with an overview of interactive
computer graphics, two dimensional system and mapping, then it
presents the most important drawing algorithm, two-dimensional
transformation; Clipping, filling and an introduction to 3-D
graphics.
•Course Components:
•Introduction to computer graphics
•Point-plotting techniques
• Two-dimensional transformation
•Clipping and drawing
•Polygon Filling
• Introduction to 3-dimensional graphics

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1. To introduce the use of the components of a graphics system
and become familiar with building approach of graphics system
components and algorithms related with them.
2. To learn the basic principles of 3- dimensional computer
graphics.
3. Provide an understanding of how to scan convert the basic
geometrical primitives, how to transform the shapes to fit them
as per the picture definition.
4. Provide an understanding of mapping from a world coordinates
to device coordinates, clipping, and projections.
5. To be able to discuss the application of computer graphics
concepts in the development of computer games, information
visualization, and business applications.
6. To comprehend and analyze the fundamentals of animation,
virtual reality, underlying technologies, principles, and
applications.

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 Title: Computer Graphics
 1.Author: D. Hearn & M. Baker
 2. NEETU AGARWAL
 3. AJAY SINGH
 Publisher: Prentice Hall

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 It involve learning How to use graphics programmes to produce
nice designs.

 Graphics Designing can help Marketing Professional to present

ideas visually in their presentation.

 With the help of logos, brochure company branding can be done

Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image

data effectively and meaningfully to the consumer.

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 INDEX
•UNIT-1:Basic Of Computer Graphics

•UNIT-2:Graphics Primitives.

•UNIT-3:Two Dimensional Graphics

•UNIT-4:Three Dimensional Graphics

•UNIT-5:Illuminations And Colour Models

•UNIT-6:Animations and Realism

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 UNIT-1 CONTENTS
1.1 Basic Of Computer Graphics
1.2 Applications of Computer Graphics
1.3 Display Devices

1.3.1 CRT
1.3.2 Components Of CRT

1.4 Random And Raster Scan System

1.4.1 Raster Scan System
1.4.2 Random Scan System
1.4.3 Difference Between Random And Raster Scan System
1.5 Graphics Input Devices

1.6 Graphics Software And Standards

Back
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 Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures on computer screens with the
help of programming. It involves computations, creation, and manipulation of
data. In other words, we can say that computer graphics is a rendering tool for
the generation and manipulation of images.
 To display a picture of any size on a computer screen is a difficult process.
Computer graphics are used to simplify this process. Various algorithms and
techniques are used to generate graphics in computers.

The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to describe
"almost everything on computers that is not text or sound". Typically,
the term computer graphics refers to several different things:
1. The representation and manipulation of image data by a computer
2. The various technologies used to create and manipulate images
3. Methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content

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(A) Non-Interactive or Passive Computer Graphics:
 In non-interactive computer graphics, the picture is produced on
the monitor, and the user does not have any controlled over the
image, i.e., the user cannot make any change in the rendered
image. One example of its Titles shown on T.V.
 Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication
between the computer and the user, User can see the produced
image, and he cannot make any change in the image.

(B) Interactive Computer Graphics or Active Computer Graphics:

 In interactive Computer Graphics user have some controls over the
picture, i.e., the user can make any change in the produced image.
One example of it is the ping-pong game.

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 LOGO
 COREL DRAW
 AUTO CAD
 3D STUDIO
 CORE
 GKS (Graphics Kernel System)
 PHIGS
 CAM (Computer Graphics Metafile)
 CGI (Computer Graphics Interface)

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 Pixel: “Pixel is the smallest unit of a picture displayed on the computer screen.”
 The pixel (a word invented from "picture element") is the basic unit of
programmable color on a computer display or in a computer image. Think of it
as a logical - rather than a physical - unit.
 The ratio of an image’s width to its height, we can measure it in unit length or number
of pixels, is known as the aspect ratio of the image.
 A graphical image is created by dividing the computer’s display screen into a
grid of tiny dots called pixels.Frame buffer memory can also store other
information, such as the color of each pixel.

 Frame Buffer:- Before an image can be displayed on the screen. It must be

created by a computer program in a special part of the computers memory
called frame buffer.

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 One method of producing an image
in the frame buffer is to use a block
of memory called a bitmap to store
small, detailed figures such as a text
character or an icon.

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Resolution: It is the number of separate pixels display on a screen expressed in
terms of pixels on the horizontal axis and vertical axis.

The sharpness of the picture on display depends on the resolution and the size of
the monitor.

“The number of pixels per unit is called the resolution of the image.”

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It also includes-
Image Resolution: “The distance between two pixels.”
Screen Resolution: “The number of horizontal and vertical
pixels displayed on the screen is called Screen Resolution.”
For Example– 640 x 480, 1024 x 768 (Horizontal x Vertical)

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 Aspect Ratio: “The ratio of image’s width to its height is known as the aspect ratio
of an image.” The height and width of an image are measured in length or number
of pixels.

 For Example: If a graphics has an aspect ratio of 2:1, it means the width is twice
large to height.

 It includes–
 Frame aspect ratio: Horizontal /Vertical Size

 Pixel aspect ratio: Width of Pixel/Height of Pixel

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Computer Graphics has numerous applications, some of which paradigm which
allows the user to interact with a computer. are listed below −

•Computer graphics user interfaces :GUIs − A graphic, mouse-oriented

•Business presentation graphics − "A picture is worth a thousand words".

•Cartography − Drawing maps.

•Weather Maps − Real-time mapping, symbolic representations.

•Satellite Imaging − Geodesic images.

•Photo Enhancement − Sharpening blurred photos. the hard type of the past.

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•Architecture − Construction plans, exterior sketches - replacing the blueprints
and hand drawings of the past.

• Art − Computers provide a new medium for artists.

• Medical imaging − MRIs, CAT scans, etc. - Non-invasive internal

examination.

• Engineering drawings − mechanical, electrical, civil, etc. - Replacing the

blueprints of the past.

• Typography − The use of character images in publishing - replacing

•Training − Flight simulators, computer aided instruction, etc.

•Entertainment − Movies and games.

•Simulation and modeling − Replacing physical modeling and enactments

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 The display device is an output device used to represent the information in the
form of images (visual form). Display systems are mostly called a video
monitor or Video display unit (VDU).

 Display devices are designed to model, display, view, or display information.

 There are some display devices given below:

1. Cathode-Ray Tube(CRT)
2. Color CRT Monitor
3. Liquid crystal display(LCD)
4. Light Emitting Diode(LED)
5. Direct View Storage Tubes(DVST)
6. Plasma Display.

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 Cathode-ray Tube (CRT): Here, CRT stands for Cathode ray tube. It is a
technology which is used in traditional computer monitor and television.

 Cathode ray tube is a particular type of vacuum tube that displays images when an
electron beam collides on the radiant surface.

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 Electron Gun: The electron gun is made up of several elements, mainly
a heating filament (heater) and a cathode.
 The electron gun is a source of electrons focused on a narrow beam
facing the CRT.
 Focusing & Accelerating Anodes: These anodes are used to produce a
narrow and sharply focused beam of electrons.
 Horizontal & Vertical Deflection Plates: These plates are used to guide
the path of the electron the beam. The plates produce an electromagnetic
field that bends the electron beam through the area as it travels.
 Phosphorus-coated Screen: The phosphorus coated screen is used to
produce bright spots when the high-velocity electron beam hits it.

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 1. Refresh and Raster Scan Display System.

 2. Vector or Random Scan Display System

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 Raster Scan: It is a scanning technique in which the electron beam moves along
the screen. It moves from top to bottom, covering one line at a time.
 A raster scan is based on pixel intensity control display as a rectangular box on the
screen called a raster.
 Picture description is stored in the memory area called as Refresh buffer, or
Frame Buffer.
 Frame buffer is also known as Raster or Bitmap. Raster scan provides the refresh
rate of 60 to 80 frames per second.

 For Example: Television

 The beam refreshing has two types:

 1.Horizontal Retracing
 2.Vertical Retracing

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 Figure: Graphics System

Display Frame Video

Processor Monitor
Memory Buffer Controller

CPU Display System

Processor Memory

System Bus

I/O
Devices 27
Architecture Of Raster Graphics System

•It does this by scanning one scan line at a time, from top to bottom and then back to the
top.
•This scanning process is called refreshing.
•Each complete scanning of a screen is normally called a frame.
•Raster scan is most common method of displaying images on the CRT screen.
•In this method, the horizontal and vertical deflection signals are generated to move the
beam all over the screen in a pattern.

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Here, the beam is swept back and forth from the left to the right across the screen.
When the beam is moved from left to the right, it is ON.
The beam is OFF, when it is moved from the right to the left as shown by dotted line in figure.
When the beam reaches the bottom of the screen, it is made OFF and rapidly retracted back to
the top left to start again.
A display produced in this way is called as raster scan.
In raster scan display a special area of memory is dedicated to graphics only. This memory
area is called frame buffer.
This frame buffer stores the intensity values for all the screen points. Each screen point is
called a pixel (picture element).
On black and white systems, the frame buffer storing the values of the pixels is called a
bitmap.

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 Advantages:

 Real image
 Many colors to be produced
 Dark scenes can be pictured

 Disadvantages:

 Less resolution
 Display picture line by line
 More costly

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 Random Scan (Vector scan): It is also known as stroke-writing display or
calligraphic display. In this, the electron beam points only to the area in which the
picture is to be drawn.

 In Random-Scan Display electron beam is directed only to the ares of screen

where a picture has to be drawn. It is also called vector displays, as it draws picture
one line at time. It can draw and refresh component lines of a picture in any
specified sequence. Pen plotter is an example of random-scan displays.
 The number of lines regulates refresh rate on random-scan displays. An area of
memory called refresh display files stores picture definition as a set of line
drawing commands. The system returns back to first line command in the list, after
all the drawing commands have been processed. High-quality vector systems can
handle around 100, 00 short lines at this refresh rate. Faster refreshing can burn the
phosphor. To avoid this every refresh cycle is delayed to prevent refresh rate greater
than 60 frames per second.

 After compilation of picture drawing, the system cycle back to the first line and
create all the lines of picture 30 to 60 times per second.

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Fig: A Random Scan display draws the lines of an object
in a specific order

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 Figure: Graphics System

System Display Monitor

Monitor
CPU Processor
Memory

System Bus

I/O Devices

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 Advantages:

 High Resolution
 Draw smooth line Drawing
 Less Memory Required

 Disadvantages:

 Realistic images with different shades cannot be drawn.

 Colour limitations.

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 Random Scan Raster Scan
1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.
2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive
3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on
the picture.
6. Only screen with view on an area 6. Whole screen is scanned.
is displayed.
7. Beam Penetration technology 7. Shadow mask technology came
come under it. under this.
8. It does not use interlacing 8. It uses interlacing
method.
9. It is restricted to line drawing 9. It is suitable for realistic display.
applications

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 Color CRT Monitors:
 The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphors. The phosphors are
different colors.
 This was one the earlier CRTs to produce color displays. Coating phosphors of
different compounds can produce different colored pictures. But the basic problem
of graphics is not to produce a picture of a predetermined color, but to produce
color pictures, with the color characteristics chosen at run time.
 The basic principle behind colored displays is that combining the 3 basic colors –
Red, Blue and Green, can produce every color. By choosing different ratios of these
three colors we can produce different colors – millions of them in-fact. We also
have basic phosphors, which can produce these basic colors. So, one should have a
technology to combine them in different combinations.
 There are two popular approaches for producing color displays with a CRT are:
 Beam Penetration Method
 Shadow-Mask Method

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Beam Penetration Method:

Beam Penetration method

This CRT is similar to the simple CRT, but it makes use of multi coloured phosphorus of
number of layers. Each phosphorus layer is responsible for one colour. All other
arrangements are similar to simple CRT. It can produce a maximum of 4 to 5 colors

The organization is something like this – The red, green and blue phosphorus are coated
in layers – one behind the other. If a low speed beam strikes the CRT, only the red
colored phosphorus is activated, a slightly accelerated beam would activate both red and
green (because it can penetrate deeper) and a much more activated one would add the
blue component also.
The Beam-Penetration method has been used with random-scan monitors. In this
method, the CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphor, red and green and the
displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor layers.

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A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer.
A beam of very fast electrons penerates through the red layer and excites the inner green
layer.
The beam acceleration voltage controls the speed of the electrons and hence the screen
colours at any point on the screen.

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Advantages:
•Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
•Only four colors are possible
•Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.

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 Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System
because they produce a much wider range of colors than the beam-
penetration method.
 It is used in the majority of color TV sets and monitors.
 Construction: A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each
pixel position.
 One phosphor dot emits: red light
 Another emits: green light
 Third emits: blue light
 This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a
shadow mask grid just behind the phosphor coated screen.
 One phosphor dot emits a red light. Another emits green light and third
emits a blue light.
 Figure shows the delta-delta shadow mask method commonly used in
color CRT system.

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It has three electrons guns. One for each colour dot, and a
shadow mask grid just behind phosphor coated screen.
Three electrons beams are deflected and focused as a group
onto the shadow mask and when they pass through a hole in
the shadow mask, that excite a dot triangle.
A dot triangle consist of three small phosphor dots of red,
green and blue colour.

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Advantage:
•Realistic image

•Million different colors to be generated

•Shadow scenes are possible

Disadvantage:

•Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.

•Relatively poor resolution

•Convergence Problem

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Difference between Beam Penetration and Shadow Mask :

SR. NO. BASIS BEAM PENETRATION SHADOW MASK

In this method, there is the
In this method, there is the
production of only four colors
1. Colors produced production of millions of
i.e., red, green, yellow,
colors.
orange.
As in this method millions of
As in this method only four
colors are produced because
colors are produced it is
2. Color dependency it depends upon the intensity
because of the speed of the
value of the three available
electron gun.
guns.
In this methods, three
Number of electron guns In this method, only one
3. electron guns are used; i.e
used. electron gun is used.
red, green and blue.
As we know in this different As we know in this different
colors and shades are not colors and shades are
4. Picture quality
possible. So, it’s picture possible. So, it’s picture
quality is poor. quality is quite good.
This method is not suitable
This method is suitable for
5. Realistic view for providing the realistic
providing the realistic view.
view.
Whereas, this method does
This method provides high
6. Resolution not able to provide high
resolution.
resolution.
It is cheaper than shadow
7. Cost It is an expensive method.
mask method.
It is used in random scan It is used in raster scan
8. Application
system to display color. system to display color.
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 Stands for "Liquid Crystal Display." LCD is a flat panel
display technology commonly used in TVs and
computer monitors. It is also used in screens for mobile
devices, such as laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
 LCD displays don't just look different than
bulky CRT monitors, the way they operate is significantly
different as well. Instead of firing electrons at a glass
screen, an LCD has backlight that provides light to
individual pixels arranged in a rectangular grid. Each
pixel has a red, green, and blue RGB sub-pixel that can
be turned on or off. When all of a pixel's sub-pixels are
turned off, it appears black. When all the sub-pixels are
turned on 100%, it appears white. By adjusting the
individual levels of red, green, and blue light, millions of
color combinations are possible.

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Each LCD screen contains a matrix of pixels that display the image on the screen.
Early LCDs had passive-matrix screens, which controlled individual pixels by sending
a charge to their row and column. Since a limited number of electrical charges could be
sent each second, passive-matrix screens were known for appearing blurry when
images moved quickly on the screen. Modern LCDs typically use active-
matrix technology, which contain thin film transistors, or TFTs.
These transistors include capacitors that enable individual pixels to "actively" retain
their charge. Therefore, active-matrix LCDs are more efficient and appear more
responsive than passive-matrix displays.

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 LED Display (light-emitting diode display) is a screen display technology that uses a
panel of LEDs as the light source. Currently, a large number of electronic devices, both
small and large, use LED display as a screen and as an interaction medium between the
user and the system. Modern electronic devices such as mobile phones, TVs, tablets,
computer monitors, laptops screens, etc., use a LED display to display their output.
 LED Display is one of the main screen displays that are being commercially used. The
biggest advantage of the LED display is its efficient and low-energy consumption, which
is especially needed for handhelds and chargeable devices such as mobile phones and
tablets. An LED display consists of a number of LED panels that, in turn, consist of
several LEDs. LEDs have numerous advantages over other light-emitting sources that can
be used alternatively. Aside from being power efficient, LEDs produce more brilliance
and greater light intensity. LED Display is different from the vacuum fluorescent display
used in some consumer electronics such as car stereos, videocassette recorders, etc., and,
hence, these two should not be confused with each other.
 LED is a type of LCD that actually accompanies the advancement of technology. This
replaces the fluorescent tube with backlight technology, which produces a clearer picture
than the LCD. LED have wider viewing angle than the LCD. It have better black level
and contrast in comparison to LCD LCD display. LED delivers better color accuracy in
comparison to the LCD.

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Difference between LED and LCD:

S.NO LED LCD

LED have better response time LCD is slower than LED in
1.
than LCD. terms of response time.
LED consumes more power in Whereas it consumes less power
2.
comparison to LCD. in comparison to LED.
LED delivers good picture LCD also delivers the good
3. quality in comparison to the picture quality but less than
LCD display. LED.
While it is less costlier than
4. LED is costlier than LCD.
LED.
LED have better black level and While it have not good black
5.
contrast in comparison to LCD. level and contrast as LED.
While it also delivers good color
LED delivers better color
accuracy, but we can notice the
6. accuracy in comparison to the
difference if we compare these
LCD.
two.
While in LCD, the wide angle
LED have wider viewing angle decreases with 30 degrees from
7.
than the LCD. the center in the image then the
contrast ratio.
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 Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) resembles CRT as it uses electron gun to draw
picture and phosphor coated screen to display it. The phosphor used in this is of high
persistence. DVST does not use refresh buffer or frame buffer to store picture definition.
Picture definition is stored in inside CRT in form positive charged distribution. Because
of this reason DVST is knows as Storage Type CRT. In DVST no refreshing is required
as result picture drawn on DVST will be seen for several minutes before fading.
 Various components of DVST :
 Electron guns –
Two electron guns are used in DVST : Primary Gun and Flood Gun. Primary gun is used
to store picture pattern. Flood gun is used to maintain picture display on phosphor coated
screen.
 Phosphor Coated Screen –
In DVST the inner surface of CRT is coated with phosphor crystals is of high persistence
that emit light when beam of electrons strike them.
 Storage Mesh –
It is thin and high quality wire that is coated with dielectric and is located just behind
phosphor coated screen. Primary gun deposits pattern of positive charge on this grid and
it is transferred to phosphor coated screen by continuous flood of electrons produced by
flood gun. Thus Storage Mesh stores picture to be displayed in form of positive charge
distribution.
 Collector –
This grid is located just behind storage mesh and purpose of this negatively charged grid
is to smooth out flow of flood electrons.

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Working principle of DVST :
In DVST similar with CRT electron gun and phosphor coated method is used. But in this no
electron beam is used to directly writing pictures on screen, but instead of this we can used
Storage mesh wire grid is used it is just located behind phosphor coated screen. Their is also
another grid located just behind storage mesh is called Collector and this purpose is to
smooth out flow of flood electrons. The flood gun produce large number of electrons, this
negatively charged grid reduces speed of these electrons. Then electrons pass through
collector at low velocity and attracted by positive charged portions of storage mesh and
strike at portions of phosphor coated screen to display picture. Some electrons get repelled
by other portions of mesh that are negatively charged.
Since the collector has slowly down electrons, in this way they not able to produce
sharpened images. So to reduce this problem, screen itself is maintained at a high positive
potential by means of voltage applied to thin aluminum coating between tube face and
phosphor.

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Advantages of DVST :

•For picture display it does not require refreshing.

•Display complex pictures at high resolution without any flicker.

•No use of frame buffer or refresh buffer.

Disadvantages of DVST :

•Not used for dynamic graphic such as animation.

•These systems do not display colors.

•To erase selected part of an image, entire screen needs to be erased and modified
pictures needs to be redrawn.

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 Plasma panel is a type of display which consists of two parallel glass plates which
are separated by a thin gap. The gap between the glass plates is filled with gases
which include neon. As the other name of the plasma panel is gas discharge display,
because of the gases which are filled in between the parallel plates of the plasma
panel. Plasma panel are available both the colors black and white and also color
type which is in great demand today.
 It is the display which depends upon the light bulb and also mixture of gases which
are present in between the two plates of the plasma display.
 It consumes more power.
 They have poor performance at high attitudes due to the pressure in between the
gases and also high air pressure at altitudes.
 It has lower brightness, so it is basically viewed in darkened-rooms.
 As it consumes more power, so it also produce more heat.
 Screen surface is less reflective.
 They are cheaper comparison to LCD

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A plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display that
uses small cells containing plasma: ionized gas that responds
to electric fields. Plasma TVs were the first flat panel displays to
be released to the public.

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 The Input Devices are the hardware that is
used to transfer transfers input to the
computer. The data can be in the form of text,
graphics, sound, and text. Output device
display data from the memory of the computer.
Output can be text, numeric data, line,
polygon, and other objects.

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 These Devices include:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Trackball
 Spaceball
 Joystick
 Light Pen
 Digitizer
 Touch Screen
 Voice Recognition
 Image Scanner

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 The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing the
set of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY
keyboard.
 The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also
available.
 Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
 Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
 Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
 Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
 Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
 Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.
 Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry
of numeric data.
 Function of Keyboard:
 Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
 Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu
selection or graphics functions, etc.
 Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are
used to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are used
to enter predefined function values.

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 A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the
pointer on the screen. It is a small palm size box. There are
two or three depression switches on the top. The movement
of the mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal
movement of the cursor and the movement along the y-axis
helps in the vertical movement of the cursor on the screen.
The mouse cannot be used to enter text. Therefore, they are
used in conjunction with a keyboard.

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 It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse.
This is mainly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball
which is half inserted, and by changing fingers
on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

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It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions
where trackball can move in two directions only. The
movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain gauge
is applied with pressure. It can be pushed and pulled in
various directions. The ball has a diameter around 7.5
cm. The ball is mounted in the base using rollers. One-
third of the ball is an inside box, the rest is outside.
Applications:
 It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the
object.
 It is used to select various functions in the field of
virtual reality.
 It is applicable in CAD applications.

 Animation is also done using spaceball.

 It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.

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 A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to
change cursor position on a monitor screen. Joystick
is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower
and upper ends as shown in fig. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be changed
in all four directions. The function of a joystick is
similar to that of the mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing
computer games.

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 Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is
used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on
the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical
system placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over
the monitor screen, and pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU.

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 The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a
large, smooth board (the appearance is similar to the
mechanical drawing board) & an electronic tracking device,
which can be changed over the surface to follow existing
lines. The electronic tracking device contains a switch for
the user to record the desire x & y coordinate positions. The
coordinates can be entered into the computer memory or
stored or an off-line storage medium such as magnetic
tape. It is also known as graphics tablet, digitizing pad and
drawing tablet

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 Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a
touch-sensitive transparent panel covering the
screen. A touch screen registers input when a
finger or other object comes in contact with the
screen.
 When the wave signals are interrupted by some
contact with the screen, that located is recorded.
Touch screens have long been used in military
applications.

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 Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most
complex input techniques used to interact with the
computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a
microphone. The simplest form of voice
recognition is a one-word command spoken by
one person. Each command is isolated with pauses
between the words.
 Voice Recognition is used in some graphics
workstations as input devices to accept voice
commands. The voice-system input can be used to
initiate graphics operations or to enter data. These
systems operate by matching an input against a
predefined dictionary of words and phrases.

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 It is an input device. The data or text is written on
paper. The paper is feeded to scanner. The paper
written information is converted into electronic
format; this format is stored in the computer. The
input documents can contain text, handwritten
material, picture extra.
 By storing the document in a computer document
became safe for longer period of time. The document
will be permanently stored for the future. We can
change the document when we need. The document
can be printed when needed.
 Scanning can be of the black and white or colored
picture. On stored picture 2D or 3D rotations, scaling
and other operations can be applied.

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 Flat Bed Scanner: It resembles a photocopy machine. It has a
glass top on its top. Glass top in further covered using a lid.
The document to be scanned is kept on glass plate. The light
is passed underneath side of glass plate. The light is moved
left to right. The scanning is done the line by line. The
process is repeated until the complete line is scanned. Within
20-25 seconds a document of 4" * 6" can be scanned.

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 Hand Held Scanner: It has a number of LED's
(Light Emitting Diodes) the LED's are
arranged in the small case. It is called a Hand
held Scanner because it can be kept in hand
which performs scanning. For scanning the
scanner is moved over document from the
top towards the bottom. Its light is on, while
we move it on document. It is dragged very
slowly over document. If dragging of the
scanner over the document is not proper, the
conversion will not correct.

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 It is an electromechanical device, which
accepts data from a computer and translates
them into form understand by users.
Following are Output Devices:
 Printers
 Plotters
 Monitors

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 Printers are output devices used to
prepare permanent output on paper .
 Output produced by a printer is called a
hard copy.
 Printer is an essential requirement for
every computer system.
 Printers can be divided into two main
groups, impact printer and non-impact
printer

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1. Impact Printers: The printers that print the
characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the
papers are known as Impact Printers.
These Printers are of two types:
 Character Printers

 Line Printers

2. Non-Impact Printers: The printers that print the

characters without striking against the ribbon and onto
the papers are called Non-Impact Printers. These
printers print a complete page at a time, therefore,
also known as Page Printers.
Page Printers are of two types:
 Laser Printers

 Inkjet Printers

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A Plotter is a computer printing device for printing vector
graphics.
Plotters are a special type of output device. It is suitable for
applications:
 Architectural plan of the building.

 CAD applications like the design of mechanical components of

aircraft.
 Many engineering applications.

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 It consists of a drum. Paper on which design is made is kept
on the drum. The drum can rotate in both directions.
Plotters comprised of one or more pen and penholders. The
holders are mounted perpendicular to drum surface. The
pens are kept in the holder, which can move left to the right
as well as right to the left. The graph plotting program
controls the movement of pen and drum.

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 It is used to draw complex design and graphs, charts. The
Flatbed plotter can be kept over the table. The plotter consists
of pen and holder. The pen can draw characters of various
sizes. There can be one or more pens and pen holding
mechanism. Each pen has ink of different color. Different
colors help to produce multicolor design of document. The
area of plotting is also variable. It can vary A4 to 21'*52'.

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In computer graphics , graphics software refers to a program
or collection of programs that enable a person to manipulate
images or models visually on a computer

There are two types of Graphics Software.

1. General Purpose Packages: Basic Functions in a general

package include those for generating picture components
(straight lines, polygons, circles and other figures), setting
color and intensity values, selecting views, and applying
transformations.
Example of general purpose package is the GL (Graphics
Library), GKS(Graphics Kernel System), PHIGS(Programmer
Hierarchical Graphics System), PHIGS+ etc.

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2. Special Purpose Packages: These packages are designed for
non programmers, so that these users can use the graphics
packages, without knowing the inner details.
Example of special purpose package is
Painting programs
Package used for business purpose.
Package used for medical systems.
CAD packages.

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 Q1. find out the aspect ratio of the raster system using 8*10 inches screen and 100
pixels/inch.
 Sol.
 We know that
 Aspect Ratio = width/height= (8*100)/10*100 = 4/5
 Aspect Ratio = 4 : 5

 Q2. Find the size of of 800 * 600 images at 240 pixels per inch.
 Sol:-
 240 pixels correspond to 1 inch.
 800 pixels will correspond to 800/240 inch = 31/3 inch
 Similarly 600 pixels
 600/240 = 21.2 inch.
 Hence the size of the image is 31/3 inch * 21/2 inch.

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 Q3. compute Height of the resized image 1024 * 768 to one that is 640 pixels widte
with the same aspect ratio.

 Sol:-
 Aspect ratio of the 1024 * 768 image is 768/1024 = 3/4 is
 640 * 3/4 = 480.

 Q4. Compute width of an image having height of 5 inches and an aspect ratio 1.5.

 Sol:- width of the image of Aspect Ratio

 We know that
 ASPECT RATIO:- WIDTH/HEIGHT
 1.5 = WIDTH/5
 WIDTH = 1.5 * 5 = 7.5
 WIDTH = 7.5 INCH
 HEIGHT = 5 INCH

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