PART-1 (1M)

a) Define latching current & holding current of a SCR

LATCHING CURRENT - It is the minimum amount of anode to cathode current

above which SCR is ON.Namely,to turn on the SCR,gate current has to be greater
than or approximately equal to the latching current.

HOLDING CURRENT - It is the minimum anode to cathode current below which

SCR will be in OFF state.Namely,to turn off the SCR gate current has to be less
than or equal to the holding current.

b) Define Thyristor turn off time and turn-on time.

The turn-off time of a thyristor is the time between when the anode current becomes
zero and when the thyristor regains its forward blocking capability.

The turn-on time of a thyristor is the time it takes for the thyristor to change from
forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode when a gate pulse is applied

The turn-off time is made up of two intervals: reverse recovery time (trr) and
gate recovery time (tgr). During the turn-off time, excess carriers from the
thyristor's four layers are removed.
 The turn-on time of a thyristor is made up of three time intervals: delay time, rise
time, and spread time.

c) Draw the turn-on characteristics of SCR and mark the timings t d, tr,ton

d) What is the necessity of using Snubber Circuit

Snubber circuits are essential for diodes used in switching circuits. It can save a diode
from overvoltage spikes, which may arise during the reverse recovery process. A very
common snubber circuit for a power diode consists of a capacitor and a resistor
connected in parallel with the diode
 e) What is crowbar protection of SCR

A crowbar circuit is a power supply protection circuit that rapidly short-circuits

("crowbars") the supply line if the voltage and/or current exceeds defined limits.

A Crowbar Circuit is a simple electrical circuit that prevents damage to the circuits (load of
the power supply) in the event of an overvoltage of the power supply. It protects the load
by shorting the output terminals of the power supply when a overvoltage is detected.

PART-2(3M)

a) Draw the V-I characteristics of SCR and mark the holding current and latching current in the
characteristics.

b) What is meant by commutation? What are the types of commutation?

The turn OFF process of an SCR is called commutation. The term commutation means the
transfer of
currents from one path to another. So the commutation circuit does this job by reducing the
forward
current to zero so as to turn OFF the SCR or Thyristor.
SCR can be turned ON by applying appropriate positive gate voltage between the gate and
cathode terminals, but it cannot be turned OFF through the gate terminal. The SCR can be
brought back to the forward blocking state from the forward conduction state by reducing the
anode or forward current below
the holding current level

The reverse voltage which causes to commutate the SCR is called commutation voltage.
Depending on
the commutation voltage located, the commutation methods are classified into two major types.
Those are 1) Forced commutation and 2) Natural commutation.
Forced commutation
forced commutation is classified into different types such as class A, B, C, D, and E. This
commutation is Mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.

C) Draw the transfer characteristics, Output characteristics of IGBT

d) The trigger circuit of a thyristor has a source voltage of 15V and the load line has a
slope of 120V per ampere. The minimum gate current to turn on the SCR is 25mA. Compute
(i). Source resistance required in the gate circuit (ii). The trigger voltage and trigger current
for an average gate power dissipation of 0.4 watts
 e) Compare BJT & MOSFET.

PART-3(5M)

a) Discuss the construction and different operating modes of the thyristor with the help of
its static V-I characteristics

Thyristors – Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR’s)

A silicon controlled rectifier or semiconductor-controlled rectifier is a four-layer solidstate

Current controlling device. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" is General Electric's trade
name for a type of
thyristor.
SCRs are mainly used in electronic devices that require control of high voltage and power. This
makes
them applicable in medium and high AC power operations such as motor control function.
An SCR conducts when a gate pulse is applied to it, just like a diode. It has four layers of
semiconductors that form two structures namely; NPNP or PNPN. In addition, it has three
junctions labeled as J1, J2 and J3 and three terminals(anode, cathode and a gate). An SCR is
diagrammatically represented as shown below.

The anode connects to the P-type, cathode to the N-type and the gate to the P-type as shown
below.

In an SCR, the intrinsic semiconductor is silicon to which the required dopants are infused.
However,
doping a PNPN junction is dependent on the SCR application.
Modes of Operation in SCR
 OFF state (forward blocking mode) − Here the anode is assigned a positive voltage, the
gate is assigned a zero voltage (disconnected) and the cathode is assigned a negative
voltage. As a result, Junctions J1 and J3 are in forward bias while J2 is in reverse bias. J2
reaches its breakdown avalanche value and starts to conduct. Below this value, the
resistance of J1 is significantly high and is thus said to be in the off state
 ON state (conducting mode) − An SCR is brought to this state either by increasing the
potential
difference between the anode and cathode above the avalanche voltage or by applying a
positive
 signal at the gate. Immediately the SCR starts to conduct, gate voltage is no longer
needed to
maintain the ON state and is, therefore, switched off by –
Decreasing the current flow through it to the lowest value called holding current
Using a transistor placed across the junction.

Reverse blocking − This compensates the drop in forward voltage. This is due to the fact
that a
low doped region in P1 is needed. It is important to note that the voltage ratings of forward
and
reverse blocking are equal.
Characteristics of Thyristor
A thyristor is a four layer 3 junction p-n-p-n semiconductor device consisting of at least three p-n
junctions, functioning as an electrical switch for high power operations. It has three basic
terminals,
namely the anode, cathode and the gate mounted on the semiconductor layers of the device. The
symbolic
diagram and the basic circuit diagram for determining the characteristics of thyristor is shown in
the
figure below,
V-I Characteristics of a Thyristor

From the circuit diagram above we can see the anode and cathode are connected to the supply
voltage
through the load. Another secondary supply Es is applied between the gate and the cathode
terminal which
supplies for the positive gate current when the switch S is closed. On giving the supply we get
the required V-I characteristics of a thyristor show in the figure below for anode to cathode
voltage Vaand anode current Ia as we can see from the circuit diagram. A detailed study of the
characteristics reveal that
the thyristor has three basic modes of operation, namely the reverse blocking mode, forward
blocking (off-state) mode and forward conduction (on-state) mode. Which are discussed in great
details below, to understand the overall characteristics of a thyristor.
Reverse Blocking Mode of Thyristor
Initially for the reverse blocking mode of the thyristor, the cathode is made positive with respect
to anode
by supplying voltage E and the gate to cathode supply voltage Es is detached initially by keeping
switch S
open. For understanding this mode we should look into the fourth quadrant where the thyristor is
reverse
biased.

Here Junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased whereas the junction J2 is forward biased. The
behavior of the thyristor here is similar to that of two diodes are connected in series with reverse
voltage applied across them. As a result only a small leakage current of the order of a few
μAmps flows. This is the reverse blocking mode or the off-state, of the thyristor. If the reverse
voltage is now increased, then at a particular
voltage, known as the critical breakdown voltage VBR, an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the
reverse current increases rapidly. A large current associated with VBR gives rise to more losses
in the SCR, which
results in heating. This may lead to thyristor damage as the junction temperature may exceed its
permissible temperature rise. It should, therefore, be ensured that maximum working reverse
voltage across a thyristor does not exceed VBR. When reverse voltage applied across a thyristor
is less than VBR, the device offers very high impedance in the reverse direction. The SCR in the
reverse blocking mode may therefore be treated as open circuit.
Forward Blocking Mode Now considering the anode is positive with respect to the cathode,
with gate
kept in open condition. The thyristor is now said to be forward biased as shown the figure below.

As we can see the junctions J1 and J3 are now forward biased but junction J2 goes into reverse
biased condition. In this particular mode, a small current, called forward leakage current is
allowed to flow initially as shown in the diagram for characteristics of thyristor. Now, if we keep
on increasing the forward biased anode to cathode voltage.
 In this particular mode, the thyristor conducts currents from anode to cathode with a very
small voltage drop across it. A thyristor is brought from forward blocking mode to forward
conduction mode by turning it on by exceeding the forward break over voltage or by applying a
gate pulse between gate and cathode. In this mode, thyristor is in on-state and behaves like a
closed switch. Voltage drop across thyristor in the on state is of the order of 1 to 2 V depending
beyond a certain point, then the reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a
voltage called forward break over voltage VB0 of the thyristor. But, if we keep the forward
voltage less than VBO, we can see from the characteristics of thyristor, that the device offers
high impedance. Thus even here the thyristor operates as an open switch during the forward
blocking mode.
Forward Conduction Mode
When the anode to cathode forward voltage is increased, with gate circuit open, the reverse
junction J2
will have an avalanche breakdown at forward break over voltage VBO leading to thyristor turn
on. Once
the thyristor is turned on we can see from the diagram for characteristics of thyristor, that the
point M at
once shifts toward N and then anywhere between N and K. Here NK represents the forward
conduction
mode of the thyristor. In this mode of operation, the thyristor conducts maximum current with
minimum
voltage drop, this is known as the forward conduction forward conduction or the turn on mode of
the
thyristor.

b) Draw & Explain the Dynamic Characteristics of SCR

Dynamic Turn OFF Switching Characteristics

The transition of an SCR from forward conduction state to forward blocking state is called as
turn OFF or

commutation of SCR. As we know that once the SCR starts conducting, the gate has no control
over it to

bring back to forward blocking or OFF state.

To turn OFF the SCR, the current must be reduced to a level below the holding current of SCR.
We have

discussed various methods above to turn OFF the SCR in which SCR turn OFF is achieved by
reducing

the forward current to zero. But if we apply the forward voltage immediately after the current
zero of
SCR, it starts conducting again even without gate triggering.

This is due to the presence of charge carriers in the four layers. Therefore, it is necessary to
apply the

reverse voltage, over a finite time across the SCR to remove the charge carriers.

Hence the turn OFF time is defined as the time between the instant the anode current becomes
zero and

the instant at which the SCR retains the forward blocking capability. The excess charge carriers
from the

four layers must be removed to bring back the SCR to forward conduction mode.

This process takes place in two stages. In a first stage excess carriers from outer layers are
removed and in

second stage excess carriers in the inner two layers are to be recombined. Hence, the total turn
OFF time

tq is divided into two intervals; reverse recovery time trr and gate recovery time tgr.

tq = trr + tgr

The figure below shows the switching characteristics of SCR during turn ON and OFF. The time
t1 to t3 is

called as reverse recovery time; at the instant t1the anode current is zero and builds up in the
reverse

direction which is called as reverse recovery current. This current removes the excess charge
carriers from

outer layers during the time t1 to t3.

At instant t3, junctions J1 and J3 are able to block the reverse voltage but, the SCR is not yet
able to block

the forward voltage due to the presence of excess charge carriers in junction J2. These carriers
can be

disappeared only by the way of recombination and this could be achieved by maintaining a
reverse
voltage across the SCR

Hence, during the time t3 to t4, the recombination of charges takes place and at the instant t4,
junction
J2 completely recovers. This time is called gate recovery time tgr

From the figure the turn OFF time is the time interval between the t4 and t1. Generally, this
time
varies from 10 to 100 microseconds. This turn OFF time tq is applicable to the individual SCR.
The time required by the commutation circuit to apply the reverse voltage to commutate the
SCR
is called the circuit turn OFF time (tc). For a safety margin or reliable commutation, this tc must
be greater than the tq otherwise commutation failure occurs.

The SCRs which have slow turn OFF time as in between 50 to 100 microseconds are called as
converter grade SCRs. These are used in phase controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters, AC
voltage
regulators, etc.
The SCRs which have fast turn OFF time as in between 3 to 50 microseconds are inverter
grade
SCRs. These are costlier compared to converter grade and are used in choppers, force
commutated converters and inverters.

c) Discus the different Turn ON methods of SCR

Turn on methods of SCR

The turning on Process of the SCR is known as Triggering. In other words, turning the SCR from

Forward-Blocking state to Forward-Conduction state is known as Triggering. The

various methods of SCR triggering are discussed here.

The various SCR triggering methods are

Forward Voltage Triggering
Thermal or Temperature Triggering
Radiation or Light triggering
dv/dt Triggering
Gate Triggering

(a) Forward Voltage Triggering:-

In this mode, an additional forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode.
When the anode terminal is positive with respect to cathode (VAK), Junction J1 and J3 is
forward
biased and junction J2 is reverse biased.
No current flow due to depletion region in J2 is reverse biased (except leakage current).
As VAK is further increased, at a voltage VBO (Forward Break Over Voltage) the junction
J2
undergoes avalanche breakdown and so a current flows and the device tends to turn ON(even
when
gate is open)

(b) Thermal (or) Temperature Triggering:-

The width of depletion layer of SCR decreases with increase in junction temperature.
Therefore in SCR when VAR is very near its breakdown voltage, the device is triggered by
increasing
the junction temperature.
By increasing the junction temperature the reverse biased junction collapses thus the device
starts to
conduct.
(c) Radiation Triggering (or) Light Triggering:-
For light triggered SCRs a special terminal niche is made inside the inner P layer instead of
gate
terminal.
When light is allowed to strike this terminal, free charge carriers are generated.
When intensity of light becomes more than a normal value, the thyristor starts conducting.
This type of SCRs are called as LASCR

(d) dv/dt Triggering:-

When the device is forward biased, J1 and J3 are forward biased, J2 is reverse biased.
Junction J2 behaves as a capacitor, due to the charges existing across the junction.
If voltage across the device is V, the charge by Q and capacitance by C then,
ic =dQ/dt
Q=CV
ic =d(CV)/dt
=CdV/dt+VdC/dt
as dC/dt = 0
ic = CdV/dt
Therefore when the rate of change of voltage across the device becomes large, the device
may turn
ON, even if the voltage across the device is small.

(e) Gate Triggering:-

This is most widely used SCR triggering method.
Applying a positive voltage between gate and cathode can Turn ON a forward biased
thyristor.
When a positive voltage is applied at the gate terminal, charge carriers are injected in the
inner Player,
thereby reducing the depletion layer thickness.
As the applied voltage increases, the carrier injection increases, therefore the voltage at
which
forward break-over occurs decreases.

d) Explain series & parallel connection of SCR’s.

Series and Parallel connections of SCRs

In many power control applications the required voltage and current ratings exceed the voltage
and
current that can be provided by a single SCR. Under such situations the SCRs are required to be
connected in series or in parallel to meet the requirements. Sometimes even if the required rating
is
available, multiple connections are employed for reasons of economy and easy availability of
SCRs of
lower ratings. Like any other electrical equipment, characteristics/properties of two SCRs of
same make
and ratings are never same and this leads to certain problems in the circuit. The mismatching of
SCRs is
due to differences in

(i) turn-on time

(ii) turn-off time
(iii) Leakage current in forward direction
(iv) Leakage current in reverse direction and
(v) Recovery voltage.

Series Connection of an SCR

(i) Unequal distribution of voltage across SCRs

(ii) Difference in recovery characteristics.
Care must be taken to share the voltage equally. For steady-state conditions, voltage sharing is
achieved by using a resistance or a Zener diode in parallel with each SCR. For transient voltage
sharing a low non-inductive resistor and capacitor in series are placed across each SCR, as
shown in
figure. Diodes D1 connected in parallel with resistor Rl, helps in dynamic stabilization. This
circuit
reduces differences between blocking voltages of the two devices within permissible limits.
Additionally the R-C circuit can also serve the function of „snubber circuit„. Values of R1 and
C1 can
primarily be calculated for snubber circuit and a check can be made for equalization. If ΔQ is the
difference in recovery charge of two devices arising out of different recovery current for
different
time and ΔV is the permissible difference in blocking voltage then

C1 = ΔQ/ ΔV
The value of resistance Rx should be sufficient to over damp the circuit. Since the capacitor C1
can
discharge through the SCR during turn-on, there can be excessive power dissipation, but the
switching current from C1 is limited by the resistor R1 This resistance also serves the purpose of
damping out „ringing‟ which is oscillation of C1 with the circuit inductance during
commutation. All
the SCRs connected in series should be turned-on at the same time when signals are applied to
their
gates simultaneously.

This phenomenon increases the reliability of the string, but reduces the utilization of each SCR.
Thus
string efficiency decreases. Reliability of string is measured by derating factor (DRF) which is
given
by the expression
DRF = 1- string efficiency

Parallel Connection of an SCR

When the load current exceeds the SCR current rating, SCRs are connected in parallel to share
the
load current. But when SCRs are operated in parallel, the current sharing between them may not
be
proper. The device having lower dynamic resistance will tend to share more current. This will
raise
the temperature of that particular device in comparison to other, thereby reducing further its
dynamic
resistance and increasing current through it. This process is cumulative and continues till the
device
gets punctured. Some other factors which directly or indirectly add to this problem are difference
in
turn-on time, delay time, finger voltage and loop inductance.
Arrangement of SCRs in the cubicle also plays vital role. When the SCRs are connected in
parallel, it
must be ensured that the latching current level of the all the SCRs is such that when gate pulse is
applied, all of them turn-on and remain on when the gate pulse is removed. Further the holding
currents of the devices should not be so much different that at reduced load current one of the
device

gets turned-off because of fall of current through it blow its holding current value. This is
particularly
important because on increase in load current, the device which has stopped conducting cannot
start
in the absence of gate pulse.

Another point to be considered is the on-state voltage across the device. For equal sharing of
currents
by the devices voltage drop across the parallel paths must be equal. For operation of all the SCRs
connected in parallel at the same temperature, it becomes necessary to use a common heat sink
for
their mounting, as illustrated in figure. Resistance compensation used for dc circuits is shown in
figure. In this circuit the resistors Rx and R2 are chosen so as to cause equal voltage drop in both
arms. Inductive compensation used for ac circuits is shown in figure The difference in
characteristics
due to different turn-on time, delay time, finger voltage, latching current, holding current can be
minimized by using inductive compensation. Firing circuits giving high rate of rise can be used
to
reduce mismatch of gate characteristics and delay time. Current sharing circuits must be
designed so
as to distribute current equally at maximum temperature and maximum anode current. This is
done to
ensure that the devices share current equally under worst operating conditions. Mechanical
arrangement of SCRs also plays an important role in reducing mismatching. Cylindrical
construction
is perhaps the best from this point of view.

e) Expalin the operation of SCR with TWO Transistor model.

Two transistor analogy of SCR

Basic operating principle of SCR, can be easily understood by the two transistor model of
SCR or
analogy of silicon controlled rectifier, as it is also a combination of P and N layers, shown in
figure below
This is a pnpn thyristor. If we bisect it through the dotted line then we will get two transistors i.e.
one pnp
transistor with J1 and J2 junctions and another is with J2 and J3 junctions as shown in figure
below.

When the transistors are in off state, the relation between the collector current and emitter current
is
shown below
 PART-4(10M)

a) Draw the basic structure of an Power MOSFET and explain its operation along with
characteristics.

Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (Power)

MOSFET is a voltage-controlled majority carrier (or unipolar) three-terminal device. As
compared to
the simple lateral channel MOSFET for low-power signals, power MOSFET has different
structure. It
has a vertical channel structure where the source and the drain are on the opposite side of the
silicon
wafer as shown in Figure. This opposite placement of the source and the drain increases the
capability
of the power MOSFET to handle larger power.
N-channel enhancement type MOSFET is more common due to high mobility of electrons.
Basic circuit diagram and output characteristics of an n-channel enhancement power MOSFET
with load
connected are in Fig. 37 and Fig. 38 respectively.
Drift region shown in Fig. 37 determines the voltage-blocking capability of the MOSFET.
When VGS = 0,

⇒ VDD makes it reverse biased and no current flows from drain to source.
When VGS > 0,

⇒ Electrons form the current path as shown in Fig. 37. Thus, current from the drain to the source
flows. Now, if we will increase the gate-to-source voltage, drain current will also increase.

For lower value of VDS, MOSFET works in a linear region where it has a constant resistance
equal to
VDS / ID. For a fixed value of VGS and greater than threshold voltage VTH, MOSFET enters a
saturation
region where the value of the drain current has a fixed value.
Besides the output characteristics curves, transfer characteristics of power MOSFET is also
shown in FIG
b) What is meant by commutation? What are the types of commutation? Discuss different
commutation methods in detail

SCR Turn OFF Methods

The reverse voltage which causes to commutate the SCR is called commutation voltage.
Depending on
the commutation voltage located, the commutation methods are classified into two major types.
Those are 1) Forced commutation and 2) Natural commutation. Let us discuss in brief about
these
methods.
Forced Commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such circuits,
forward
current must be forced to zero with an external circuit to commutate the SCR hence named as
forced
commutation.
This commutating circuit consists of components like inductors and capacitors called as
commutating
components. These commutating components cause to apply a reverse voltage across the SCR
that immediately bring the current in the SCR to zero.
Based on the manner in which the zero current achieved and arrangement of the
commutating
components, forced commutation is classified into different types such as class A, B, C, D, and
E. This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.
Class A Commutation
This is also known as self commutation, or resonant commutation, or load commutation. In this
commutation, the source of commutation voltage is in the load. This load must be an under
damped R-LC
supplied with a DC supply so that natural zero is obtained.
The commutating components L and C are connected either parallel or series with the load
resistance R as
shown below with waveforms of SCR current, voltage and capacitor voltage.

The value of load resistance and commutating components are so selected that they forms a
under damped
resonant circuit to produce natural zero. When the thyristor or SCR is triggered, the forward
currents
starts flowing through it and during this the capacitor is charged up to the value of E.
Once the capacitor is fully charged (more than the supply source voltage) the SCR becomes
reverse
biased and hence the commutation of the device. The capacitor discharges through the load
resistance to
make ready the circuit for the next cycle of operation. The time for switching OFF the SCR
depends on
the resonant frequency which further depends on the L and C components
This method is simple and reliable. For high frequency operation which is in the range above
1000 Hz,
this type of commutation circuits is preferred due to the high values of L and C components.
Class B Commutation
This is also a self commutation circuit in which commutation of SCR is achieved automatically
by L and
C components, once the SCR is turned ON. In this, the LC resonant circuit is connected across
the SCR
but not in series with load as in case of class A commutation and hence the L and C components
do not
carry the load current.
When the DC supply is applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges with an upper plate positive
and lower
plate negative up to the supply voltage E. When the SCR is triggered, the current flows in two
directions,
one is through E+ – SCR – R – E- and another one is the commutating current through L and C
components.
Once the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor is starts discharging through C+ – L – T – C-. When
the
capacitor is fully discharged, it starts charging with a reverse polarity. Hence a reverse voltage
applied
across the SCR which causes the commutating current IC to oppose load current IL.
When the commutating current Ic is higher than the load current, the SCR will automatically turn
OFF
and the capacitor charges with original polarity.
In the above process, the SCR is turned ON for some time and then automatically turned OFF for
some
time. This is a continuous process and the desired frequency of ON/OFF depends on the values
of L and
C. This type of commutation is mostly used in chopper circuits.
Class C Commutation
In this commutation method, the main SCR is to be commutated is connected in series with the
load and
an additional or complementary SCR is connected in parallel with main SCR. This method is
also called
as complementary commutation.
In this , SCR turns OFF with a reverse voltage of a charged capacitor. The figure below shows
the
complementary commutation with appropriate waveforms.

Initially, both SCRs are in OFF state so the capacitor voltage is also zero. When the SCR1 or
main SCR is
triggered, current starts flowing in two directions, one path is E+ – R1 – SCR1 – E- and another
path is
the charging current E+ – R2- C+ – C- SCR1 – E- . Therefore, the capacitor starts charging up to
the
value of E.
When the SCR2 is triggered, SCR is turned ON and simultaneously a negative polarity is applied
across
the SCR1. So this reverse voltage across the SCR1 immediately causes to turn OFF the SCR1.
Now the
capacitor starts charging with a reverse polarity through the path of E+ – R1- C+ – C- SCR2 – E-
. And
again, if the SCR 1 is triggered, discharging current of the capacitor turns OFF the SCR2.
This commutation is mainly used in single phase inverters with a centre tapped transformers. The
Mc
Murray Bedford inverter is the best example of this commutation circuit. This is a very reliable
method of
commutation and it is also useful even at frequencies below 1000Hz.
Class D Commutation
This is also called as auxiliary commutation because it uses an auxiliary SCR to switch the
charged
capacitor. In this, the main SCR is commutated by the auxiliary SCR. The main SCR with load
resistance
forms the power circuit while the diode D, inductor L and SCR2 forms the commutation circuit.

When the supply voltage E is applied, both SCRs are in OFF state and hence the capacitor
voltage is zero.
In order to charge the capacitor, SCR2 must be triggered first. So the capacitor charges through
the path
E+ – C+ – C- – SCR2- R- E-.
. When the capacitor is fully charged the SCR2 becomes turned OFF because no current flow
through the
SCR2 when capacitor is charged fully. If the SCR1 is triggered, the current flows in two
directions; one is
the load current path E+ – SCR1- R- E- and another one is commutation current path C+ –
SCR1- L- DC.
As soon as the capacitor completely discharges, its polarities will be reversed but due to the
presence of
diode the reverse discharge is not possible. When the SCR2 is triggered capacitor starts
discharging
through C+ – SCR2- SCR1- C-. When this discharging current is more than the load current the
SCR1
becomes turned OFF.
Again, the capacitor starts charging through the SCR2 to a supply voltage E and then the SCR2
is turned
OFF. Therefore, both SCRs are turned OFF and the above cyclic process is repeated. This
commutation
method is mainly used in inverters and also used in the Jones chopper circuit.
.
Class E Commutation
This is also known as external pulse commutation. In this, an external pulse source is used to
produce the
reverse voltage across the SCR. The circuit below shows the class E commutation circuit which
uses a
pulse transformer to produce the commutating pulse and is designed with tight coupling between
the
primary and secondary with a small air gap.
If the SCR need to be commutated, pulse duration equal to the turn OFF time of the SCR is
applied.
When the SCR is triggered, load current flows through the pulse transformer. If the pulse is
applied to the
primary of the pulse transformer, an emf or voltage is induced in the secondary of the pulse
transformer.
This induced voltage is applied across the SCR as a reverse polarity and hence the SCR is turned
OFF.
The capacitor offers a very low or zero impedance to the high frequency pulse.

c) What is meant by triggering of SCR? What are the different types of gate triggering circuits or
turnon methods? Explain UJT triggering of SCR.
1. DC gate triggering:-
A DC voltage of proper polarity is applied between gate and cathode ( Gate terminal is
positive with
respect to Cathode).
When applied voltage is sufficient to produce the required gate Current, the device starts
conducting.
One drawback of this scheme is that both power and control circuits are DC and there is no
isolation
between the two.
Another disadvantage is that a continuous DC signal has to be applied. So gate power loss is
high.
2. AC Gate Triggering:-
Here AC source is used for gate signals.
This scheme provides proper isolation between power and control circuit.
Drawback of this scheme is that a separate transformer is required to step down ac supply.
There are two methods of AC voltage triggering namely (i) R Triggering (ii) RC triggering
(i) Resistance triggering:
The following circuit shows the resistance triggering.

In this method, the variable resistance R is used to control the gate current.
Depending upon the value of R, when the magnitude of the gate current reaches the sufficient
value(latching current of the device) the SCR starts to conduct.
The diode D is called as blocking diode. It prevents the gate cathode junction from getting
damaged
in the negative half cycle.
By considering that the gate circuit is purely resistive, the gate current is in phase with the
applied
voltage.
By using this method we can achieve maximum firing angle up to 90°.
(ii) RC Triggering
The following circuit shows the resistance-capacitance triggering.

By using this method we can achieve firing angle more than 90°.
In the positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged through the variable resistance R up to the
peak
value of the applied voltage.
The variable resistor R controls the charging time of the capacitor.
Depends upon the voltage across the capacitor, when sufficient amount of gate current will
flow in
the circuit, the SCR starts to conduct.
In the negative half cycle, the capacitor C is charged up to the negative peak value through
the
diode D2.
Diode D1 is used to prevent the reverse break down of the gate cathode junction in the
negative half
cycle.
3. Pulse Gate Triggering:-
In this method the gate drive consists of a single pulse appearing periodically (or) a sequence
of
high frequency pulses.
This is known as carrier frequency gating.
A pulse transformer is used for isolation.
The main advantage is that there is no need of applying continuous signals, so the gate losses
are
reduced.
Advantages of pulse train triggering:
Low gate dissipation at higher gate current.
Small gate isolating pulse transformer
Low dissipation in reverse biased condition is possible. So simple trigger circuits are possible
in
some cases
When the first trigger pulse fails to trigger the SCR, the following pulses can succeed in
latching
SCR. This important while
Triggering inductive circuits and circuits having back emf's.

UJT Firing Circuit

It is the most common method of triggering the SCR because the prolonged pulses at the gate
using R and RC triggering methods cause more power dissipation at the gate so by using UJT
(Uni
Junction Transistor) as triggering device the power loss is limited as it produce a train of pulses.
The RC network is connected to the emitter terminal of the UJT which forms the timing circuit.
The capacitor is fixed while the resistance is variable and hence the charging rate of the capacitor
depends on the variable resistance means that the controlling of the RC time constant.
When the voltage is applied, the capacitor starts charging through the variable resistance. By
varying the resistance value voltage across the capacitor get varied. Once the capacitor voltage is
equal to the peak value of the UJT, it starts conducting and hence produce a pulse output till the
voltage across the capacitor equal to the valley voltage Vv of the UJT. This process repeats and
produces a train of pulses at base terminal 1.
The pulse output at the base terminal 1 is used to turn ON the SCR at predetermined time
intervals