Specialty : Electrotechnic Semester : 1

Module : Electrical mesure lesson n° : 2

Title: Errors and Uncertainties

1/ Uncertainty and Error in Measurement

Physics is an experimental science. All physical laws, theories, and formulae were developed
based on measurements of things. The scale of a measuring instrument is not exact. The exact
reading of a scale is impossible. The exact measurement of any quantity is impossible. It is
inevitable that experiments will vary from their theoretical predictions. This may be due to
natural variations, a lack of understanding of the process, or a simplified model in the theory.
All measurements in science suffer from uncertainty which results from unavoidable errors.
Crucial things to know:

 An error is the difference between the measured value and the expected value of
something.
 An uncertainty is a way of expressing or summarizing the error.
 A mistake is simply not doing something correctly through carelessness.

1.1 Precision and accuracy

 Accuracy is the closeness of agreement between a measured value and a true or
accepted value (measurement error reveals the amount of inaccuracy).

Example 1

Two independent measurement results using the diameter d and circumference c of a circle in
the determination of the value of  are 3.140 and 3.143. ( = c/d.) The second result is more
accurate than the first because the true value of , to four figures, is 3.142.

 Precision is a measure of the degree of consistency and agreement among independent

measurements of the same quantity (also the reliability or reproducibility of the result).

Think of it while you are playing darts, like this:

precision: high precision: low precision: low precision: high

accuracy: low accuracy: low accuracy: low accuracy: high

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Precision is really about detail. It has nothing to do with accuracy. Accuracy is about giving
true readings, not detailed readings.

Example 2

Two independent experiments give two sets of data with the expressed results and
uncertainties of 2.5 ± 0.1 cm and 2.5 ± 0.2 cm, respectively. The first result is more precise
than the second because the spread in the first set of measurements is between 2.4 and 2.6 cm,
whereas the spread in the second set of measurements is between 2.3 and 2.7 cm. That is, the
measurements of the first experiment are less uncertain than those of the second.

1.2 Types of Experimental Uncertainty

There are 2 types of errors ( uncertainty) in measured data:

Random Errors (Indeterminate) or Statistical Error

Result from unknown and unpredictable variations that arise in all experimental measurement
situations. The term indeterminate refers to the fact that there is no way to determine the
magnitude or sign (+, too large; –, too small) of the error in any individual measurement.
Uncertainties due to the inexperience of the experimenter and the difficulty of reading
instruments. Taking an average of many measurements leads to a more accurate result. The
average of n measurements x1, x2, …, xn is: ̅

The effect of random errors may be reduced and minimized by improving and refining
experimental techniques. A precise experiment has small random error.

Systematic (Determinate) Errors

Are associated with particular measurement instruments or techniques, such as an improperly

calibrated instrument or bias on the part of the observer. The term systematic implies that the
same magnitude and sign of experimental uncertainty are obtained when the measurement is
repeated several times. Determinate means that the magnitude and sign of the uncertainty can
be determined if the error is identified.

Systematic errors cannot be detected or reduced by taking more measurements. An accurate

experiment has small systematic error.
1.3 Least Count and Significant Figures

Least Count

In reporting experimentally measured values, it is important to read instruments correctly. The

degree of uncertainty of a number read from a measurement instrument depends on the
quality of the instrument and the fineness of its measuring scale. When reading the value from
a calibrated scale, only a certain number of figures or digits can properly be obtained or read.
That is, only a certain number of figures are significant. This depends on the least count of

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the instrument scale, which is the smallest subdivision on the measurement scale. This is the
unit of the smallest reading that can be made without estimating.

For example, the least count of a meter stick is usually the millimeter (mm). We commonly
say “the meter stick is calibrated in centimeters (numbered major divisions) with a millimeter
least count.”

Significant figures

In the measured value of a physical quantity, the digits about the correctness of which we are
sure plus the last digit which is doubtful are called significant figures.
Rules for counting significant figures

1. All the non-zero digits are significant. Ex: 98576, has five significant digits.

2. All zeros occurring in between the two non-zero digits are significant. Ex: 90008 has five
significant digits.

3. In a number with decimal, zeros on the right of the last non zero digit are significant. Ex:
9.78000 has six significant digits.

4. In a value less than one, zeros occurring between the decimal point and non-zero digit on
the right are not significant (Zeroes at the beginning of a number are not significant). Ex:
0.00987 has only three significant digits.

Thus, measured values contain inherent uncertainty or doubtfulness because of the

estimated figure. However, the greater the number of significant figures, the greater
the reliability of the measurement the number represents.

For example, the length of an object may be read as 3.65 cm (three significant figures) on
one instrument scale and as 3.6505 cm (five significant figures) on another. The latter reading
is from an instrument with a finer scale and gives more information and reliability.

Some confusion may arise with whole numbers that have one or more zeroes at the end
without a decimal point.

Consider, for example, 300 kg, where the zeroes (called trailing zeroes) may or may not be
significant. In such cases, it is not clear which zeroes serve only to locate the decimal point
and which are actually part of the measurement (and hence significant). That is, if the first
zero from the left (300 kg) is the estimated digit in the measurement, then only two digits are
reliably known, and there are only two significant figures.

Similarly, if the last zero is the estimated digit (300 kg), then there are three significant
figures.

This ambiguity is removed by using scientific (powers of 10) notation:

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3.0 × 102 kg has two significant figures.

3.00 × 102 kg has three significant figures.

Remarks:

1/ When one value is expressed in an exponential form, the exponential term does not affect
the number of significant figures. Ex: 98.7 = 0.0987 × 10 3= 98700 × 10-3have only three
significant figures. [The powers of 10 are not counted as significant figures.]

2/ The error in measurement is equal to least count (L.C.) of measuring instrument.

3/ Greater the number of significant figures in a measurement, smaller is the percentage error.

Mathematical Operations and Significant Figures

Calculations are often performed with measured values, and error and uncertainty are
“propagated” by the mathematical operations. That is, errors are carried through to the results
by the mathematical operations. It is important to report the results of mathematical
operations with the proper number of significant figures.

This is accomplished by using rules for

(1) multiplication and division

(2) addition and subtraction.

To obtain the proper number of significant figures, one rounds the results off. The general
rules used for mathematical operations and rounding follow.

1. When multiplying and dividing quantities, leave as many significant figures in the answer
as there are in the quantity with the least number of significant figures.

2. When adding or subtracting quantities, leave the same number of decimal places (rounded)
in the answer as there are in the quantity with the least number of decimal places.

Rules for Rounding

1. If the first digit to be dropped is less than 5, leave the preceding digit as is.

2. If the first digit to be dropped is 5 or greater, increase the preceding digit by one. Notice
that in this method, five digits (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4) are rounded down and five digits (5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9) are rounded up.
Example 3 Applying the rules.

Multiplication:

2.5 m × 1.308 m = ?

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Division:

882.0 / 0.245= ?

Addition:

46.4+1.37= ?

Subtraction:

163-4.5=

Exercise 1

A student measures three quantities, in appropriate units, and records them using the method

of significant figures as: A =12.50; B = 2.72; C =1.4.

a) How many significant figures are there in these measurements?

b) Write these measurements in scientific notion.

c) Round off A and B to two significant figures.

d) What is the result of multiplying A x C?

e) What is the sum of the measurements?

Exercise 2

Consider the scales of two different voltmeters, one of which is finely divided while the other
one is coarse as shown in FIG. They are properly zeroed and calibrated using a standard cell
(one whose voltage is known to be accurate) in order to avoid systematic errors. Then, the two
voltmeters are connected to the same battery and their scales are shown in FIG. Read the two
scales and record your measurements estimating their errors.

Fig: Two voltmeter scales measuring the same voltage

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2/ Uncertainty in calculated results

The error in a measured quantity may be expressed either as the absolute error or the
fractional (or relative) error.

The absolute error (± Δx) has the same units as the measured quantity.

The absolute difference between the experimental value E and the accepted (true) value A,
written |E - A| = Δx, is the positive difference in the values, for example, |2 - 4| = 2 and |4 – 2|
= 2.

For example, a distance measurement made with a ruler marked in millimeters can be
expressed as 25.5 ± 0.5 mm. The absolute error in this quantity is ± 0.5 mm.

The fractional error is the ratio of the absolute error to the quantity and it can be expressed as

The percentage error can be expressed as

In the distance measurement given above we have: Distance = 25.5 ± 0.5 mm

Absolute error=…….

Fractional error =……

Percentage error =……….

The measured value of the quantity Q should be recorded either with its absolute error as

Q = x ± Δx (with the absolute error)

or with its percentage error as

Example 4

A cylindrical object is measured to have a diameter d of 5.25 cm and a circumference c of

16.38 cm. What are the experimental value of  and the percent error of the experimental
value if the accepted value of  to two decimal places is 3.14?

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