PART-1 (1M)

a) What is meant by dc chopper?

A DC chopper, also known as a DC-to-DC converter, is an electronic device that converts a fixed DC
input voltage to a variable DC output voltage

b) Define duty-cycle?

A duty-cycle of a chopper is defined as which is the ratio of the time it's ON to the total
time period of one cycle:

c) What is a multi phase chopper?

A multiphase DC chopper is a device that converts an input voltage into an output voltage using
multiple DC choppers connected in parallel.

d) What is meant by step-up and step-down chopper?

Step up chopper means The average value of DC output voltage is more than the input source
voltage
step-down chopper means The average value of DC output voltage is less than the input source
voltage.
e) What are the applications of dc chopper?

DC motor control
Switch mode power supplies
Battery chargers
Variable-frequency drives:

PART-2 (3M)

a) What is meant by Time Ratio Control? What are the two types of TRC?

1. Time Ratio Control

As the name suggest, here the time ratio (i.e. the duty cycle ratio Ton/T) is varied. This kind of
control can be achieved using 2 ways:
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
• Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
In this technique, the time period is kept constant, but the „On Time‟ or the „OFF Time‟ is varied. Using
this, the duty cycle ratio can be varied. Since the ON time or the „pulse width‟ is getting changed in this
method, so it is popularly known as Pulse width modulation.
 Figure: pulse width modulation waveforms

Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)

In this control method, the „Time Period‟ is varied while keeping either of „On Time‟ or „OFF time‟ as
constant. In this method, since the time period gets changed, so the frequency also changes accordingly,
so this method is known as frequency modulation control.

Figure: Frequency modulation waveforms

 b) How the output voltage of chopper depends on the duty cycle?

The output voltage of a chopper depends on the duty cycle through the following formula

 Vo = Vi / (1 - D)
 Vo: is the output voltage
 Vi: is the input voltage
 D: is the duty cycle
By varying duty cycle output voltage can be varied

c) With the help of circuit diagrams, discuss the operation of class-B chopper ?

Class B Chopper

Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper

• When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure.
• During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy.
• When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the
supply.
• Average output voltage is positive. Average output current is negative.
• Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant.
• In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
• Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor.

Figure: circuit diagram and quadrant operation of Type B chopper

 d) Explain the current limit control method of chopper
Current Limit Control:
As is obvious from its name, in this control strategy, a specific limit is applied on the current variation.
In this method, current is allowed to fluctuate or change only between 2 values i.e. maximum current
(Imax) and minimum current (I min). When the current is at minimum value, the chopper is switched ON.
After this instance, the current starts increasing, and when it reaches up to maximum value, the chopper is
switched off allowing the current to fall back to minimum value. This cycle continues again and again.

Figure: current limit control waveforms

e) In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is 250 Hz. Supply
voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if the load resistance is 2
ohms.
 PART-3(5M)

a) Describe the principle of step-up chopper. Derive an expression for the average output voltage in
terms of input dc voltage & duty cycle
 Step Up Chopper
 The average voltage output (Vo) in a step up chopper is greater than the voltage input (Vs). The figure
 below shows a configuration of a step up chopper.

Current and Voltage Waveforms

V0 (average voltage output) is positive when chopper is switched ON and negative when the chopper is
OFF as shown in the waveform below.
Where
TON – time interval when chopper is ON
TOFF – time interval when chopper is OFF
VL – Load voltage
Vs – Source voltage
T – Chopping time period = T ON + TOFF
Vo is given by –

When the chopper (CH) is switched ON, the load is short circuited and, therefore, the voltage output for
the period TON is zero. In addition, the inductor is charged during this time. This gives VS = VL

Δi = is the inductor peak to peak current. When the chopper (CH) is OFF, discharge occurs through the
inductor L. Therefore, the summation of the Vs and VL is given as follows

V0=VS+VL, VL=V0−VS
b) Describe the principle of step-down chopper. Derive an expression for the average output voltage in
terms of input dc voltage & duty cycle.

Step Down Chopper

This is also known as a buck converter. In this chopper, the average voltage output VO is less than the
input voltage VS. When the chopper is ON, VO = VS and when the chopper is off, VO = 0
When the chopper is ON –

Where FD is free-wheel diode.

When the chopper is OFF, polarity reversal and discharging occurs at the inductor. The current passes
through the free-wheel diode and the inductor to the load. This gives,
Current and Voltage Waveforms
The current and voltage waveforms are given below −
For a step down chopper the voltage output is always less than the voltage input. This is shown by the
waveform below.
c) With the help of circuit diagrams, discuss the operation of class C chopper

Class C chopper

Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down chopper

• Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers.

• For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts.
• For second quadrant operation, CH2 is ON or D1 conducts.
• When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive.
• The output voltage is equal to „V‟ & the load receives power from the source.
• When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the diode D2
and the output voltage is zero.
• Current continues to flow in positive direction.
• When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite direction through L and CH2 .
• The output voltage is zero.
• On turning OFF CH2 , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D1 and the
supply
• Output voltage is V, the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
• Average output voltage is positive
• Average output current can take both positive and negative values.
• Choppers CH1 & CH2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the
supply.
• Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor.
d) Explain the buck-boost converter.

The buck–boost converter is a type of DC-to-DC converter (also knownas a chopper) that
has an output voltage magnitude that is either greater than or less than the input voltage
magnitude. It is used to “step up” the DC voltage, similar to a transformer for AC circuits.

A typical Buck-Boost converter circuit is shown below:

The input voltage source is connected to a solid state device. The second switch used is a
diode. The diode is connected, in reverse to the direction of power flow from source, to a
capacitor and the load and the two are connected in parallel as shown in the figure above

Mode I : Switch is ON, Diode is OFF

The Switch is ON and therefore represents a short circuit ideally offering zero resistance to
the flow of current so when the switch is ON all the current will flow through the switch
and the inductor and back to the DC input source.

The inductor stores charge during the time the switch is ON and when the solid state
switch is OFF the polarity of the Inductor reverses so that current flows through the
load and through the diode and back to the inductor. So the direction of current
through the inductor remains the same.

Let us say the switch is on for a time TON and is off for a time TOFF. We define the time

period, T, as

While performing the analysis of the Buck-Boost converter we have to keep in mind that

1. The inductor current is continuous and this is made possible by selecting an

appropriate value of L.
 2. The inductor current in steady state rises from a value with a positive slope to a
maximum value during the ON state and then drops back down to the initial value
with a negative slope. Therefore the net change of the inductor current over any one
complete cycle is zero.
Mode II : Switch is OFF, Diode is ON

In this mode the polarity of the inductor is reversed and the energy stored in the
inductor is released and is ultimately dissipated in the load resistance and this helps to
maintain the flow of current in the same direction through the load and also step-up the
output voltage as the inductor is now also acting as a source in conjunction with the
input source. But for analysis we keep the original conventions to analyse the circuit
using KVL.

Let us now analyse the Buck Boost converter in steady state operation for Mode II using
KVL.
 PART-4 (10M)

a) With the help of circuit diagrams, discuss the operation of class-A, class-B, class-C and class-D
chopper.

Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper

• When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load.
• When chopper is OFF, vO = 0 and the load current continues to flow in the same direction through the
FWD.
• The average values of output voltage and current are always positive. Class A Chopper is a first
quadrant chopper
• When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load.
• When chopper is OFF, vO = 0 and the load current continues to flow in the same direction through the
FWD.
• The average values of output voltage and current are always positive.
• Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows form source to load.
• It is used to control the speed of dc motor.
• The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the
performance of Class A Chopper
Class B Chopper
Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper
• When chopper is ON, E drives a current through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure.
• During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy.
• When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the
supply.
• Average output voltage is positive. Average output current is negative.
• Therefore Class B Chopper operates in second quadrant.
• In this chopper, power flows from load to source.
• Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor.

Class C chopper
Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up or step-down chopper
• Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers.
• For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts.
• For second quadrant operation, CH2 is ON or D1 conducts.
• When CH1 is ON, the load current is positive.
• The output voltage is equal to „V‟ & the load receives power from the source.
• When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the diode D2
and the output voltage is zero.
• Current continues to flow in positive direction.
• When CH2 is triggered, the voltage E forces current to flow in opposite direction through L and CH2 .
• The output voltage is zero.
• On turning OFF CH2 , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D1 and the
supply
• Output voltage is V, the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source.
• Average output voltage is positive
• Average output current can take both positive and negative values.
• Choppers CH1 & CH2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the
supply.
• Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor.

Class D chopper
• Class D is a two quadrant chopper.
• When both CH1 and CH2 are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO = V and output current
flows through the load.
• When CH1 and CH2 are turned OFF, the load current continues to flow in the same direction through
load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy stored in the inductor L.

• Output voltage vO = – V.
• Average load voltage is positive if chopper ON time is more than the OFF time
• Average output voltage becomes negative if tON < tOFF .
• Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be positive or negative.
b) Explain the four quadrant operation of chopper.

Class E Chopper (OR) FOUR Quadrant Chopper

• Class E is a four quadrant chopper

• When CH1 and CH4 are triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction through CH1 and CH4,
and with output voltage vO = V.
• This gives the first quadrant operation.

• When both CH1 and CH4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D2 and D3 in
the same direction, but output voltage vO = -V.
• Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant.
• When CH2 and CH3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in opposite direction & output voltage vO
= -V.
• Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant.
• When both CH2 and CH3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction D1 and
D4 and the output voltage vO = V.
• Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as vO is positive but iO is negative.
FIRST QUADRANT:
CH4 is kept ON
CH3 is off
CH1 is operarted
V0=Vs
i0 = positive
when CH1 is off positive current free wheels through CH4,D2
so V0 and I2 is in first quadrant.

SECOND QUADRANT:
CH1,CH3,CH4 are off.
CH2 is operated.
Reverse current flows and I is negative through L CH2 D4 and E.
When CH2 off D1 and D4 is ON and current id fed back to source. So
is more than source voltage Vs. diELdt
As i0 is negative and V0 is positive, so second quadrant operation.

THIRD QUADRANT:
CH1 OFF, CH2 ON
CH3 operated. So both V0 and i0 is negative.
When CH3 turned off negative current freewheels through CH2 and D4.

FOURTH QUADRANT:
CH4 is operated other are off.
Positive current flows through CH4 E L D2.
Inductance L stores energy when current fed to source through D3 and D2.V0 is negative

c) Explain various control strategies of chopper in detail.

Control strategies of Chopper

In DC-DC converters, the average output voltage is controlled by varying the alpha (α) value. This is
achieved by varying the Duty Cycle of the switching pulses. Duty cycle can be varied usually in 2 ways:
1. Time Ratio Control
2. Current Limit Control
In this post we shall look upon both the ways of varying the duty cycle. Duty Cycle is the ratio of „On
Time‟ to „Time Period of a pulse‟.
Time Ratio Control: As the name suggest, here the time ratio (i.e. the duty cycle ratio Ton/T) is varied.
This kind of control can be achieved using 2 ways:
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) • Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

In this technique, the time period is kept constant, but the „On Time‟ or the „OFF Time‟ is varied. Using
this, the duty cycle ratio can be varied. Since the ON time or the „pulse width‟ is getting changed in this
method, so it is popularly known as Pulse width modulation.

Frequency Modulation Control (FMC)

In this control method, the „Time Period‟ is varied while keeping either of „On Time‟ or „OFF time‟ as
constant. In this method, since the time period gets changed, so the frequency also changes accordingly,
so this method is known as frequency modulation control
 Current Limit Control:
As is obvious from its name, in this control strategy, a specific limit is applied on the current variation.
In this method, current is allowed to fluctuate or change only between 2 values i.e. maximum current (I
max) and minimum current (I min). When the current is at minimum value, the chopper is switched ON.
After this instance, the current starts increasing, and when it reaches up to maximum value, the chopper is
switched off allowing the current to fall back to minimum value. This cycle continues again and again.