Quantum mechanics
Law #3
• A qubit state (in general, a joint state) can be changed by any linear transformation that
preserves lengths.
• Unitary transformation
• A linear transformation U is unitary if it preserves lengths.
†
• Proposition: U is unitary if and only if U U = I
† −1 †
• Theorem: U is unitary if and only if U = U if and only if UU =I
• Corollary: Columns of U form an orthonormal basis. Same holds for rows.
• Theorem: Unitary transformations preserve inner products
Examples of unitary transformations
[0 −1]
• Unitary transformations map an 1 0
orthonormal basis to another Pauli-Z gate Z =
•
orthonormal basis
1
• Rotations Rθ
1
SWAP =
• Hadamard H • 1
1
• NOT gate
[0 i ]
1 0
Phase shift S =
•
Square root of a unitary transformation
• Fact: For every unitary transformation U, there exists a unitary transformation
2
W such that W = U.
[(1 − i)/2 (1 + i)/2]
(1 + i)/2 (1 − i)/2
• Examples: Z = S, Rθ = Rθ/2, NOT =
Quantum state tomography
General question
• Given an unknown state |φ⟩, you are promised that |ϕ⟩ ∈ {|u⟩, |v⟩}
2
• You are asked to guess |φ⟩. For simplicity, suppose that |u⟩, |v⟩ ∈ ℝ , and the angle
between them is θ.
• Idea: Rotate and measure.
• Observation: may assume that the measurement is in standard basis (why?)
• Option 1: two-sided error algorithm
• Option 2: one-sided error algorithm
• Option 3: zero-sided error algorithm
Option 1
Measure in |u′⟩, |v′⟩
• Let |u′⟩, |v′⟩ be an orthonormal basis such that their angle bisector overlaps
with the angle bisector of |u⟩, |v⟩
• Two-sided error algorithm
• Measure |φ⟩ in the |u′⟩, |v′⟩ basis
• Guess |u⟩ when the readout is |u′⟩, and guess |v⟩ when the readout is |v′⟩
• In either case, error probability is
2 2
|⟨u ∣ v′⟩| = cos (π/4 + θ/2) = (1 − sin θ)/2









Option 2
⊥
Measure in |u⟩, |u ⟩
⊥
• Let |u⟩, |u ⟩ be an orthonormal basis that contains |u⟩
• One-sided error algorithm
⊥
• Measure in the |u⟩, |u ⟩ basis
⊥
• Guess |u⟩ when the readout is |u⟩, and guess |v⟩ when the readout is |u ⟩
2 2
• Only in the case where |φ⟩ = |v⟩, the error probability is |⟨u ∣ v⟩| = cos θ
Option 3
⊥ ⊥
Measure in |u⟩, |u ⟩ or |v⟩, |v ⟩ randomly
⊥ ⊥
• Flip a coin to choose a basis from |u⟩, |u ⟩ and |v⟩, |v ⟩
• Measure in that basis
⊥ ⊥
• If the basis is |u⟩, |u ⟩, guess |v⟩ only when the readout is |u ⟩
⊥ ⊥
• If the basis is |v⟩, |v ⟩, guess |u⟩ only when the readout is |v ⟩
• Otherwise, say “I don’t know”
⊥ 2 2
• Probability of correct guess is (1/2)|⟨u ∣ v ⟩| = (1/2)sin θ
• Not optimal when θ = π/2
Multi-qubit systems
4-dimensional quantum systems
• Two photons
• Basic states: |00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩, |11⟩
α00
α01
Joint state: α00|00⟩ + α01|01⟩ + α10|10⟩ + α11|11⟩ =
α10
•
α11
Multi-qubit systems
Three questions
• Alice |ψ⟩, Bob |φ⟩
• Question 1: What is the joint 4-dimensional state?
• Question 2: How will the joint state change if Bob applies unitary U to his
qubit?
• Question 3: What is the readout if Alice measures her qubit?
What is the joint 4-dimensional state?
Question 1
• Alice: |ψ⟩ = α0|0⟩ + α1|1⟩
• Bob: |φ⟩ = β0|0⟩ + β1|1⟩
α0 β0
α0 β1
Joint state
α1β0
•
α1β1
• What happens if Alice (or Bob) measures her (or his) qubit?
In general…
Alice and Bob
α0 β0 • | + ⟩ ⊗ |0⟩
d e
a= ⋮ ∈ ℂ ,b = ⋮ ∈ ℂ • Tensor product of two matrices
• αd−1 βe−1
a11 … a1n
• Joint state is a ⊗ b = ? A= ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
• a … a
• Example: m1 mn
• |0⟩ ⊗ |0⟩ • A⊗B=?
• |0⟩ ⊗ | + ⟩
Properties of tensor products
Distributivity, associativity, conjugate transpose and multiplication
• (A + B) ⊗ C = A ⊗ C + B ⊗ C
• A ⊗ (B + C) = A ⊗ B + A ⊗ C
• A ⊗ (B ⊗ C) = (A ⊗ B) ⊗ C =: A ⊗ B ⊗ C
† † †
• (A ⊗ B) = A ⊗ B
• (A ⊗ B)(C ⊗ D) = (AC) ⊗ (BD)
