CS3591 COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT I INTRODUCTION AND APPLICATION LAYER 10

Data Communication - Networks – Network Types – Protocol Layering – TCP/IP Protocol suite –
OSI Model – Introduction to Sockets - Application Layer protocols: HTTP – FTP – Email
protocols (SMTP - POP3 - IMAP - MIME) – DNS – SNMP

DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating
devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system depends
on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.

2.Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

3.Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In
the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the
same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery
of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If
some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the
video is the result.

1.1 Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

1.1.1 Components of data communication (Networking)

A data communications system has five components.
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
telephone handset, camera, and so on.

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3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may
be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

1.1.2 Application of Computer Networks

• Internet is one of the main applications of the computer networks. Most widely used
Internet applications are electronic mail, streaming audio and video, Word Wide Web,
MP3 etc.
• Major applications areas of computer networks are:
1. Business applications 2. Home applications 3. Mobile
1. Business applications
• Now a days computers are being used in almost all business processes. For example, use
of computers to monitor production, inventories, to make payments. Resource sharing is
the important purpose of using computer networks. Resources like programs,
equipments and data are required to share amongst various users.

i) Database resource
• The database is required to access for decision making by various departments. The
database is maintained by dedicated server and users (clients) can access the data. One
server can provide services to many clients. The client and server in a network is shown
in Fig. 1.2. This arrangement is called as client – server model.

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 Figure 1.2 Client-server model
• Client requests for a service and server acknowledges the request. The server performs
the requested work and sends back the result. The process of request and reply for a
client-server model is shown in Fig. 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Request and reply in client-server model

ii) Communication medium: Computer network is a powerful medium for

communication. E-mail is very popularly used amongst company employees. Video-
conferencing is other form of computer assisted communications.
iii) Electronic commerce: Many companies doing business electronically with suppliers
and customers. Customers can place order electronically; this assures fast delivery and
efficient services.
2) Home Applications
• Now a days, use of computer in home is widespread. Popular uses of computers in home
are as under.
i) Internet access ii) Personal communication iii) Entertainment iv) Electronic
commerce
• Surfing on Internet may be for fun, to acquire information and for playing games.
Information on every field is available on internet such as arts, science, technology,
business, government, health, games, travels, music, cooking etc. Many newspapers are
available on-line and selected articles can be downloaded.
• Various magazines, scientific journals, e-books are available on line. Many professional
organizations also provide their journals, conference proceedings on-line.
• E-mail, instant messaging, chating, internet telephony, video phone provides personal
communication by using Internet and WWW.
• Entertainment applications include video on demand, interactive films and games,
virtual reality games, line televisions where audience, participating in quiz show,
choosing among contestants etc.
• E-commerce facilitates home shopping, catalogs of company products, on line technical
support. E-commerce also popularly employed for bill payments, banking, investments,
on line auctions. Commonly used forms of e-commerce and their typical applications

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 are shown below.

Sl. B-Commerce Applicatio

No. ns
1. Business – to – consumer → On line ordering
2. Business – to – Business → Supply chain management (Suppliers to
manufacturers)
3. Government – to – Consumer → Different government forms on Internet.
e.g., Income tax, Application
forms.
4. Consumer – to – Consumer → Auctioning of second hand products.

5. Peer – to – peer → File sharing.

3) Mobile Computers
• Many professionals use desktop computers at office and want to be connected to the
office network while travelling and at home also. This is possible by wireless networks,
hence use of Lap-top, notebook computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs) is
increased. With the help of wireless networks one can access internet, read and send e-
mail. Wireless networks are used in:
i) Taxis, delivery vehicles and other mobile vehicles for keeping contacts with
their office.
ii) Geographical Information Systems (GIS).
iii) Military applications
iv) Airports
v) Banking
vi) Weather reporting
1.1.3 Requirements
• For designing the computer network, it is necessary to identify the requirements and
constraints. Depending upon the user or organizations, requirements are changed.
• Following are the three parameters which affects the design:
1. Application programmer : Specify the list of services
2. Network designer: List the properties of a cost-effective design
3. Network Provider: List the properties of a system that is easy to administer and
manage.
1.1.4 Challenges for Building Networks
1. The Scalability and Extensible Network: The rapid growth of the Internet and network
technologies has increased audio, video, image and graphic data applications, which

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 consume large volumes of network bandwidth.
2. Security in Computer Networks: Part of the security challenge comes from increased use
of a divergent platforms, end-systems and network protocols.
3. The biggest challenge of the implementation is in verifying network components to
ensure they are capable of protecting security, privacy and reliability.

4. Difficulty in protecting data crossing over different network components.

5. Reliability: Reliability means availability and correctness. Systems for providing
services must be always available and correct and commit to fulfill every request from
the legitimate users.
6. Protocol: Protocol indicates criteria and mechanisms used in the network’s
communication.
1.1.5 Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
⮚ Performance
⮚ Reliability
⮚ Security
Performance
Performance can be measured based on transmit time and response time. Transmit time
is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response
time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Throughput
• Throughput is an actual measurement of how fast data can be transmitted whereas
bandwidth is a potential measurement of link.
• Throughput is usually less than bandwidth.
Latency
• Latency is also termed as delay. Latency is time required for a message to completely
arrive at the destination from source. If has four components propagation time,
transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.
Reliability
The network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure and time taken to recover
from a failure
Security
Network security include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
modifications and data losses.
1.1.6 Physical Structures

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 Type of Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links. There are two possible types of
connections:
⮚ Point-to-point
⮚ Multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-
point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared,
either spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection.
If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Figure 1.4 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

1.1.6.1 Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network

Figure 1.5 Categories of topology

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network
with n nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1
must be connected to n - 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n
must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1) physical links.
However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode),
we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we
need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.

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 Figure 1.6 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)
Advantages
a. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load.
b. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
c. Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels
along a dedicated line.
d. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy..
Disadvantages
1. Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device must
be connected to every other device, installation and reconnection are difficult.
2. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
3. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.
Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a
mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts
as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller,
which then relays the data to the other connected device.
Advantages
1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only
one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it
easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All
other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and
fault isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems
and bypass defective links.

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 Figure 1.7 A star topology connecting four stations
Disadvantage
The star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star requires far less cable than a
mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required
in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
Bus Topology
A bus topology, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices
in a network. Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the design of early local
area networks.

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 Figure 1.8 A bus topology connecting three stations
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the
main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.
Advantages
A bus topology is easy to installation. Only the backbone cable stretches through the
entire facility.
Disadvantages
It is difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
Adding new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the
backbone.
Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a
device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along

Figure 1.9 A ring topology connecting six stations

Advantages
1. A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its
immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device

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 requires changing only two connections. The only constraints are media and traffic
considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices).
2. In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all
times. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an
alarm. The alarm alerts the network operator to the problem and its location.
Disadvantage
However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the
ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by
using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.

Comparison between Bus and Ring Topology

Sl.N Bus topology Ring topology

o.
1. Bus requires proper termination. Cable Termination is not required.
cannot be left unterminated.
2. Bus is a passive network topology. Ring is an active network topology.
3. There is loss in data integrity as the bus Transmission errors are minimized
length increases. because transmitted signal is
regenerated at each node.
4. It uses point to multipoint It uses point-to-point communication
communication
links.
links.
5. Recommended when large number of Recommended when
devices are to be attached. moderate
number of devices are to be
attached.

1.2 Network Types: or Categories of Networks

1.2.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)
Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a
single building or campus of up to a few kilometer’s in size. They are widely used to connect
personal computers and workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g.,
printers) and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by
three characteristics:
⮚ Their size,
⮚ Their transmission technology, and

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 ⮚ Their topology.

Attributes of LAN
⮚ The LAN transmits data amongst user stations
⮚ The LAN transmission capacity is more than 1 Mbps.
⮚ The LAN channel is typically privately owned by the organization using the facility
⮚ The Geographical coverage of LANs is limited to area less than 5 square Kilometers
1.2.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a
MAN is the cable television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier
community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. In these
early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a nearby hill and signal was then piped to
the subscribers' houses. At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies
began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire
city.

Figure 1.10 Metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

1.2.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)

• A WAN provides long distance transmission of data and voice.
• A Network that covers a larger area such as a city, state, country or the world is called
wide area network.
• The WAN contains host and collection of machines. User program is installed on the
host and machines. All the hosts are connected by each other through communication
subnet. Subnet carries messages from host to host.
• Fig. 1.11 shows the component of WAN.

• Subnet consists of transmission lines and switching elements. The transmission line is
used for data transfer between two machines. Switching elements are used for
connecting two transmission lines.

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 • Switching elements are specialized computers. It selects the proper outgoing line for

incoming data and forward the data on that line.

• The switching elements are basically computers and they are called packet switching
nodes, intermediate systems and data switching exchanges. These switching elements
are also called routers.

Figure 1.11 Wide area network

• Each host is connected to a LAN on which a router is present. Sometimes the host can
be directly connected to the router. The interconnection of routers forms the subnet.
• In the WAN, when the packet is sent from one router to another via one or more
intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety.
This packet is stored in that router until the required output line is free. The subnet
which uses this principle is called point-to-point, store and forward, or packet switched
subnet.
• Almost all the WANs use store and forward subnets.
• If the packets are small and of same size, they are also called cells.
• In the point-to-point subnet, the router interconnection topology becomes important.
WANs can also use satellite or ground radio system. The routers have antenna, through
which they can send or receive data, they can listen from satellite.
• WAN uses hierarchical addressing because they facilitate routing. Addressing is
required to identify which network input is to be connected to which network output.
Comparison between LAN, WAN and MAN

Parameter LA WA MA
N N N
Area Covers small area Covers large Covers larger than
covered i.e. within
geographical area. LAN & smaller than
the
building. WAN.

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 Error rates Lowest Highest Moderate
Transmissio High speed. Low speed Moderate speed.
n
speed
Equipment Uses inexpensive Uses most expensive Uses moderately
cost equipment equipment. expensive equipment.

1.2.4 Comparison between LAN and WAN

Sr. LA WA
No. N N
1. It covers small area. WAN covers large geographical area.
2. LAN operates on the principal of WAN operates on the principal of point
broadcasting. to point.
3. Used for time critical application. Not used for time critical application.
4. Transmission speed is high. Transmission speed is low.
5. Easy to design and maintain. Design and maintenance is not easy.
6. LAN is broadcasting in nature. WAN is point-to-point in nature.
7. Transmission medium is co-axial Transmission or
communication
or UTP cable.
medium is PSTN or satellite link.
8. LAN does not suffer WAN suffer from propagation delay.
from
propagation delay.

1.2.5 Wireless Networks

• A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area network that uses radio waves as its
carrier. The last link with the users is wireless, to give a network connection to all users
in a building or campus. The backbone network usually uses cables.
• Wireless LANs operate in almost the same way as wired LANs, using the same
networking protocols and supporting the most of the same applications.

How are WLANs Different?

1. They use specialized physical and data link protocols.
2. They integrate into existing networks through access points which provide a bridging
function.
3. They let you stay connected as you roam from one coverage area to another.
4. They have unique security considerations.
5. They have specific interoperability requirements.

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6. They require different hardware.
7. They offer performance that differs from wired LANs.

Example 1. Consider a bus LAN with a number of equally spaced stations with a data
rate of 9 Mbps and a bus length of 1 km. What is the mean time to send a frame of 500 bits
to another station, measured from the beginning of transmission to the end of reception?
Assume a propagation speed of 150 m/s. If two stations begin to monitor and transmit at
the same time, how long does it need to wait before an interference is noticed?
Solution: We assume that the distance between two stations is 500 m
Mean time to send = Propagation time + Transmission time
= 500 m / 150 msec. + 500 bits / 9000000 bps.
= 3.33 msec. + 55.55 msec. = 58.88 msec.
If the two stations begin the transmission at exactly the same time the signal will
interface after exactly 250 m.
Tinterface = (250 m + 250 m) / 150 m / msec = 3.33 msec …Ans.
1.3 Layering and Protocols
• A computer network must provide general, cost effective, fair and robust connectivity
among a large number of computers. Designing a network to meet these requirements is
no small task.
• To deal with this complexity, network designers have developed general blue prints –
usually called network architectures. It guides the design and implementation of
networks.

1.3.1 Layered Architecture

• Computer network is designed around the concept of layered protocols or functions. For
exchange of data between computers, terminals or other data processing devices, there is
data path between two computers, either directly or via a communication network.
• Protocols are the rules that govern network communication. Fig. 1.12 shows the five
layer network.

• Layer n on one node carries on a conversation with layer n on other node.

• The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machine and called peers.
• The actual data flow is from upper layer to its below layer and then from physical
medium to destination layer.

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 Figure 1.12 Layers, protocols and interfaces
• Between each pair of adjacent layers is called interface. The interface defined which
primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one.
• A set of layers and protocols is called network architecture.
1.4 OSI Architecture
• The ISO was one of the first organizations to formally define a common way to connect
computers in 1947. Their architecture, called the Open System Interconnection (OSI).
• The International organization for standardization developed the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) reference model. OSI model is the most widely used model for
networking.

• OSI model is a seven layer standard.

• OSI model provides following services.
1. Provides peer-to-peer logical services with layer physical implementation.
2. Provides standards for communication between system.
3. Defines point of interconnection for the exchange of information between
system.
4. Each layer should perform a well defined function.
5. Narrows the options in order to increase the ability to communicate without
expansion conversions and translations between products.

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 Figure 1.13 OSI Layer model

Figure 1.14 OSI Layer model with Interface

Physical Layer
Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model. The physical layer coordinates the
functions required to transmit a bit stream over a communication channel. It deals with the
mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It also deals
with procedures and functions required for transmission.

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 Figure 1.15 Physical layer

Function of Physical layer

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium.

2. Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of
Os or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--
electrical or optical.
3. Data rate. The physical layer define the transmission rate-The number of bits sent each
second
4. Synchronization of bits. The transmission rate and receiving rate must be same. This is
done by synchronizing clock at sender and receiver.
5. Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to
the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a
dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
6. Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology, star topology, a ring
topology, a bus topology, or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more
topologies).
7. Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one
device can send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way
communication. In the half-duplex two devices can send and receive, but not at
the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and
receive at the same time.

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the
next.

Figure 1.16 Data link layer

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

1. Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer

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 into manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender or receiver of the
frame.
3. Flow control. When the rate of the data transmitted and rate of data reception by
receiver is not same, same data may be lost.
4. Error control. The data link layer incorporate reliability to the physical layer. By
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames
5. Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link
layer determine which device has control over the link.
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packet from source to
destination possibly across multiple networks (links). The network layer ensures that each
packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination.

Figure 1.17 Network layer

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

1. Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer
handles the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we
need another addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems.
The network layer adds a header to the packet of upper layer includes the logical
addresses of the sender and receiver.
2. Routing. Network layer, route or switch the packets to its final destination in an
internetwork.

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for delivery of message from one process to
another process. The network layer does the source-to-destination delivery of individual
packets considering it as independent packet; it does not recognize any relationship between
those packets. The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order
with error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.
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 Figure 2.10 shows the relationship of the transport layer to the network and session
layers.
Figure 1.18 Transport layer
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
1. Service-point addressing. Computers perform several operations simultaneously. For
this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer
to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a
specific process (running program) on the other. The transport layer header must
therefore include a type of address called a service-point address (or port address).
2. Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into segments, each segment
containing a sequence number which enable the transport layer to reassemble at the
destination.
3. Connection control. The transport layer performs connectionless or connection
oriented service with the destination machine.
4. Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single
link.

5. Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a
single link.
Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not
sufficient for some processes. The session layer is responsible for dialog control and
synchronization. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
1. Dialog control: The communication between two processes to take place in either half
duplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode. The session layer
manages control for this communication.
2. Synchronization. The session layer adds checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a
stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to
insert.
Figure 1.19 illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the transport and
presentation layers.

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 Figure 1.19 Session layer
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer deals with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems. The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption. Figure 1.20 shows the relationship between the presentation
layer and the application and session layers.

Figure 1.20 Presentation layer

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
a. Translation. The different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation
layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods.
b. Encryption. Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to
another form and sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses
the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
c. Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information. Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of
multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user. It provides
user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer,

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shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.
Figure 1.21 shows the relationship of the application layer to the user and the
presentation layer.

Figure 1.21 Application layer

Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:

a. Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a
physical terminal that allows a user to log on to a remote host.
b. File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in
a remote host, to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and
to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
c. Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
d. Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access
for global information.
Summary of Layers
Figure 1.25 shows a summary of duties for each layer.
Figure1.25 Summary of layers

1.5 TCP/IP Protocol Suite (Internet Architecture)

The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers
in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
⮚ Host-to-network Layer
⮚ Internet Layer
⮚ Transport Layer
⮚ Application Layer.

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 Figure 1.26 TCP/IP and OSI model
Physical and Data Link Layers
At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It
supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be
a local-area network or a wide-area network.
Network Layer
At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the
Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and
IGMP.
Internetworking Protocol (IP)
The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP
protocols.

Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to associate a logical address with a
physical address.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet
address when it knows only its physical address.
Internet Control Message Protocol
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and
gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender.

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 Internet Group Message Protocol
The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous
transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
Transport Layer
Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols:
User Datagram Protocol
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport
protocols. It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error
control, and length information to the data from the upper layer Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)
It provides full transport-layer services to applications. TCP is a reliable stream
transport protocol. And it is connection-oriented: A connection must be established between
both ends of a transmission before either can transmit data.
Stream Control Transmission Protocol
The Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) provides support for newer
applications such as voice over the Internet.
Application Layer
The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and
application layers in the OSI model.
1.5.1 Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Sl. OSI TCP/IP Model

No. Model
1. 7 layers 4 layers
2. Model was first befo Model aft protoco we
defined re er ls re
defined
implementation takes place.
implemented.

3. OSI model based on three concept TCP/IP model did not originally clearly
i.e. service, interface and protocol. distinguish between service, interface
and
protocol.
4. OSI model gives guarantee Transport layer does not
of always
reliable delivery of packet. guarantee the reliable delivery of packet.
5. OSI does not support TCP/IP support.
internet
working

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 6. Strict layering Lossely layered.
7. Support connections less Support only connection-
and connection-oriented oriented communication in the transport
communication layer.
in the network layer.

1.5.2 Addressing
• An Internet employing TCP / IP protocols uses four levels of addresses:
1. Physical (Link) addresses 2. Logical (IP) addresses
3. Port addresses 4. Specific addresses
• Each address type is related to a specific layer in TCP / IP architecture. Fig.1.27 shows
the relationship of layers and addresses in TCP / IP.

Figure 1.27 TCP / IP layers and associated addresses

1. Physical Addresses
• The physical address is the lowest level address and is also refereed as link address.
They physical address of a node is defined by its LAN or WAN. The physical address is
included in the frame by the data link layer.
• The size and format of physical addresses vary depending on the network. It has
authority over the network. At data link layer the frame contains physical (link)
addresses in the header.
2. Logical Addresses
• Logical addresses are independent of underlying physical networks. Since different
networks can have different address formats hence a universal address system is
required which can identify each host uniquely irrespective of underlying physical
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 networks. Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications. It is 32-bit
address which uniquely defines host connected to Internet.

Fig. 1.28. Physical addresses

• The physical addresses changes from hop to hop, but the logical address usual remains
the same.
3. Port Addresses
• The IP address and physical address are necessary for data to travel from source to
destination. But a communication process involves TELNET and FTP which requires
addresses. In TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called port address.
In TCP/IP the port address is of 16-bit.

4. Specific Addresses
• Specific addresses are designed by users for some applications. For example
[email protected] and the Universal Resource Locator (URL), www.vtubooks.com. The
first example defines the recipient of e-mail and second example is used to find a
document on the world wide web.
• The specific addresses gets changed to corresponding port and logical addresses by the
station or host who sends it.

INTRODUCTION TO SOCKETS
Socket interface started in the early 1980s at UC Berkeley as part of a UNIX environment.
The socket interface is a set of instructions that provide communication between the application
layer and the operating system, as shown in Figure 25.4. It is a set of instructions that can be used
by a process to communicate with another process. The idea of sockets allows us to use the set of
all instructions already designed in a programming language for other sources and sinks. For
example, in most computer languages, like C, C++, or Java, we have several instructions that can
read and write data to other sources and sinks such as a keyboard (a source), a monitor (a sink), or a

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file (source and sink). We can use the same instructions to read from or write to sockets. In other
words, we are adding only new sources and sinks to the programming language

Position of the socket interface

without changing the way we send data or receive data. Figure 25.5 shows the idea and compares
the sockets
with other sources and sinks.

Figure 25.5 Sockets used the same way as other sources and sinks

Sockets used the same way as other sources and sinks

Sockets
● Although a socket is supposed to behave like a terminal or a file, it is not a physical entity
like them; it
is an abstraction.
● It is an object that is created and used by the application program.
● We can say that, as far as the application layer is concerned, communication between a
client process
and a server process is communication between two sockets, created at two ends
The client thinks that the socket is theentity that receives the request and gives the response; the
server thinks
that the socket is the one that has a request and needs the response. If we create two sockets, one at
each end, and
define the source and destination addresses correctly, we can use the available instructions to send
and receive
data. The rest is the responsibility of the operating system and the embedded TCP/IP protocol.

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 Use of sockets in process-to-process communication
Socket Addresses
● The interaction between a client and a server is two-way communication.
● In a two-way communication, we need a pair of addresses: local (sender) and
remote (receiver).
● The local address in one direction is the remote address in the other direction and
vice versa.
● Since communication in the client-server paradigm is between two sockets, we
need a pair of
socket addresses for communication: a local socket address and a remote socket
address.
● However, we need to define a socket address in terms of identifiers used in the
TCP/IP protocol
suite.
● A socket address should first define the computer on which a client or a server is
running.
● A computer in the Internet is uniquely defined by its IP address, a 32-bit integer in
the current
Internet version.
● However, several client or server processes may be running at the same time on a
computer,
which means that we need another identifier to define the specific client or server
involved
in the communication.
● An application program can be defined by a port number, a 16-bit integer. This
means that
a socket address should be a combination of an IP address and a port number as
shown

A socket address
Since a socket defines the end-point of the communication, we can say that a socket is identified
by a pair
of socket addresses, a local and a remote.
Finding Socket Addresses
How can a client or a server find a pair of socket addresses for communication? The situation is
different for each

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 site.

Server Site
The server needs a local (server) and a remote (client) socket address for communication.

Local Socket Address The local (server) socket address is provided by the operating system.
● The operating system knows the IP address of the computer on which the server
process is running.
● The port number of a server process, however, needs to be assigned.
● If the server process is a standard one defined by the Internet authority, a port
number is
already assigned to it.
● For example, the assigned port number for a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
is the integer
80, which cannot be used by any other process.
● If the server process is not standard, the designer of the server process can choose a
port number,
in the range defined by the Internet authority, and assign it to the process. When a
server starts
running, it knows the local socket address.

Remote Socket Address The remote socket address for a server is the socket address of the client
that makes
the connection.
● Since the server can serve many clients, it does not know beforehand the remote
socket address for communication.
● The server can find this socket address when a client tries to connect to the server.
● The client socket address, which is contained in the request packet sent to the
server, becomes the
remote socket address that is used for responding to the client.
● In other words, although the local socket address for a server is fixed and used
during its lifetime,
the remote socket address is changed in each interaction with a different client.

Client Site
The client also needs a local (client) and a remote (server) socket address for communication.
Local Socket Address The local (client) socket address is also provided by the operating system.
● The operating system knows the IP address of the computer on which the client is
running.
● The port number, however, is a 16-bit temporary integer that is assigned to a client
process
each time the process needs to start the communication.
● The port number, however, needs to be assigned from a set of integers defined by
the
Internet authority and called the ephemeral (temporary) port numbers.
● The operating system, however, needs to guarantee that the new port number is not
used by any
other running client process.

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 ● The operating system needs to remember the port number to be able to redirect the
response
received from the server process to the client process that sent the request.
Remote Socket Address Finding the remote (server) socket address for a client, however, needs
more work.
When a client process starts, it should know the socket address of the server it wants to connect to.
We will have two situations in this case.
Sometimes, the user who starts the client process knows both the server port number and IP address
of the
computer on which the server is running. This usually occurs in situations when we have written
client
and server applications andwe want to test them.
For example, at the end of this chapter we write some simple client and server programs and
we test them using this approach. In this situation, the programmer can provide these two pieces of
information
when he runs the client program.
❑ Although each standard application has a well-known port number, most of the time, we do not
know the IP address. This happens in situations such as when we need to contact a web page, send
an e-mail to a friend, copy a file from a remote site, and so on. In these situations, the server has a
name, an identifier that uniquely defines the server process. Examples of these identifiers are
URLs, such as www.xxx.yyy, or e-mail addresses, such as [email protected]. The client process
should now change this identifier (name) to the corresponding server socket address. The client
process normally knows the port number because it should be a well-known port number, but the IP
address can be obtained using another client-server application called the Domain Name System
(DNS). We will discuss DNS in Chapter 26, but it is enough to know that it acts as a directory in
the Internet. Compare the situation with the telephone directory. We want to call someone whose
name we know but whose telephone number can be obtained from the telephone directory. The
telephone directory maps the name to the telephone number; DNS maps the server name to the IP
address of the computer running that server.
5.1 WWW
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a repository of information linked together from points
all over the world. The WWW has a unique combination of flexibility, portability, and
user-friendly features that distinguish it from other services provided by the Internet
Architecture
The WWW today is a distributed client/server service, in which a client using a browser
can access a service using a server. However, the service provided is distributed over
many locations called sites.
Each site holds one or more documents, referred to as Web pages. Each Web page can
contain a link to other pages in the same site or at other sites. The request, among other
information, includes the address of the site and the Web page, called the URL.
The server at site A finds the document and sends it to the client. When the user views the
document, she finds some references to other documents, including a Web page at site B.
The reference has the URL for the new site. The user is also interested in seeing this
document. The client sends another request to the new site, and the new page is retrieved.

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 Figure 5.1 Architecture of WWW
C
l
i
e
n
t

(
B
r
o
w
s
e
r
)
A variety of vendors offer commercial browsers that interpret and display a Web
document, and all use nearly the same architecture. Each browser usually consists of
three parts: a controller, client protocol, and interpreters.
Server

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The Web page is stored at the server. Each time a client request arrives, the corresponding document is sent to
the client.
Uniform Resource Locator
A client that wants to access a Web page needs the address. To facilitate the access of documents distributed
throughout the world, HTTP uses locators. The uniform resource locator (URL) is a standard for specifying
any kind of information on the Internet. The URL defines four things: protocol, host computer, port, and
path.

Figure 5.3 URL

The protocol is the client/server program used to retrieve the document. The most commonly used Protocol
today is HTTP.
The host is the computer on which the information is located. The URL
can optionally contain the port number of the server. Path is the pathname
of the file where the information is located. Cookies
● A cookies is small file. Frequently access browsers information are stored in a cookies directory.
● A cookie may contain upto five fields.
a) Domain b) Path c) Content
d) Expires e) Secure
a)Domain : It tells where the cookies came from.
b) Path : The path is a path in the server's directory structure that identifies which parts of the
server's file tree may use the cookie.
c) Content :It takes the form name value.
d) Expires :The expires field specifies when the cookies expires.
e) Secure :This field can be set to indicate that the browser may only return the cookie to secure server.
Examples of cookies

Domin Pa Content Expires Secu

th re
toms- / customer ID=497793521 15-10-02, Yes
casino.com 17:00
joes-store.com / cart=1-00501;1-07031;2-13721 11-10-02,15:20 No
Sneaky.com / User ID=3456789 30-12-06, Yes
11:00

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 5.1.1 WEB DOCUMENTS
The documents in the WWW can be grouped into three broad categories: static, dynamic, and active.
1. Static Documents
Static documents are fixed-content documents that are created and stored in a server. The client can get only a
copy of the document. In other words, the contents of the file are determined when the file is created, not
when it is used.
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is a language for creating Web pages.
● HTML documents are in plain text format that contain embedded HTML tags. Documents can be
created in any text editor. There are also many other tools, including editors, designed specifically
to assist in creating HTML documents. To HTML document, the user needs a browser.
● A document will be ready by both graphical and character based web browser. The three basic
tagging pairs used to create the highest level of structure in an HTML documents are as follows :
<HTML> HTML documents </HTML>
<HEAD> Header information of documents </HEAD>
<BODY> Body of the HTML document </BODY> The
general structure of the HTML is
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>
Title here
</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Body element and content
</BODY>
</HTML>
A simple HTML document is given below.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Communication Networks </TITLE>
</HEAD>

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 <BODY>
<H/> Information about the communication networks </H/>
<P> Information about the communication networks is available
<A HREF :http://www.technicalpublicationspune.com></A></P>
</BODY>
</HTML>
● Structural elements in the document are identified by Start andEnd tags. For example the
<TITLE> and </TITLE> tags are used to specify the title of the document.
● The <H/> and </H/> tags' are used to define the first level heading. Headings are generated by an
<Hn> tags, where n is a digit in the range 1 to 6. <H/> is the most important heading and <H6> is
the less important. Typically the lower numbered heading will be displayed in a larger and
heavier font.
● The browser may also choose to use different colors for each level of heading. Typically
<H1> headings are large and bold face with at least one blank line above and below.
● In contrast <H2> headings are in a smaller font, and with less space above and below. The <BR>,
<P> and <HR> tags all indicate a boundary between sections of text.
● The precise format can be determined by the style sheet associated with the page. The
<BR> tag just forces a line break. <P> starts a paragraph, which might for example, insert a blank
line and possibly some indentation. <HR> (horizontal-rule) tag forces the browser to generate a
horizontal rule or line, across the display. It breaks pages into logical sections and is useful when
creating forms. There is no equivalent vertical rule.
Advantages and Disadvantages of HTML
A) Advantages of HTML
1. Applications are quickly developed
2. Web applications are easy to maintain and update.
B) Disadvantages
1. Locking: HTML is not a compiled data format. .
2. Security : Information is easily accessible and travels unimpeded between hosts and desktops.
5.1.2 Dynamic Web Documents
Server Side dynamic web page generation using the various scripting languages
Scripting Technologies for Dynamic Documents
A few technologies have been involved in creating dynamic documents using scripts. Among the most
common are Hypertext Preprocessor (pHP), which uses the Perl language; Java Server Pages (JSP), which
uses the Java language for scripting; Active Server Pages (ASP), a Microsoft

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product which uses Visual Basic language for scripting; and ColdFusion, which embeds SQL database queries
in the HTML document.

Active Documents
For many applications, we need a program or a script to be run at the client site. These are called active
documents. For example, suppose we want to run a program that creates animated graphics on the screen or a
program that interacts with the user.
Java Applets
One way to create an active document is to use Java applets.
JavaScript
The idea of scripts in dynamic documents can also be used for active documents. If the active part of the
document is small, it can be written in a scripting language; then it can be interpreted and run by the client at
the same time.
5.2 HTTP
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used mainly to access data on the World.
HTTP Transaction
Although HTTP uses the services of TCP, HTTP itself is a stateless protocol. The client initializes the
transaction by sending a request message. The server replies by sending a response.

HTTP transaction
Messages
The formats of the request and response messages are similar. A request message consists of a request line, a
header, and sometimes a body. A response message consists of a status line, a header, and sometimes a body.

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 Request and response message
Request and Status Lines The first line in a request message is called a request line; the first line in the
response message is called the status line.

Request and status lines

Request type: This field is used in the request message. In version1.1of HTTP, several request types are
defined. The request types is categorized into methods as follow

Version: The most current version of HTTP is 1.1.

Status code: This field is used in the response message. It consists of three digits.

3
Status phrase: This field is used in the response message. It explains the status code in text form.
Header: The header exchanges additional information between the client and the server.
Difference between Persistent and Non-persistent

Sr. Persistent HTTP Non-persistent HTTP

No.
1. Persistent version is 1.1 Non-persistent HTTP version is 1.0
2. It uses one RTT. It uses two RTT.
3. TCP connection is not closed. TCP connection is closed after every
request response
4. Client make multiple request over the Client make multiple request over the
same TCP connection. multiple TCP connection.
5. It is default mode. It is not default mode.
6. Request methods are GET, HEAD, Request methods used are GET, POST
POST, PUT, DELETE, TRACE and and HEAD.
OPTIONS.

5.3 ELECTRONIC MAIL

One of the most popular Internet services is electronic mail (e-mail).
Architecture
To explain the architecture of e-mail, we give four scenarios. We begin with the simplest situation and add
complexity as we proceed. The fourth scenario is the most common in the exchange of email.
First Scenario
In the first scenario, the sender and the receiver of the e-mail are users (or application programs) on the same
system; they are directly connected to a shared system. When Alice, a user, needs to send a message to Bob,
another user, Alice runs a user agent (VA) program to prepare the message and store it in Bob's mailbox. The
message has the sender and recipient mailbox addresses (names of files). Bob can retrieve and read the
contents of his mailbox at his convenience, using a user agent.

Second Scenario
In the second scenario, the sender and the receiver of the e-mail are users (or application programs) on two
different systems. The message needs to be sent over the Internet. Here we need user agents (VAs) and

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message transfer agents (MTAs).

Third Scenario
In the third scenario, Bob, as in the second scenario, is directly connected to his system. Alice, however, is
separated from her system. Either Alice is connected to the system via a point-to- point WAN, such as a dial-
up modem, a DSL, or a cable modem; or she is connected to a LAN in an organization that uses one mail
server for handling e-mails-all users need to send their messages to this mail server.

Fourth Scenario
In the fourth and most common scenario, Bob is also connected to his mail server by a WAN or a LAN. After
the message has arrived at Bob's mail server, Bob needs to retrieve it. Here, we need another set of
client/server agents, which we call message access agents (MAAs). Bob uses an MAA client to retrieve his

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messages. The client sends a request to the MAA server, which is running all the time, and requests the
transfer of the messages.

User Agent
The first component of an electronic mail system is the user agent (UA). It provides service to the user to
make the process of sending and receiving a message easier.
Services Provided by a User Agent
A user agent is a software package (program) that composes reads, replies to, and forwards messages. It also
handles mailboxes.

Service of user agent

Composing Messages A user agent helps the user compose the e-mail message to be sent out. Most user
agents provide a template on the screen to be filled in by the user. Some even have a built-in editor that can do
spell checking, grammar checking, and other tasks expected from a sophisticated word processor.
Reading Messages The second duty of the user agent is to read the incoming messages. When a user invokes
a user agent, it first checks the mail in the incoming mailbox. Most user agents show a one-line summary of
each received mail. Each e-mail contains the following fields.
1. A number field.
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 2. A flag field that shows the status of the mail such as new, already read but not replied to, or read and
replied to.
3. The size of the message.
4. The sender.
5. The optional subject field.
Replying to Messages After reading a message, a user can use the user agent to reply to a message.
Forwarding Messages Replying is defined as sending a message to the sender a message to the sender or
recipients of the copy. Forwarding is defined as sending the message to a third party.
3. User Agent Types
There are two types of user agents: command-driven and GUI-based.
Command-Driven
Command-driven user agents belong to the early days of electronic mail. They are still present as the
underlying user agents in servers. A command-driven user agent normally accepts a one- character command
from the keyboard to perform its task.
GUI-Based Modem user agents are GUI-based. They contain graphical-user interface (GUI)components that
allow the user to interact with the software by using both the keyboard and the mouse.
Sending Mail
To send mail, the user, through the UA, creates mail that looks very similar to postal mail. The message
contains the header and the body. The header of the message defines the sender, the receiver, the subject of the
message, and some other information (such as encoding type, as we see shortly)..
Receiving Mail
The user agent is triggered by the user (or a timer). If a user has mail, the VA informs the user with a notice. If
the user is ready to read the mail..
4. Message Transfer Agent: SMTP
The actual mail transfer is done through message transfer agents.
To send mail, a system must have the client MTA, and to receive mail, a system must have a server MTA.
The formal protocol that defines the MTA client and server in the Internet is called the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP).

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SMTP is used two times, between the sender and the sender's mail server and between the two mail servers.
SMTP simply defines how commands and responses must be sent back and forth.
Commands and Responses
SMTP uses commands and responses to transfer messages between an MTA client and an MTA server.
Commands: Commands are sent from the client to the server. It consists of a keyword followed by zero or
more arguments.
Responses: Responses are sent from the server to the client. A response is a three digit code that may be
followed by additional textual information.

5. Mail Transfer Phases

The process of transferring a mail message occurs in three phases: connection establishment, mail transfer,
and connection termination.
Currently two message access protocols are available: Post Office Protocol, version 3 (POP3) and
Internet Mail Access Protocol, version 4 (IMAP4).

14
0
 Post Office Protocol (POP)
● Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) is used to transfer e-mail messages from a mail server to mail
client software.
● POP3 begins when the user agent opens a TCP connection to the mail server on port 110.
● After TCP connection established, POP3 progresses three phases :
i) Authorization ii) Transaction iii) Update
● In authorization phase, user agent sends a user name and a password to authenticate the user
downloading the mail.
● In transaction phase, the user agent retrieves messages. In this phase, user agent can also mark
messages for deletion, remove deletion marks.
● In update phase, it occurs after the client has issued the quit command, ending the POP3
session.
● POP3 has two modes : Delete mode and the keep mode.
● In the delete mode, mail is deleted from the mailbox after each retrieval.
● In the keep mode, the mail remains in the mailbox after retrieval.
● Fig. 5.4.7 shows downloading using POP3.

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 Fig. 5.4.7 POP3
IMAP
● IMAP is the Internet Mail Access Protocol. IMAP4 is more power and more complex. IMAP is
similar to SMTP.
● It was designed to help the user who uses multiple computers.
● An IMAP client connects to a server by using TCP.
● IMAP supports the following modes for accessing e-ma me
i) Offline mode ii) Online mode iii) Disconnected mode
Offline mode: A client periodically connects to the server to download e-mail messages. After downloading,
messages are deleted from the server.
Online mode : Client process e-mail messages on the server. The e-mail messages are stored on the server
itself but are processed by an application on the client’s end.
Disconnected mode : In this mode, both offline and online modes are supported.
IMAP4 provides the following extra functions.
1. User can check the e-mail header prior to downloading.
2. User can partially download e-mail.
3. A user can create, delete or rename mailboxes on the mail server.
4. A user can create a hierarchy of mailboxes in a folder for e-mail storage.
5. User can search the contents of the e-mail for a specific string of characters.

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● Fig. 5.4.8 shows IMAP state transition diagram.
1. Not authenticated: Client provides authentication information to the server.
2. Authenticated: Server verify the information and client is now allowed to perform operations on
a mailbox.
3. Selected: Client is allowed to access of manipulate individual messages within the mailbox.
4. Logout: Client send logout command for closing IMAP session.

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 Fig.5.4.8 IMAP state diagram

5.4 Domain Name System (DNS)

The client/server programs can be divided into two categories: those that can be directly used by the user,
such as e-mail, and those that support other application programs. The Domain Name System (DNS) is a
supporting program that is used by other programs such as e-mail.
Components of DNS
● DNS includes following components

1 Domain 2. Domain name 3. Name server

.
4 Name 5. Name cache 6. Zone
. resolver
1 For example, google.com. Here com i t
) s h
e
domain.
2) google.com could be domain name.
3) In name server, software (program) that maps names to addresses.
4) Name resolver is a software that functions as a client interacting with a name server.
5) Name cache is the storage used by the name resolver to store reformation frequently used.
6) Zone is a contiguous part of a domain.
2. DNS in the Internet:
DNS is a protocol that can be used in different platforms. In the Internet, the domain name space is divided
into three sections are
1. Generic domains
2. Country domains and
3. Inverse domain

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Generic domain:
There are 14 generic domains, each specifying an organization type. The generic domain defines registered hosts
according to their generic behaviour.
These labels describe the organization types as shown below

1. Country domains:
Each country domain specifies a country. Such as in for india, jp for japan , uk for United kingdom and us for
United State , etc

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2. Inverse domain:
The inverse domain finds a domain name for a given IP address. This is called address-to-name resolution. It
is used to map an address to a name.
3. Types of Records:
There are two types of DNS records:
1. Question records
2. Resource records
Question Records:
The question records are used in the question section of the query and response messages. It is used by the
client to get information from a server.

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 Resource Records:
Every domain whether it is a single host or a top level domain, can have a set of resource records associated
with it. For a single host, the most common resource record is just its IP address, but many other kinds also
exist. When a resolver gives a domain name to DNS, what it gets back are the resource records associated
with that name. Thus, the primary function of DNS is to map domain names onto resource records. The server
database consists of resource records. This record is used in the answer, authoritative and additional
information sections of the response message.
Name Spaces
● Name spaces are of two types: Flat name spaces and Hierarchical names.
i) Flat name spaces
● A name is assigned to an address.
ii) Hierarchical names
● Hierarchical namespaces provides a simple yet flexible naming structure.
● The namespace is partitioned at the top level.
The top level domains are divided into three areas :
1. Arpa is a special domain used for the address-to-name mappings.
2. The 3 character domains are called the generic domains.
3. The 2 character domains are based on the counter codes found in ISO 3166. These are
called the country domains.
● Fig. 5.7.5shows the hierarchy of DNS.

● Hierarchy of Name Servers

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 Fig.5.7.7 Hierarchy of name server
● To distribute the information among many computers, DNS servers are used.Creates many
domains as there are first level nodes. Fig. 5.7.7 shows hierarchy of name servers.
● Root server: If zone consists of the full tree then that zone server is called root server. Root
server do not maintain any information about domains.
DNS uses two types of servers:
1. Primary server 2. Secondary server
● Primary server: This server keeps a file about the zone for which it is responsible and have
authority. It performs operation on zone file like create, update and maintaining.
● Secondary server: It loads all information from the primary server. Secondary server cannot
perform any operation on zone file.
Message Format
● Messages are sent between domain clients and domain servers with a specific format.
● DNS has two types of messages: Query and Response. Both types have the same format.
● The query message consists of the header and the question records, the response message consists
of a header, question record, answer record, authoritative record and additional records.
● Fig. 5.7.11 shows the query and response messages.

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 Fig. 5.7.11 Query and response message
● Fig. 5.7.12 shows the header format of the DNS.

Fig. 5.7.12 General format of DNS

● Identification: It is 16 bits fields and unique value used by the client to match responses to
queries.
● Flags: It is the collection of subfields that define the type of messages and type of the answers
requested and so on.
● Number of question record contains the number of queries in the question section of the message.
● Number of answer record contains the number of answer records in the answer section of the
response message.
● Number of authority record contains the number of authority records in the authoritative section
of the response message.
● Number of additional records contains the number of additional records in the additional section
of the response message. The message has a fixed 12-byte header followed by 4

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 variable length fields. The identification field is set by client and returned by
the server. It lets the client, match responses to requests.
● Fig. 5.7.13 flag fields in DNS header.

● The flags field is divided into 8 parts.

QR = 0 For message is a query

= 1 It is response
Opcode = 0 Standard query
= 1 Inverse query
= Server status request
2
AA = Authoritative answer
TC = Truncated
RD = Recursive query
RA = Recursion available
r code = Return code
Advantages of DNS
1. DNS has hierarchical structure and database.
2. DNS has small and manageable zones.
3. It is scalable.
4. DNS helps in eliminating host tables.
5. It is consistent on all hosts.
6. The Internet couldn't exist without it.
7. Easy to implement with minimal configuration changes in DNS server.

5.5 NETWORK MANAGEMENTSYSTEM

Network Management System is a collection of tools for network monitoring and control.
A network management system consists of hardware and software addition implemented
among existing components.
A network management system can be divided into five broad categories: configuration
management, fault management, performance management, security management, and
accounting management, as shown in Figure 28.1.

Simple Network Management Protocol(SNMP)

SNMP uses the concept of manager and agent. That is, a manager, usually a host, controls
and monitors a set of agents, usually routers

Managers and Agents

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A management station, called a manager, is a host that runs the SNMP client program. A
managed station, called an agent, is a router (or a host) that runs the SNMP server
program. Management is achieved through simple interaction between a manager and an
agent.
The agent keeps performance information in a database. The manager has access to
the values in the database. For example, a router can store in appropriate variables the
number of packets received and forwarded. The manager can fetch and compare the
values of these two variables to see if the router is congested or not.
In other words, management with SNMP is based on three basic ideas:
1. A manager checks an agent by requesting information that reflects the behaviour of
the agent.
2. A manager forces an agent to perform a task by resetting values in the agent database.
3. An agent contributes to the management process by warning the manager of an un
usualsituation.

Management Components
To do management tasks, SNMP uses two other protocols: Structure of Management
Information (SMI) and Management Information Base (MIB). In other words,
management on the Internet is done through the cooperation of the three protocols
SNMP, SMI, and MIB, as shown in Figure 28.3.

Role of SNMP
SNMP defines the format of packets exchanged between a manager and an agent. It reads
and changes the status (values) of objects (variables) in SNMP packets.

Role of SMI
SMI defines the general rules for naming objects, defining object types (including range
and length), and showing how to encode objects and values.

Role of MIB
MIB creates a collection of named objects, their types, and their relationships to each
other in an entity to be managed.
Structure of Management Information(SMI)
Its functions are
1. To name objects

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 2. To define the type of data that can be stored in an object
3. To show how to encode data for transmission over the network
SMI is a guideline for SNMP. It emphasizes three attributes to handle an object: name,
data type, and encoding method (see Figure 28.5).

Name
SMI requires that each managed object (such as a router, a variable in a router, a value)
have a unique name. To name objects globally, SMI uses an object identifier, which is a
hierarchical identifier based on a tree structure (see Figure28.6).

Type
The second attribute of an object is the type of data stored in it. To define the data type, SMI uses
fundamental Abstract Syntax Notation 1 (ASN.l) definitions and adds some new definitions. .
SMI has two broad categories of data type: simple and structured.

Simple Type The simple data types are atomic

data types. Table28.1Datatypes

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Type Size Description
INTEGER 4 bytes 31 31
An integer with a value between _2 and 2 -1

Integer32 4 bytes Same as INTEGER

Unsigned32 4 bytes 32
Unsigned with a value between 0 and 2 -1
OCTET STRING Variable Byte string up to 65,535 bytes long
OBJECT IDENTIFIER Variable An object identifier
IPAddress 4 bytes An IP address made of four integers
Counter32 4 bytes An integer whose value can be incremented from
32
0 to 2 ; when it reaches its maximum
value, it wraps back to O.
Counter64 8 bytes 64-bit counter

Gauge32 4 bytes Same as Counter32, but when it reaches its

maximum value, it does not wrap; it remains
there until it is reset
TimeTicks 4 bytes A counting value that records time in s

BITS A string of bits

Opaque Variable Uninterpreted string

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Structured Type: By combining simple and structured data types. SMI defines two
structured data types: sequence and sequence of.
Sequence. A sequence data type is a combination of simple data types, not necessarily of
the same type.
Sequence of. A sequence of data type is a combination of simple data types all of the
same type.

Encoding Method
SMI uses another standard, Basic Encoding Rules (BER), to encode data to be trans
mitted over the network.

Tag. The tag is a 1 -byte field that defines the type of data. It is composed of three
subfields:class(2bits),format(1bit),andnumber(5bits).Theclasssubfielddefines the scope of
the data..
Length.The length field is 1 or more bytes. If it is 1 byte, the most significant bit must be
O. The other 7 bits define the length of the data. If it is more than 1 byte, the most
significant bit of the first byte must be 1.
Value. The value field codes the value of the data according to the rules defined in BER.
Management Information Base (MIB)
The Management Information Base, version 2 (MIB2) is the second component used in
network management. Each agent has its own MIB2, which is a collection of all the
objects that the manager can manage. The objects in MIB2 are categorized under
10different groups: system, interface, address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp, egp, trans•
mission, and snmp. These groups are under the mib-2 object in the object identifier tree
(see Figure 28.15). Each group has defined variables and/or tables.

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The following is a brief description of some of the objects:

Sys:Thisobject (system) defines general information about the node (system), such as
the name, location, and lifetime.
if :This object (interface) defines information about all the interfaces of the node
including interface number, physical address, and IPaddress.
at :Thisobject(addresstranslation)definestheinformationabouttheARPtable.
ip:Thisobject defines information related to IP, such as the routing table and the
IPaddress.
icmp :This object defines information related to ICMP, such as the number of packets
sent and received and total errors created.
tcp: This object defines general information related to TCP, such as the connection table,
time- out value, number of ports, and number of packets sent and received.
Udp :This object defines general information related to UDP, such as the number of
ports and number of packets sent and received.
Snmp :This object defines general information related to SNMP itself.
SNMP
1. A manager to retrieve the value of an object defined in an agent
2. A manager to store a value in an object defined in an agent
3. An agent to send an alarm message about an abnormal situation to the manager
PDUs
SNMPv3 defines eight types of packets (or PDUs): GetRequest, GetNextRequest,
GetBulkRequest,SetRequest,Response,Trap,InformRequest,andReport(seeFigure28.20).

GetRequestTheGetRequest PDU is sent from the manager (client) to the agent (server) to
retrieve the value of a variable or a set of variables.

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GetNextRequestTheGetNextRequestPDU is sent from the manager to the agent to
retrievethevalueofavariable.
GetBulkRequestThe GetBulkRequest POD is sent from the manager to the agent to
retrieve a amount of data. It can be used instead of multiple GetRequest and
GetNextRequestPODs.
SetRequestThe SetRequest PDD is sent from the manager to the agent to set (store) a
value in a variable.
Response The Response PDD is sent from an agent to a manager in response to
GetRequest or GetNextRequest. It contains the value(s) of the variable(s) requested by
the manager.
TrapThe Trap (also called SNMPv2 Trap to distinguish it from SNMPv1 Trap) POD is
sent from the agent to the manager to report an event. For example, if the agent is
rebooted, it informs themanager and reports the time of rebooting.
InformRequest The Inform Request POD is sent from one manager to another remote
manager to get the value of some variables from agents under the control of the remote
manager. The remote manager responds with a Response POD.
Report The Report POD is designed to report some types of errors between managers.
It is not yet in use.
Format
The format for the eight SNMP PODs is shown in Figure 28.21. The GetBulkRequest
POD differs from the others in two areas, as shown in the figure.

The fields are listed below:

PDU type. This field defines the type of the POD
Request ID.This field is a sequence number used by the manager in a Request POD and
repeated by the agent in a response. It is used to match a request to a response.
Error status. This is an integer that is used only in Response PDUs to show the types of
errors reported by the agent. Its value is 0 in Request PDUs.
Nonrepeaters.Thisfieldused only in GetBulkRequestand replaces the error status field,
which is empty in RequestPDUs.
Error index. The error index is an offset that tells the manager which variable Caused
the error.

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0
Max repetition :This field is also used only in GetBulkRequest and replaces the error index
field, which is empty in Request PDUs.
VarBindlist. This is a set of variables with the corresponding values the manager wants
to retrieve or set.
Messages
SNMP does not send only a PDU, it embeds the PDU in a message. A message in
SNMPv3 is made of four elements: version, header, security parameters, and data (which
include the encoded PDU), as shown in Figure 28.22.

Strength of SNMP
1. It is simple to implement.
2. Agents are widely implemented.
3. Agent level overhead isminimal.
4. It is robust and extensible.
5. Polling approach is good for LAN based managed object.
6. It offers the best direct manager agent interface.
7. SNMP meet a critical need.
Weakness of SNMP
1. It is too simple and does not scale well.
2. There is no object oriented data view.
3. It has no standard control definition.
4. It has many implementation specific (private MIB) extensions.
5. It has high communication overhead due to polling.
5.1 SSH

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1
● SSH is a protocol for secure remote login and other secure network services
over an insecure network.
● Secure Shell (SSH) is a protocol for secure network communications
designed to be relatively simple and inexpensive to implement.
● Secure shell provides strong authentication and encrypted data
communications between two computers connecting over an open network
such as the internet.
● SSH uses the client-server model, connecting a secure shell client
application, the end at which the session is displayed, with an SSH server,
the end at which the session runs.
● Fig. 5.9.1 shows SSH protocol stack.

Fig. 5.9.1 SSH protocol stack

● The SSH protocol consists of three major components :
1. SSH transport layer protocol : Provides server authentication,
confidentiality and integrity with perfect forward secrecy.
2. SSH user authentication protocol : Authenticates the client to the server. It
runs over the transport layer protocol.
3. SSH connection protocol :Multiplexes the encrypted tunnel into several
logical channels.
SSH port forwarding
● Port-Forwarding is also called tunnelling.
● The main benefit of port forwarding is that the tunnelled traffic between the
user's computer and the remote server is encrypted through the SSH
protocol.
● The SSH protocol V2 offers three types of port forwarding :
1. Local-to-remote forwarding: Local (user side) port is created and
all traffic is forwarded to a predefined destination server and port.
2. Remote-to-local forwarding: A remote (server side) port is created
and traffic from connections to that port are routed to the local (user)
computer and is forwarded to a destination and port from there.
3. Dynamic port forwarding: A local (user side) port is created and
all traffic is forwarded to a destination server and port. The
server and port can be chosen at connection time.

● Fig. 5.9.2 shows setup flow of a secure shell connection.

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2
 Fig. 5.9.2 Setup flow of a secure shell connection
● The protocol works in the client-server model, which means that the
connection is established by the SSH client connecting to the SSH server.
● The SSH client drives the connection setup process and uses public key
cryptography to verify the identity of the SSH server.
● After the setup phase the SSH protocol uses strong symmetric encryption
and hashing algorithms to ensure the privacy and integrity of the data that is
exchanged between the client and server.
● Once a connection has been established between the SSH client and server,
the data that is transmitted is encrypted according to the parameters
negotiated in the setup.
● During the negotiation the client and server agree on the symmetric
encryption algorithm to be used and generate the encryption key that will be
used.
● The keys used for authentication are called SSH keys.
● The protocol is used in networks for :
1. Providing secure access for users and automated processes.
2. Interactive and automated file transfers.
3. Issuing remote commands.
4. Managing network infrastructure and other mission-critical system
components.
Difference between SSH Version 1 and SSH Version 2

It uses one monolithic protocol It uses separate transport, authentication and

connection protocols.
Weak CRC-32 integrity check. Strong cryptographic integrity check.
Exactly one session channel per connection. Any number of session channels per
connection.
Negotiates only the bulk cipher; all others Full negotiation of modular cryptographic
are fixed. and compression algorithms, including
bulk
encryption, MAC and public-key.

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3
The same algorithms and keys are used in Encryption, MAC and compression are
both directions negotiated separately for each direction,
with independent keys.
Server key used for forward secrecy on the Use of Diffie-Hellman key agreement
session key. removes the need for a server key.

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4