Related Literature

Social Impacts of Floods

According to Ochoa et al. (2017), social impacts of flooding are extensive beyond the
physical effects inflicted on the infrastructure. The authors cite resilience in communities
affected by floods by pointing out how social networks and community cohesion facilitate
recovery. The argument follows that strong social ties make communities more resilient to the
disaster as such contacts provide emotional support and resource sharing. More importantly,
it stresses that the more involved the community is in the effective management of disasters,
the greater the resilience, and thus, the outcomes after the flood event are better. In this way,
the general societal impacts of flooding are deep and reach beyond the physical landscape to
the social fabric of the affected communities.

In addition to that, in work of Melillo et al., (2020), the authors provide detailed
understanding of the links between flooding, social vulnerability, and resilience. They submit
that those who experience floods are likely to have their existing disparities in a society made
worse through impacts on their health. In this context, the authors state that individuals
belonging to the vulnerable population are less likely to have access to necessary resources
and services for coming out of the floods. This study also identifies the psychological losses
such as, raised stress and anxiety levels among those who have experienced flooding.
Regarding the impact of floods, the authors underline the need to address the existing
disparities in access to the basic human needs, including food, shelter, and healthcare, hence
enhancing social resilience for vulnerable populations.

Likewise, flooding in the Philippines has enormous social concerns as it dramatically

impacts the strength of the society, their health state, and even mental conditions. As noted by
Alcantara (2019), floods force families out of their homes and reduce the social capital
essential for recovery among affected communities. This disruption mostly worsens the
mental health of individuals who have anxiety and depression among other mental health
disorders. The general needs of the communities, most importantly the basic necessities such
as food, water, shelter, and health care are often affected as highlighted in the report. Poor and
marginalized groups and especially those living in flood prone and slum areas are at high risk
since their resource base is negligible and they cannot easily rebuild. Mitigation of these
social impacts demands disaster management frameworks that encourage engagement of
community members and ensure provision of support to the targeted vulnerable groups.
 Chaudhary and Timsina (2017) observed on the impact of floods on students’
attendance, enrolment and academic performance. This report identified several devastating
effects caused by floods affecting food, Migration, Infectious diseases, school infrastructure,
students learning attendance truancy and absenteeism, poor sanitation and toilet conditions,
and psychological impacts on both teachers and students. This study focuses on the view that
flooding presents a severe threat to the provision and receipt of education and that early
warning, other educational arrangements and adequate funding are vital to minimize the
negative impacts on students and their learning.

Quaill Barker, and West (2018) described several features that are relevant to the
social effects of floods on the elderly. The study finds out that elderly physically disabled
people are more exposed to floods because of their low mobility status, possibly depending
on caregiver assistance and generally poor health status. Concerning the safety and security
of the elderly persons during floods, the study underlines the importance of existence and
access of the evacuation routes, availability of safe evacuation shelters, and reliable
information sources. In addition, the assessment underlines the role of friends, families and
the neighbours’ associations in evacuation, rehabilitation and other forms of continual support
for the older persons in the course of floods.

A study by Headwaters Economics of the year 2023 shows that flood impacts renters
in the US low-income earners signalling social injustice that floods worsen. As it revealed in
the survey, low-income groups are worst hit in cases of floods as often they reside in areas
which are least provided with infrastructure and stocks. Some of the reasons include past
economic disadvantages, restricted flood insurance and inferior housing. The paper also
presents a focus on the social impact of floods on the livelihoods of low-income earners,
displacement, loss of income, and long periods of recovery. It increases support for
fundamental reforms in availability and affordability of housing, flood insurance, and disaster
preparedness services; AND it appoints specific efforts to respond to unique challenges faced
by low-income communities. The paper also highlights the importance and call for a non-
compensated approach to flood risk management that succeeds the current elite-focused,
governmental traditionalism and technical modernisation in providing vulnerable
communities with a long overdue protection from further catastrophe by the climate or
through other means.
 Davlasheridze and Geylani (2017) focus on the nature of floods and the effectiveness
of SBA disaster loans to mitigate that impact it has on companies. They do not have short-
term adaption measures in their study, and it could be seen that firms especially small
business are very much at the mercy of flood disasters. Based on the study prepared for the
project, subsidized disaster loans are necessary for aiding the economy, more so the small
businesses with less than 50 employee population. Analyzing the results, the authors stated
that four small companies are sustained for every catastrophe loan dollar per company in a
county. The authors thus conclude that local economic activity and generation of employment
opportunities across the country is highly likely to be in danger if catastretes increase in both
number and intensity as well as the increased susceptibility of small firms.

Dulawan, Imamura, Amaguchi, and Ohara (2024) examined family attitudes and the
persistence of residing in flood zones as social drivers of flood vulnerability in Metro Manila,
Philippines. The study offers insights into the experiences of employees who live in flood-
prone locations, despite its primary focus on household decisions. According to the study,
variables like closeness to places of employment, ease of access to basic facilities, and
financial limitations all affect workers' decisions to stay in flood-prone locations. Notably, the
study discovered that workers frequently put access to vital services and means of subsistence
ahead of any flood hazards, underscoring the difficult trade-offs they must make when
juggling safety considerations with financial demands. Accordingly, flood mitigation
initiatives must to take into account the unique requirements and preferences of workers
residing in flood zones, addressing their financial vulnerabilities and fostering workplace
resilience.

Economic Impacts of Floods

Brucal et al. (2020), analyzes the economic consequences of flooding in the

Philippines, mainly through the lens of income, employment, and property damages. The
report further notes that income loss commonly occurs among the affected households with
most of their income from agriculture and the informal sector being at risk. This disruption is
felt significantly in the employment sector especially in the urban areas because businesses
may be closed for a period of time or permanently due to flood. Further, there are significant
financial impacts due to property damage which creates long-term economic loss for families
and the local economy. In her paper, Brucal also underlines that disaster financing and
recovery, which need to be organized well, can minimize these effects and prevent
communities from staying in a state of crisis for a long time, which will help them rebuild
and recover economically.

Furthermore, Kurata et al. (2023), examines the economic costs of flooding and how
communities in the flood-prone areas in the Philippines can prevent and cope with flooding.
According to this study, flooding results in a significant loss of income through disruptions in
business as well as agricultural production. Loss of jobs is widespread especially in rural
regions, where a significant number of citizens depends on farming. Also, many families
suffer from property damaging which in most cases leads to the high costs of repairs or
complete loss of property hence increase poverty levels. Kurata underscores the need for
protective and socio-organizational solutions to increase community flood resistance and
minimize the financial impact of floods.

Along with it is a study by Badamosi et al. (2024), that investigated the effects of
flooding on the socioeconomic structures in Nigeria; this research addresses the various
effects of rising flood disasters. In the course of the study, it is established that income loss
results from flooding because it alters normal business and farming activities. This has impact
on employment as those who are in the flood prone areas lose their jobs or incurred to work
for some days during the event. Another important factor is damage to the property which is
devastating to many homes and can take people years to repair or replace financially. Based
on this study, there is need to identify and develop sound coping strategies and economic
interventions programmes that can facilitate reconstruction and sustain livelihoods of the
affected communities after flood occurrences.

Adebayo, and Oguntunde (2024) investigates how flooding affects Nigerian students'
finances. The study emphasizes the substantial financial strain that flood-related disruptions
place on students, including lost revenue from part-time jobs, damaged educational materials,
and higher transportation expenses. According to the study, flooding has a major effect on
students' capacity to pay for needs like food and housing, which raises stress and anxiety
levels. The results highlight the necessity of focused interventions, such as financial aid,
scholarship access, and support programs to guarantee academic continuity, to lessen the
financial hardships experienced by students in flood-prone areas.

Maltais (2019) thus conducted a literature study to explore the nature of elderly
people’s vulnerability to disaster-related risks, especially where quasi-disasters like floods,
rail accidents, fire in residences for the elderly are concerned. As anyone who has read the
calamity report for people over 65 would attest to, seniors are especially squarely at the
impact of these misfortunes since they are extremely sensitive to developing major wounds,
anxiety, and depression due to the inability of NGOs and public agencies to provide them
with requisite support. The review also looks at the factors specific to making elders more
vulnerable for this social harm including; isolation, resource deficiency, physical and mental
frailty. This is why the results stress the need to provide senior citizens with targeted efforts
as well as disaster response plans that meet their needs to minimize their likelihood of getting
hurt as well ensure that their wellbeing is taken care of if a disaster strikes.

According to Mohd Rozaimy Ridzuan, Jamal Rizal Razali, Soon-Yew Ju, Noor Amira
Syazwani Abd Rahman, and Lai-Kuan Kong (2022), flood catastrophes have a negative effect
on poverty and wage inequality in Malaysia. Floods disproportionately affect the poor, the
study shows, aggravating already-existing income disparities and impeding the government's
efforts to realize the Shared Prosperity Vision 2030. Since floods are becoming more
frequent, the study emphasizes the necessity of focused actions and policies to address low-
income communities' vulnerabilities to climate change-induced disasters. The results
highlight the connections between poverty, income inequality, and climate change, and they
urge a comprehensive strategy to lessen the effects of natural disasters and advance
sustainable development in Malaysia.

Brownfeld (2024) Catastrophic economic impacts of flood in the US are assessed in

this article from Garrison Flood Control. It focuses on the economic losses that organisations,
local and nationwide, and households face in the short and long term, thus making the
world’s populations more aware of the flood risks inherent in their societies. The paper states
how important it is to have adequate amount of flood insurance as a means to minimize the
loss, at the same time it points out that NFIP is struggling to meet the increasing number of
people seeking for flood insurance. The paper then progresses by analysing how climate
change enhances vulnerability to floods and how it supports comprehensive management of
floods risk bearing in mind the economical, ecological and social implications of floods.
Thus, it underlines the need in developing a long-term forecast, protection and utilisation
measures, and works on reconstruction and reinforcement of the disaster-affected
infrastructure. To encourage and promote flood preparedness, therefore, enhance, and protect
community resilience against such disastrous economic impacts of flooding, the article
concludes by highlighting the importance of embracing flood control technologies.
 Jia, Ma, and Xie (2022) estimate the short-run and long-run local economic impacts
of a higher interaction rate of floods in the United States from 1998 to 2018 by using data at
the county level and zip code level. According to their research, while flood generates short-
term output decline without affecting entry and employment of firms, the risk of flood exerts
significant adverse long-run effect on entry and employment, and output of industries. To
understand these dynamics better, the authors develop a spatial equilibrium model that
incorporates effects of flood risk on employment decisions of workers and location decisions
of firms. Having analysed their data, they concluded that flood risk led to a 0.52% decline in
the US total output in 2018, and direct losses accounted for 20%, while the anticipated
impacts, 80%. The study brings into focus at how managerial decision and innovation by both
businesses and employees need to be considered when assessing for example the economic
impacts of floods.

Effectiveness of Local Government Unit Interventions

In their research Haug et al. (2020), discuss the efficacy of the respective
governmental measures during the COVID-19 outbreak, which may be useful in reviewing
the parallels of the local governments’ actions during the flood disaster. The study shows that
timely and effective responses and co-ordinated efforts dramatically reduce the severity of the
crisis. This study found that local government units (LGU’s) that demonstrated specific
communication plans and well-coordinated and well-articulated relief operations saw better
results in responding to the necessities of the affected communities. It is a framework for
examining intervention effectiveness that reinforces the significance of strategic and
progressive measures in regional administration regarding the community’s crisis
preparedness and reconstruction.

Moreover, Sharma et al. (2021), consider the measures, implemented by the

governments of European countries during the second wave of the COVID-19. Even though
the interventions are health related, the study emphasizes on the need for early and effective
government response in handling crises. Another interesting finding of the study is that owing
to the differences in community vulnerabilities, the relief and recovery programs of the local
governments that underwent changes according to the needs of different communities were
more effective in attaining better outcomes. This versatility is critical for local authorities to
make sure that delivered and funded programs, may they be situated in a health emergency or
a natural disaster, such as floods, reach those in need and help them recover.
 Thus, Camay and Nitafan (2020), examines work motivation and job satisfaction of
local government employees in Matalam, Cotabato, Philippines to explore the impact of local
government in implementing relief and recovery interventions. This paper finds out that the
level of motivation and job satisfaction is paramount in the execution of organizational
disaster response measures. Local government employees that have positive attitudes towards
support and engagement are more equipped in positive relief and recovery programs
implementation thus strengthening the local government unit during emergencies. As a result,
it underlines the importance of both training and support for Local Government personnel to
enhance their capability and preparedness in managing disasters.

All Hands and Hearts (AHAH) 2024 presents their Hurricane Relief Efforts in the
Philippines and gives importance on rebuilding students’ education again after being affected
by natural calamities. Their program started in 2007 and have addressed several typhoons
inclusive of Mangkhut- Ompong, Haiyan-Yolanda and Rai- Odette. Implemented through
school reconstructions as well as the development of Transitional Learning Spaces (TLS), its
approach has a specific emphasis on specific needs of affected communities – states AHAH’s
strategy. On-going in Southern Leyte, their construction of resilient school buildings
equipped with classrooms, playgrounds and WASH aim to provide safe and healthy learning
spaces to affected students in Typhoon Rai. Also, part of the program is WASH and Child
Protection for students, teachers, parents, community members, and DRR. To ensure a safer
education for these Filipino learners, this endeavor proves that AHAH is committed not just
in reconstructing buildings but also in teaching communities what they need to learn for
better preparedness in the next disasters that come their way.

Pelone and Arellano (2024) evaluated early warning system use and family readiness
for floods in Barangay San Miguel, Tagum City, Davao del Norte, Philippines. Because of
their increased vulnerability to the effects of floods, their research primarily focused on the
special vulnerabilities of the elderly and people with disabilities. With an average score of
3.75, the study discovered that households were remarkably well-prepared overall. A mean
score of 2.74, however, also indicated notable shortcomings in training and seminars,
underscoring the urgent need for focused interventions to improve these vulnerable groups'
knowledge and abilities. The researchers stress that in order to guarantee that vital
information reaches these groups in a timely and easily accessible way, adequate funds and
resources must be allocated to support the efficacy of early warning systems, especially in the
distribution of information via flyers and leaflets. Their results highlight the significance of a
thorough approach to disaster preparedness that takes into account the unique requirements
and vulnerabilities of marginalized groups, especially the elderly and those with disabilities,
in order to create more resilient and inclusive communities.

Diokno-Sicat et al. (2020) draw attention to the difficulties low-income local

government units (LGUs) in the Philippines encounter, especially when trying to obtain and
make use of resources for development. The Performance Challenge Fund (PCF), an
incentive program intended to assist high-impact capital investment projects, was not
available to a large number of low-income municipalities, especially those in Bicol and
Central and Eastern Visayas, according to their research. The structural obstacles that low-
income LGUs encounter in obtaining essential development financing are highlighted by this
study, which limits their ability to provide for the fundamental needs of their residents. The
paper also highlights how municipalities' insufficient use of required development funding
has caused development to be delayed. In order to address the unique difficulties faced by
low-income LGUs and guarantee a fairer distribution of resources and development
opportunities among all Philippine towns, these findings highlight the necessity of focused
interventions and legislative changes.

The PreventionWeb.net article "Empowering Local Governments for Effective

Disaster Management and Climate Resilience" outlines the difficulties local governments in
the Philippines confront in reducing the risk of disasters and fostering climate resilience. The
2024 paper highlights the necessity of focused interventions and legislative changes to meet
the unique difficulties local governments encounter, especially when it comes to obtaining
and applying resources for growth. The paper emphasizes how important it is for business
owners to help local governments improve their preparedness and resilience for disasters. In
order to assist local governments in taking on more responsibility in accordance with
decentralization, the article uses the example of the Agence Française de Développement,
which developed a comprehensive policy-based loan and technical assistance framework in
partnership with the Department of the Interior and Local Government. By addressing present
vulnerabilities and potential hazards, this program expands on earlier attempts to strengthen
local capacities for disaster resilience. It is intended to include disaster risk reduction and
management into local planning and infrastructure investment. This illustration highlights
how important it is for members of the private sector, such as entrepreneurs, to collaborate
with local authorities in order to create more resilient and sustainable communities.
 The 2020 SEEK Philippines article "We heal as one: How you can support employees
during natural disasters and calamities" offers helpful guidance for companies on how to
assist their staff during natural disasters and calamities. The significance of being the initial
point of contact for staff members and providing them with prompt assistance and comfort in
an emergency is emphasized in the article. In order to support employees with their
immediate financial needs and recovery efforts, it highlights the necessity for employers to
offer financial assistance options, including salary loans, calamity loans, mutual assistance
programs, emergency company funds, cash advances, early release of 13th-month pay, and
government loan options. To help workers who have been badly impacted by the disaster, the
article also exhorts businesses to hold donation campaigns and offer care packages that
include essentials. Recognizing the special conditions and difficulties that employees
encounter during natural catastrophes, the article highlights the significance of re-evaluating
the filing of employee leaves and exhorts employers to adopt a thoughtful and
accommodating posture. It also emphasizes how crucial it is to inform staff members of
pertinent news and reports, keep them informed about the situation, and remind them of their
benefits as employees that can support them at this time. The article's conclusion highlights
the value of demonstrating compassion and understanding for workers, reminding businesses
that natural disasters are painful events and that workers require help and support.

Coping Mechanisms and Adaptation Strategies

In Eligue (2023), the author explores resilience factors in a group of island households
in Barangay, Cebu, particularly, vulnerable households and their ability to cope and adapt.
The study reveals that the families use several methods to overcome the difficulties that
appear due to the intensification of the floods and other calamities. Some of the existing
strategies are; operation of more than one source of income, an example is practicing in
different economic activities in order to reduce the impacts of disasters in the economy. The
role of the community networks is also significant in this regard because households depend
on social relations in emergencies. Eligue underscores the method of Coping Landscape
which argues that environmental contexts determine the coping techniques that can be useful
in the handling of the coping issues by the various vulnerable groups and sub groups thus
implying the need to adopt place specific approaches in the handling the coping issues.

Additionally, to precisely understand the coping strategies of the disadvantaged

families, this study will adopt Albert and Vizmanos (2020) with focus on vulnerability to
income poverty trends in the Philippines between 2003 and 2015. The research also reveals
that vulnerable households are forced to seek informal employment and social relationships
for managing the adverse economic shocks and disasters. Such coping mechanisms normally
encompass the use of cash remittances from the members of the households, who live in
another country as a means of coping in the event of a disaster. Thereby, the findings
highlight the importance of social protection programs that can help increase the adaptive
mechanisms of these households, in order to better cope with the economic shocks.

Accordingly, See and Wilmsen (2020), examines the climate-related displacements in

a coastal city of the Philippines and reveals that the adaptation measures make new risks for
disadvantaged households. This paper finds out that though there is relief from the hazards,
most of the resettlement comes with the severing of social networks and economic
livelihoods. Such matters as using government support or participating in local adaptation
activities are discussed as the ways to overcome these difficulties. Wilmsen also underlines
the fact that there is a need to consider various political aspects of the processes of
resettlement and adaptation for avoiding further deepening of the existing vulnerabilities due
to the interventions made.

Policy Recommendations and Gaps

Aubert et al. (2021) performed a narrative review to identify the trends of PA in

children and adolescents globally, but the study pointed out that the existing literature lacks
comparability due to the methodological differences. To support the development of more
extensive physical activity policies for this population segment the authors call for adaptation
of identical monitoring protocols for the purpose of physical activity assessment. Further,
they emphasize the need for appropriate initiatives to be taken for children of all classes, and
all children should have equal chance to be active. This study also reveal that little is known
how factors influence participation of physical activities especially among the low-income
earners, thus suggesting that these are areas of research that needs to be explored further in
order to inform policy on the best strategies to adopt on this issue.

Correspondingly, when critically considering both flooding and the adaptation

measures required to avert the effects of flooding, Bruns and Trzebitzky (2019), identified the
barriers and policies lacking, to ensure for a success, flood risk management in the Densu
Delta in Accra Ghana. Key findings from Bruns’ work focusing on policy implementation for
adaptation indicate that there is a gap in the actual implementation of the policy
recommendations because of resource constraints, weak institutional support and differences
in stakeholder participation. This is supported by what has been referred to as the
‘implementation deficit’ where otherwise good policies and blueprints for disaster risk
reduction do not get implemented or where these remain weak or patchy across different
communities, thereby preserving and even deepening vulnerability among occupants. Talking
about the same point, Bruns and Trzebitzky (2019) argues that adaptation policies do not
adequately take into account local socio-economic factors when it comes to community-
based approaches and practices. These gaps in policy implementation indicate that flood risk
management does not just entail policy formulation, but enhanced commitment to resource
distribution, institutionalization of capacity improvements, and involvement of the
community to close vulnerability gaps.

In the same way, Alcantara (2019) provides policy actions that would improve
adaptation against flood and fill the gaps on disaster risk reduction currently in the country.
Another is the implementation of sound land-use planning measures complemented by flood
prone locations to contain and ensure sustainable development of flood prone areas. This
includes more stringent rules placed on construction in risk areas, as well as the utilization of
principles in green infrastructure including re- establishment of wetlands, and drainage
management. Therefore, in an extensive manner, the role of community in risk reduction
measures as embraced in the report is underscored. When local populations participate in the
training and planning of preparedness and response, there is community improvement.
However, a way is left open in the delivery of mental health support in disaster response
polices. Several social psychological effects of flooding are not well considered and require
policy formulation to include mental health interventions to treat post-disaster trauma and
stress.