Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Experiment (1)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORMAL and ZENER DIODE
Theory on Normal Diode:
Normal/ordinary semiconductor diodes are formed by joining a piece of p-type material to a piece of n-type material.
The n-type semiconductor is represented by a short and straight line in the diode symbols and is called the cathode, while
the p-type semiconductor is represented by an arrow, which is known as the anode.

Symbol of ordinary diode

Normal diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow symbol (positive side) shows the direction in
which the current can flow. When the N-type is negative with respect to the P-type, as shown in Figure A, electrons can
flow easily from N side to P side. This type of connection is known as forward bias. In this case there will be a small
voltage drop across the diode, which is called forward voltage drop (Vf) or potential
barrier (Vb) and it is about 0.7 V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. If
the diode is made from germanium, then the voltage drop is about 0.45 V. When the
polarity of the N-type is positive with respect to the P-type this case is called reverse
bias and electrons in the N-type material are pulled towards the positive charge, away
from the junction between N and P sides (see Figure B). When a reverse voltage is
applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of
a few μA or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much
smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a
maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and a large current will pass in
the reverse direction; this condition is known as 'breakdown' or 'Avalanche' and the voltage is called "breakdown
voltage".

Methodology of normal diode:

1- Connect the circuit in forward bias, as shown in Figure 1.
2- Apply a zero voltage across the diode by using the power supply knob.
3- Increase and record the voltage (V) across the diode in steps of 0.1 and record the current (I) passing through the diode
for each step.
4- Plot a graph between voltage (on X-axis) and current (on Y-axis).
5- Reverse the power supply polarities to obtain reverse biased connection, as shown in Figure 2.
6- Repeat steps 2 and 3 then plot a graph between the voltage (on negative X-axis) and current (on negative Y-axis) on
the same graph that you have plotted it before in step 4.
7- Determine the forward voltage drop (potential barrier) across the diode.
8- Determine the forward & reverse dynamic (variable) resistance of the diode from the curve ( rd = v / i ) at three
different locations on the curve.
9- Discuss your results.

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Theory on Zener Diode:

Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to
breakdown in a reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used
in reverse bias to maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. Zener
diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and
breakdown voltage which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin
BZX... or BZY...Their breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a
decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7 V. Zener diodes are rated by their
breakdown voltage and maximum power. The minimum voltage available
is 2.7 V. Power ratings of 400 mW and 1.3 W are common. We can
approximate the Zener’s properties in terms of three rules:
1. In forwards bias (not normally used for a Zener) the behavior is like an
ordinary semiconductor diode.
2. In reverse bias at voltages below VZ the device essentially refuses to conduct, just like an ordinary diode.
3. In reverse bias, any attempt to apply a voltage greater than VZ causes the device to be prepared to conduct a very large
current. This has the effect of limiting the voltage around VZ .

Methodology of Zener diode:

1- Connect the circuit in forward bias, as shown in Figure 1.
2- Apply a zero volt across the diode by using the power supply knob.
3- Increase and record the voltage (V) across the diode in steps (0.1 volt in each step) then record the current (I) passing
through the diode for each step.
4- Plot a graph between voltage (on X-axis) and current (on Y-axis) from your records.
5- Turn the diode around to reverse biased connection, as shown in Figure 2.
6- Repeat steps 2 and 3 then plot a graph between the voltage (on negative X-axis) and the current (on negative Y-axis)
on the same graph that you have plotted it before in step 4.
7- Find Vz , and dynamic resistance at three different locations on the curve.
8- Discuss your results.

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Experiment (2)
HALF-WAVE and FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS
Theory:
The main property of an ordinary diode is that it passes current in only one direction. This makes it useful for
rectifying ac signal to dc signal. The simplest rectifier circuit contains a single diode as shown in Figure 1. It is
commonly called a half-wave rectifier because the diode conducts over either the positive or the negative halves of
the input-voltage waveform. When the sinusoidal input voltage (vs) goes positive the diode is forward biased and
conducts current through the load resistor (RL) and the current produces an output voltage (vL) across the resistor
which has the same shape as the positive half-cycle of the input
voltage. When the input voltage goes negative during the
second half of its cycle, the diode is reverse biased. In this
situation, there is no current, so the voltage across the load
resistor is 0 V. So the net result is that only the positive half
cycles of the ac input voltage appear across the load. This signal
rectification shape for both voltage and current are shown in
Figure 2.
The average value of the half wave output voltage (Vavg) is
determined by finding the area under the curve over one full Fig. 1
output cycle and then dividing by 2π:

Vavg=

= 0.318 Vm … (1)
Vavg=
However, this is a pulsating dc voltage with approximately 31.8% of
maximum voltage (Vm) or peak voltage (VP). Therefore, its filtration is
necessary as electronic circuits require a constant source of dc voltage
and current. Filtration is implemented with capacitors. Connecting a
One cycle
capacitor in series with the diode of Figure 1 (that is in parallel with the
load resistor) performs the filtration process and it will dramatically
affect the rectified output signal to one which shown in Figure 3.
The variation in the capacitor voltage due to the charging and
discharging is called the ripple voltage (Vr). Generally, ripple voltage is
undesirable; thus, the smaller the ripple, the better the filtration action.
The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter
and is defined as:
Fig. 2
V
r = r ..........................(2)
Vdc Vr
Vdc
Where Vr is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and Vdc is
the dc (average) value of the filter's output voltage that
can be also measured by a dc voltmeter.
The full-wave rectifier uses four diodes interconnected Fig. 3
like that shown in Figure 4. When the input cycle is positive diodes D1
and D2 are forward biased and conduct current through D1 and D2,
during this time D3 and D4 are reverse biased. When the input cycle is
negative diodes D3 and D4 conduct current in forward bias, while D1
and D2 are reverse biased. As such, a full wave rectified output voltage
appears when we connect a load resistor (RL) to the output. The
average voltage (Vavg or Vdc) measured on a dc voltmeter, for a full
wave rectified voltage is twice that of the half wave and is about 63.7%
of VP.

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Methodology:
1- Connect a circuit as shown in Figure 5.
2- Fix the input ac voltage of the power supply at 3 V.
3- Put a load resistor of 1 kΩ.
4- Use the oscilloscope and its probes to find a proper figure of
the output wave across the load resistor (RL) by using CH1 or
CH2 of the oscilloscope.
5- Disconnect the capacitor and notice the variation occurs on
the output wave.
6- Connect a capacitor of 10 μF, during this procedure draw the output on your graph paper accurately.
7- Change the capacitor value (say 100 μF) and tabulate your results:

C (μF) Vr (volt) Vdc (volt) r = Vr /Vdc

8- Connect another circuit like that shown in Figure 6.

9- Repeat all the above steps from 2 to 7 and discuss your results.

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Experiment (3)
VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Theory:
The most common device employed in voltage regulation schemes is the Zener diode. In the Zener breakdown
region, the diode can hold a very nearly constant voltage for a large range of currents. This property makes it possible
to use the Zener diode as a voltage regulator. To illustrate the operation of a Zener diode as a voltage regulator,
consider the circuit of Figure 2, where the unregulated DC source, vS=Vin, is regulated to the value of the Zener
voltage VZ=Vout. Note how the diode must be connected “upside down” to obtain a positive regulated voltage.
Three simple observations are sufficient to explain the operation of this voltage regulator:
1- The load voltage (VL) must equal VZ, as long as the Zener diode is in the reverse-breakdown mode. Then, (IL =
VZ/RL).
2. The load current (which should be constant if the load voltage is to be regulated to sustain VZ) is the difference
between the unregulated supply current, iS and the diode current, iZ: (iL = iS − iZ).
3. The source current is given by: iS = (vS − VZ)/RS
As more current drawn from the regulator, the voltage drop across the internal resistance is increased and the
output voltage is decreased. Let we do not know vs, we can measure IL and Vout for several values of load resistance
and find Rs from:

Vout
Rs = − …………… (1)
I L

Line regulation, Aline, describes how

the voltage regulator holds its output
voltage constant when the input voltage is
Fig. 2
changed, and is defined as:
Vout
Aline = …………… (2)
Vin
(Good regulators have small line regulation)

Methodology:
1- Set up a circuit as shown in Figure 3.
2- Set the unregulated variable DC
power supply to 14 V.
3- Set the potentiometer at maximum
resistance, measure the load current
and load voltage, then change the
potentiometer to record load voltage
and current.
4- Plot a graph between load current and
load voltage then estimate the supply
resistance by using Equation 1.
5- Adjust the potentiometer so that load
current is about 4 mA. Then reduce
the input voltage from 14 V to 4 V in
Fig. 3
steps. Measure the output voltage at
each point.
6- Find the line regulation of this voltage regulator circuit by using Equation 2.
7- At what input voltage this circuit does not act as a voltage regulator? Explain the limitation of this regulator.

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Experiment (4)
PHOTO-DIODE
Theory:
Photodiodes are semiconductor devices which is mad of a p–n junction, and often an intrinsic (undoped)
layer is put between n and p layers, i.e. PIN photodiodes. Light absorbed in the depletion region or the intrinsic
region generates electron–hole pairs, most of which contribute to a photocurrent. The photocurrent is
proportional to the absorbed (or incident) light intensity over a wide range of optical powers. Photodiodes can
be operated in two very different modes:
1- Photovoltaic mode: In this process like a solar cell, the illuminated photodiode generates a voltage which can
be measured.
2- Photoconductive mode (will be done in this experiment): A reverse voltage is applied to the diode (where the
diode is not conducting without incident light) and measures the resulting photocurrent. The dependence of the
photocurrent on the light power can be very linear over six or more orders of magnitude of the light power, e.g.
in a range from a few nanowatts to tens of milliwatts for a silicon p–i–n photodiode with an active area of a few
mm2.
Methodolgy:
1- Connect the photodiode in reverse bias, as shown in the figure.
Rs
2- When there is no incident light on the photodiode (dark condition), 1kΩ

increase the reverse voltage in steps (4, 8, 12, 16 …. 32 V) and mA

measure the current passing through the photodiode.
3- Repeat step 2 when different light intensities (light condition) are Vs

incident on the surface of the photocell.

V
4- Plot graphs between voltage (on x-axis) and current (on y-axis) for all
the conditions on the same graph.
5- Determine the resistance of the photodiode.
6- Discuss the results you noticed from data and graph parts.

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Experiment (5)
SOLAR CELL

Theory:
Solar or photovoltaic (PV) cell is a p-n junction
device that is capable of converting sunlight energy
directly into DC electricity. When a photon is absorbed,
its energy is given to an electron in the n-type
semiconductor. Usually, this electron is in the valence
band. The energy given to the electron by the photon
excites it into the conduction band where it is free to
move around within the semiconductor. Consequently, electrons are moved toward the cathode (negative
electrode) and holes toward the anode (positive electrode), thereby delivering to the load. It can be said that
photons absorbed in the semiconductor create electron-hole pairs. A photon only needs to have energy greater
than that of the band gap of the semiconductor in order to excite an electron from the valence band into the
conduction band. Much of the solar radiation reaching the earth is composed of photons with energies greater
than the band gap of silicon. These higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference
in energy between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations — called
phonons) rather than into usable electrical energy.
Methodology:
1- Connect the solar cell as shown in the figure a.
2- Increase the potentiometer (variable resistance load) from
highest resistance value to the lowest one and record both of I
and V simultaneously.
3- Make graphs of I-V and P-V curves, as Figure b. Determine
these PV parameters on the curves: short circuit current (Isc),
open circuit voltage (Voc), maximum power (Pmax).
4- Find fill factor (FF) of the solar cell, FF = Pmax/(Isc×Voc)
5- Discuss your findings.

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Experiment (6)
CLIPPER and CLAMPER CIRCUITS
Theory on clipper circuit:
Diode circuits, called clipper or limiters, are sometimes used to clip off portions of signal voltages above or below
certain levels. Figure 1 shows a diode clipper that limits the positive part of the input voltage. As the input voltage
goes positive, the diode becomes forward biased. Because the cathode is at ground potential (0 V), the anode can not
exceed 0.7 V (assuming silicon diode). So point A is limited to +0.7 V when the input voltage exceeds this value.
When the input voltage goes back below 0.7 V, the diode is reversed biased and appears as an open. The output
voltage looks like the negative part of the input voltage.

R
A
+0.7V

C.R.O

Fig. 1
The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by adding a bias voltage, Vbias in series with the diode, as
shown in Figure 2. The voltage at point A must equal to (Vbias+0.7) V before the diode will become forward biased
and conduct. Once the diode begins to conduct, the voltage at point A is limited to (Vbias+0.7) V so that all input
voltage above this level is clipped off.

R
A
(Vbias+0.7) V

Vbias 1.2V
C.R.O

Fig. 2

Methodology:
1- Connect a circuit as shown in Fig. 1
2- Put the input voltage to about (4 V) and draw this input waveform on graph paper using C.R.O
3- Using the C.R.O draw the output waveform produced on the diode.
4- Add a dc volt (say 1.5 volt) to the diode like that shown in Fig. 2 and record the output wave form.
5- Reverse the dc volt polarity and take another drawing of the output.
6- Connect another circuit like that shown in Fig. 3. Draw the output waveform. Once again round the batteries in a
probable manner and for each situation draw the output waveforms and discuss your results.

1.2V 1.2V C.R.O

Fig. 3

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Semiconductor Devices Lab (KOU30545) Semester V 2024-2025

Theory on clamper circuit:

Another type of diode circuit, called clamper, is used to add or restore a dc level to an electrical signal. A clamper
adds a dc level to an ac voltage. Clampers are sometimes known as restorers. Figure 1 shows a diode clamper that
inserts a positive dc level in the output waveform. When the input voltage initially goes negative, the diode is forward
biased allowing the capacitor to charge to near the peak of the input (Vp – 0.7) V. Just after the negative peak, the
diode is reverse- biased. This is because the cathode is held near (Vp – 0.7) V by the charge of the capacitor. The
capacitor can only discharge through the resistor (RL). The amount that is discharged depends on the value of RL. For
a good clamping action, the RC time constant should be at least ten times the period of the input frequency.

(VP - 0.7) V

RL Vout
C.R.O
0

- 0.7V
Fig. 1
The capacitor voltage acts essentially as a battery in series with the input voltage. If the diode is turned around, a
negative dc voltage is added to the input voltage to produce an output voltage as shown in Figure 2.

+0.7 V

RL 0
C.R.O
Vout

(- VP+0.7) V

Fig. 2
Methodology:
1- Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 1.
2- Put the input voltage on (4 V) then draw the input waveform using the C.R.O
3- Using the C.R.O notice the output wave and draw it.
4- Once again connect a circuit like that shown in Figure 2 and repeat step 3.
5- Connect a dc volt (say 1.5 V) on the way of the diode in series as shown in Figure 3 and see what happens to
the output then draw it.

RL
C.R.O

Fig. 4