S.

1 PHYSICS NOTES

WHAT IS PHYSICS?
Physics is a branch of science which deals
with matter in relation to energy.
Physics involves the study of the physical
Laboratory rules and regulations
universe called physical science. Physical
science is mainly about non- living matter. 1. Never enter the laboratory unless
There two types of physical science: accompanied by a teacher or a laboratory
 Physics attendant, technician or laboratory staff.
 Chemistry 2. Conduct yourself in a responsible
manner at all times in the laboratory.
and how they affect each other. Physics tries
3. Never touch any equipment or chemicals
to explain how things work and why things
or other material until you are instructed
happen. People who do physics are called
to do so.
physicists. They do practical investigations
4. Do not eat or drink or chew anything
or experiments on many problems or aspects
while in the laboratory.
of life. They gather all known facts about a
5. Report any breakages or injuries
problem and come out with a possible
however minor they may appear.
solution called a hypothesis. Hypothesis is a
6. Be alert and proceed by caution at all
scientific statement that has not been proven
times in the laboratory.
to be true. When hypothesis has been a test
7. Labels and equipment instructions must
of time, it becomes a theory, if a theory is
be read carefully.
proved beyond any reasonable doubt it
8. Keep hands away from the face, eyes,
becomes a law or principle e.g. Newton’s
mouth and body while using chemicals.
law of gravitation (gravity). The hypothesis
9. Know the locations and operating
enables scientists to proceed with further
procedures of all safety equipment like
measurements until they become generally
fire extinguishers, first aid kits, fire
accepted theories. In physics, these
alarm and the exit.
generally accepted conclusions become the
10. Never enter the equipment storage room
laws or principles and theories. The laws of
without an instructor.
physics tell us how things happened. The
11. At the end of the laboratory session,
theories of physics are used to explain why
ensure that the main gas outlet valves are
they behave like they do.
closed/shut off; the water is turned off,
desk tops, floor area and sink are clean
BRANCHES OF PHYSICS
Mechanics and that all the equipment used are
Thermal physics/ heat clean.
Waves/ optics 12. If you don’t understand how to use
Electricity equipment, ask the instructor for
Magnetism assistance.
Modern physics/ nuclear physics
Magnetism
The study of Physics goes through a series of
daily experiences, classroom experiences and
experiments in the laboratory. However,
while in laboratory, a code of conduct is
observed. This code of conduct is composed
of a set of rules and regulations.
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES
Basic Quantity S.1 Units Symbol
Length Metre M
Measurements
Mass Kilograms Kg
In order to progress accurate measurements are
necessary. Physics is called the science of Time Second S
0
measurements. Temperature Degrees Celsius c or k
Scientific method requires careful measurements thermodynamic or Kelvin
and analysis. Measurements are used o determine Electric current Amperes(Amps) A
how much, how long, how big the physical Amount of M
quantity of matter is. Importance of measurement substance Mole
is to ascertain quantity and quality Luminous Candela Cd
intensity
QUANTITIES MEASURED Force Newton N
1. Fundamental (basic) quantities All SI Units satisfy the following conditions:
These are physical quantities that cannot be
 They are well defined
expressed or defined in terms of any other
quantities. They all have clearly defined  They don’t change with time
symbols and international system units (SI  They have fixed value
UNITS). There are three basic quantities of  They can easily and accurately be
physics reproduced when ever needed
 Length Standard:
 Mass In order to measure any physical quantity we
 Time need to know the quantity to measure and the
units for measuring it. Measurement involves
comparing the given quantity with a given
Other physical quantities are called derived standard.
quantities. The units of derived quantities are
based on the units of basic quantities. They MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
include the following; area, volume, density, Length is the distance between two points. The SI
speed, force, energy, pressure, e.t.c. unit of length is metres (m)
Quantity SI UNITS SYMBOLS The international system is used at present with
Area Square metre m2 the basic S.1 unit of length being the metre. The
Volume Cubic metre m3 metre is divided into smaller units like
Density Kilogram per metre Kg/m3 millimetres (mm), centimetres (cm) and
cubed decimetres(dm). Other smaller units of length are
Speed Metres per second m/s micrometres (μm) nanometre (nm). Length can
Force Newton N also be measured using other bigger units of the
Energy Joules J metric system for example Decametres (dm),
Pressure Newton per metre N/m2 Hectometres (hm) and kilometre (km). Length
squared can be measured using nautical miles.

Conversions
Units 1m = 1000mm, 1m = 100cm, 1m = 10dm,
The conference on weight and measurement 1km=1000m, 1km = 10000dm, 1km =
selected the seven quantities and their units as the 100,000cm, 1km = 1,000,000mm
basic quantities. These are the basics of the new 1mile = 1.61km, 1mile =1610m.
system known as the international system of units A metre rule is used to measure length of a
(SI units).in this system length is measured in straight line. The tape measures are also used to
meters (m), mass is measured in kilograms (kgs), measure the length. The choice of the actual
and time is measured in seconds (s). instrument to be used for measuring depends very

2
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES
much on what is to be measured. For example, if 89.9
the length of a foot ball field is to be measured, a = =0.899m
100
tape measure calibrated in metres and centimetres
Area of the teacher’s rectangular table = length ×
or millimetres may be used. If the width of a desk
width
is to be measured the metre rule calibrated in cm
=3.645m × 0.899m
and mm may be used. For smaller measurements
=3.276855m2
of length a vernier calliper and a micrometre
Example 2
screw gauge is used.
Length of the rectangular chalk board = 493cm
Metre rule 493
=  4.93m
100
Width of the rectangular chalk board = 120cm.
120
 1.20m
100
Area of the chalk board = length × width
= 4.93m  1.20m
= 5.9160m2
When measuring an object using a metre rule the
following should be noted: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. The zero mark of a metre rule should be

aligned with one edge of the object your
measuring to reduce errors.
2. The eye is placed directly above the other end
of the object your measuring to avoid errors
Length of the wooden block is 5.25cm
in guessing the position of the end of the
The reading obtained in measuring the length of
object (to avoid errors due to parallax). the wooden block above is 5.25cm. The last digit
3. There should never be a gap between the
was obtained by guessing the actual length of the
metre rule and the top of the object your block lies between 5.2cm and 5.3cm.
measuring to avoid errors of guessing the
position of the ends. VERNIER CALLIPERS
We can also measure the best accuracy and In the vernier callipers the vernier scale is
sensitivity of a reading obtained from any designed to eliminate this guessing of the last
measuring instrument depends on the smallest digit. The instrument has two scales the main
scale division. For the metre rule the small scale scale and the vernier scale. The main scale is
division is one millimetre (1mm). If we estimate divided into centimetres and millimetre. The
to a fraction of a mm, the sensitivity becomes vernier scale which slides over the main scale has
0.5mm hence the accuracy in reading value a length of 9mm divided into ten equal divisions
obtained using any measuring instrument depends
9
on the sensitivity of an object and the size of the of  0.9mm each.
quantity being measured. 10
The difference between the main scale division
Example 1 and the vernier scale division is 0.1mm and this is
Length of the teacher’s rectangular table = 364.5cm the best accuracy or sensitivity of vernier
1m = 100cm callipers measurements.
Length of the teacher’s rectangular table
364.5
= 3.645
100
Width of the teacher’s rectangular table = 89.9cm

3
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES
Diagram Reading of vernier calliper
= Main scale reading + vernier scale reading
= 3.20 cm + 0.07 cm
= 3.27 cm
4 5 6

Main scale reading = 4.00cm

Vernier scale reading = 0.06cm

Reading of vernier calliper

= Main scale reading + vernier scale reading
To measure any length using the vernier calliper = 4.00 cm + 0.06 cm
the object is placed either between the outside = 4.06 cm
1 2
jaws or the inside jaws grip the sides or edges of
the vernier scale slid over the main scale until the
jaws grip the object.

How to use a vernier calliper Main scale reading = 1.20cm

1. Close the jaws of the calliper and check if the Vernier scale reading = 0.04cm
zero of the main scale and the vernier scale
coincide. If they differ, the amount by which Reading of vernier calliper
they differ is known as a zero error = Main scale reading + vernier scale reading
2. Open the jaws to touch appropriately the = 1.20 cm + 0.04 cm
positions whose distance apart is to be = 1.24 cm
measured. The inside or outside jaws should 3 4 5
be used depending on what the measurement
is, internal or external
3. You record the readings on the main scale
immediately preceding a zero mark on the
vernier scale Main scale reading = 3.20cm
4. Record the number of graduations on the Vernier scale reading = 0.00cm
vernier scale. Which comes directly in line Reading of vernier calliper
with the graduation on the main scale, this = Main scale reading + vernier scale reading
gives the second decimal place in centimetres = 3.20 cm + 0.00 cm
5. The final reading is the sum of the two = 3.20 cm
readings in centimetres
Uses of vernier callipers
1. Callipers are tools or equipments, industries
Exercise. and laboratories use to measure small lengths
Find the readings given by the following vernier accurately
callipers: 2. They are used for precise accurate
3 4 5 6
measurement of lengths

Reasons for using vernier callipers

1. Wide range of measurements can be made
Main scale reading = 3.20cm 2. Imperial British and metric scales are usually
Vernier scale reading = 0.07cm found on the same scale instrument.

4
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES
3. They can make both inside and outside How to measure using a micrometer screw
measurements e.g. measuring the internal gauge
diameter of a tubes As in the vernier calliper, the reading in the
micrometer screw gauge is taken in two parts.
Micrometre Screw Gauge Part1
The reading of the sleeve scale is read off at the
1
edge of the thimble inmmand mm .
2
Part 2
The reading on the thimble scale is the reading
off opposite the centre line of the sleeve scale in
hundredths of mm.
The micrometer screw gauge is used to accurately 1m =1000mm
measure very small lengths e.g. diameter of a
wire, thickness of a ruler, paper. (1m)2 = (1000mm)2
The scale of the micrometer screw gauge is
shown in two parts. = (1000mm × 1000mm)
Part1: Main scale (Sleeve scale) 1m2 = 1000000mm2
The main scale is marked along the sleeve scale. 1
The upper divisions are marked in mm. The 1mm 2  mm 2
lower marks divide the upper scale into half a 1000000
mm each.
Note: Length can be measured in nautical miles.
Part 2: The thimble 1mile =1.6kilometres
The scale along the edges of the thimble is called 1km = 1000m
the thimble scale. The scale marked on the edges 1mile= (1.6×1000)m =1600metres
of the thimble is divided into 50 or 100 each 1m= 100cm
division according to its marking. For the
(1m)2 = (100cm)2 = (100×100)cm2
micrometer screw gauge with 50 each division in
1m2 = 1000cm2
one complete revolution. The thimble moves
1
0.5mm along the sleeve. Therefore for a thimble 1cm 2  m2
0.5 5 10000
marked in 50 each division each is  1km =1000m
50 500 (1km)2 = (1000m2) =1000m×1000m
mm = 0.01mm For a micrometer screw gauge
1km2 =1,000,000m2
whose thimble is marked in 100 each division
1
each complete revolution moves 1mm on the 1m2 = km2
sleeve scale. Hence each division is 1, 000,000
1 1m = 1000mm
mm  0.01mm . (1m)2 = (1000mm)2
100
The object whose thickness is to be measured is = (1000mm ×1000mm)
placed between the jaws of the micrometer screw 1m2 = 1000000mm2
gauge. The ratchet is turned so that the jaws grip 1
1mm2 = m2
on the object. The ratchet starts to slip when the 1000000
object is gripped tightly enough. To avoid errors, 1mile = 1.6km
the anvil and spindle jaws should be wiped clean (1mile) 2 = (1.6km)2 = (1.6×1.6)km2
to remove any dirt and the (0) error of the 1square mile = 2.56km2
micrometer screw gauge should be noted.
1km2 =1000000m2
1square mile = 2.56km2

5
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES
(2.56 × 1000000) m2 =2560000m2 = 5.00mm + 0.92 mm
= 5.92 mm
Example
Find the readings on the following micrometer
screw gauges

Sleeve reading = 11.50mm

Thimble reading = 0.61 mm
Reading of the micrometer screw gauge
= Sleeve reading + Thimble reading
Sleeve reading = 3.50mm = 11.50mm + 0.61 mm
Thimble reading = 0.20 mm = 12.11 mm
Reading of the micrometer screw gauge
= Sleeve reading + Thimble reading
= 3.50mm + 0.20mm
= 3.70 mm

Sleeve reading = 17.00mm

Thimble reading = 0.32 mm
Reading of the micrometer screw gauge
= Sleeve reading + Thimble reading
= 17.00mm + 0.32 mm
Sleeve reading = 5.00mm = 17.32 mm
Thimble reading = 0.92 mm
Reading of the micrometer screw gauge
= Sleeve reading + Thimble reading
Summary of the measuring instruments and their accuracy
Instrument Smallest Accuracy Examples of the length of
measurement measured
Micrometer 2 decimal places in mm - Diameter of a wire
0.01 mm
screw gauge - Thickness of a cardboard
Vernier calliper 1 decimal place in mm or 2 - Thickness of a book
0.1 mm or 0.01
decimal places in cm - Diameter of a tennis ball
cm
- Internal diameter of a test-tube
Metre rule 0 decimal place in mm or 1 - Length of a bench
1 mm or 0.1 cm decimal place in cm or 3 - Length of a book
decimal places in metres

6
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

The accuracy of the measurement depends on both the sensitivity of the instrument and the
size of the quantity measured e.g. the sensitivity of the vernier callipers and the micrometre
screw gauge is 0.1m and 0.01mm. Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement of the
correct value of the quantity being measured. It is expressed as an error.

Measurement of time
The SI unit of time is a second (s). A nature standard for measurement of time was originally
the motion of the earth whose one rotation makes one day. The day is divided into 24hours
(hrs), 1hr = 60 minutes (min) and 1min = 60 seconds (s). However not all day are of equal
length in all parts of the world. The only days which are equal are the one during which the
sun is overhead on the equator and these are called the mean average days. Today the
standard time is based on the vibrations of caesium clock.
How to measure time
1day = 24 hours
1hour = 60 minutes
1minute = 60 seconds
1hour = 60 × 60 = 3600 seconds
1day = (24 × 3600) seconds
Other smaller units of measuring time are based on second, millisecond, microsecond,
nanosecond.
1
1millisecond (ms) =
100
= 0.001s.
 1 
1microsecond (μ) =  s
1, 000, 000 
= 0.000001s
 1 
1nanosecond (ns) =  s
1, 000, 000, 000 
= 0.000000001s
There various devices for measuring time intervals. The device chosen depends on
convenience and accuracy needed and same extent the duration of the time interval.

Methods of measuring time intervals and where they are commonly used
1. Oscillation of alternating current mains electricity as used in ticker tape timers
2. Oscillation of quartz crystals as used in modern electronic watches and clocks
3. Oscillation of simple pendulum as used in pendulum clocks
4. Oscillation of balanced wheels as used in clocks and watches.
5. Time taken by small grains of sand to fall through a small hole as used in sand clocks
6. Determination of the half-life of the radioactive material e.g. age of a fossil using carbon-
dating.
Simple pendulum
It is a massive bob tied at one end of a light string and the other end of the string is tied to a
rigid support e.g. a damp stand. The bob is free to swing to and fro when displaced slightly at
one side. Then time for one complete oscillation or swing is called the period or period time
of the pendulum.

7
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

The length l on the pendulum is the distance from the point of support to the approximate
centre (0) of the bob. The angular amplitude of a swing is the angle between the extreme
position of a pendulum and the rest position of a thread.
When an object accelerates, it does so because a force is acting on it but some objects have
more resistance to acceleration.

Area
The area of a regular surface is easy formed by measuring length and width and then applying
a known formula e.g. the area of a circular surface is equal to πr2 where r is the radius of the
22
circular surface and π is a constant which is
7
Area of a square equals (length × width)
= l× l = l2
Area of a rectangle equals length × width
Area is measured in square metres or (m2). Area can also be measured in square centimetres
or cm2
Area of a triangle

1
Area = (base length × perpendicular height)
2
1
Area = bh
2
Area of a trapezium

8
 a

S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

1
Area = × (sum of parallel sides) × perpendicular height
2
1
  ( a  b) h
2
1
 ( a  b) h
2
Area of a parallelogram
A

AB = DC = l
CB = DA = w
CF = EA = x
BF = ED = h
Area of a rectangle EBFD= length × width
= (x + l) ×h = (xh+lh)
Area of a triangle EAD (I)
1 1 xh
= b h  x h 
2 2 2
Area of a triangle BCF (II)
1 1 xh
= bh   xh 
2 2 2
xh xh

Total area of triangle I and II =  xh
2 2
Area of parallelogram ABCD = Area of a rectangle EBFD-Total of triangles I and II
=(xh + lh) – xh = lh
Area of parallelogram = l × h

9
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Area of a rhombus

Area of a kite

1 1
Area = hb  hb
2 2
The surface area of a cuboid

Total surface area

= 2(l × w) + 2(w × h) +2(h ×l)
=2lw+ 2wh + 2hl

The Cube
It is a special form of a cuboid with equal sides

10
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

=2lw + 2lh + 2wh

w=h=l
= 2(l × L) + 2(l × L) + 2(l × L)
= 2l2 + 2l2 + 2l2 = 6l2

Total surface area of a sphere

T.S.A = 4πr2

Total surface area of a cylinder

A cylinder consists of two circular surfaces and a curved surface
Area of circular surface = πr2
= 2 × πr2
= 2πr2
Area of the curved surface = 2πrh
Total surface area of a cylinder 2πr2 + 2πrh
Area of irregular objects is determined by dividing it into many small equal regular surfaces.
The area of one of these small surfaces is determined from its measurements. The total area of
the irregular shape is the product of this small area and the total number of small surfaces or
total area of a regular is got by summing up all the areas of the small regular shapes.
Example;
22
Take π as find the total surface area in square cm of a cylindrical shape of radius 14m
7
and height 10cm.
Total surface area  2 r 2  2 rh
22 22
 2  14  14  2   14 10
7 7
 44  28  (22  20)
 1232  880
 2112cm 2

Volume (capacity)
Volume is space occupied by an object. The volume of regular objects can be determined
from measurement of their lengths and then application of a known formula. Volume is
measured in cubic metres (m3). Although the SI unit of volume is m3, other smaller units like;
Cubic centimetres (cc)
Cubic decimetres (dm3)
Cubic metres (mm3)
For volumes of liquids or capacity litres (l), millilitres (ml) etc
Conversions
1m = 100cm
(1m)3 = (100cm)3
1m3 = (100cm × 100cm × 100cm)
1m3 = 1000000cm3
1
1cm3 = m3
1000000

11
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

1m  1000mm
1m 3  (1000mm)3  1000  1000  1000 mm 3
1m 3  1000000000mm 3
1km  1000m
1
1m  km
1000
3
 1   1 1 1  3
1m  
3
km       km
1000  1000 1000 1000 
1
1m 3  km3
1000,000,000
For pure water at standard temperature and pressure
1litre of water weighs1kg
1litre = 1000ml
1litre = 1000cm3
1ml = 1cm3
Hence 1m = 1000000cm3 = 1000000ml
1000000
1m3 = l
1000
1m3 = 1000l
Volume of regular objects

Volume of a cube/ cuboid

Volume = length × width × height

= l ×w × h
=lwh cubic units

Volume of a cube = l × w × h
=l×l×l
= l3 cubic units

Find the volume of a cube of 5cm and give your answer in m3

12
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Volume
= lll
= 5cm  5cm  5cm
= 125 cm3
But 1 m = 100 cm
1 m3 = (100 cm)3
1m3  1000000cm 3
1
1cm3  m3
1000000
1
152cm3  125cm 3 
1000000
125

1000000
 0.000125m3

Volume of a cylinder
Volume = base area × perpendicular height
Volume = πr2× h
Volume =r2h cubic units

Volume of a sphere
4 3
Volume of a sphere =  r cubic units
3

Volume of a cone
Volume
1
= × base area × perpendicular height
3
1
= × length × width × height
3
1
=  l  w  h cubic units
3

Volume of a pyramid
1
Volume of a pyramid = ×base area × perpendicular height
3
1
= × (l × w) × h cubic units
3

13
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Volume of irregular objects

1. Capacity of fluids(liquids and gases)
The volume of a liquid is determined by pouring the liquid or fluid into a graduated
measuring cylinder and reading off the volume. In reading off the volume, your eye level is
placed with the bottom of the meniscus. For more accurate measurements of volume a burette
or pipette or measuring flasks are used.
60

50

Lower meniscus
40

30

20
Liquid

10

Irregular solids
For irregular solids the volume is determined by measuring the volume of a liquid which the
solid displaces when fully immersed in the liquid. A measuring cylinder or eureka may be
used.

Experiment to determine the volume of an irregular solid body

Apparatus:
 measuring cylinder
 over flow can/eureka can
 liquid (water)
 thin thread (string)
 collecting beaker
Procedure:
Take the reading of the volume of the liquid in the measuring cylinder
40
20
30
10
0 Initial volume

Tie a thin thread around the irregular solid and immerse it in the liquid making sure its fully
immersed.

14
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

60
Final reading

50

40 Liquid

30
Thin thread

20
Irregular object

10 Measuring
cylinder
0

Read the final volume of the liquid and determine the volume of the irregular solid in the
measuring cylinder from the expression below.
Volume of the displaced
Liquid = final − initial
= (V2 − V1)ml
V1=33ml
V2=55ml
Volume of displaced = V2 − V1
= (55 – 33) ml
= 22ml
Since the irregular solid object displaces its own volume then the volume of the displaced
liquid must be equal to the volume of the irregular solid object. Hence the volume of the
irregular solid object is
V2−V1

Using the over flow can

Pour a liquid in the over flow can until the liquid starts dripping out through the spout.
Allow it stand and stabilise i.e. the liquid level is on the spout level.
Immerse your irregular solid in the liquid using the thin thread and collect all the displaced
liquid through the spout in the measuring cylinder.
Conclusion:
Since the solid body displaces its own volume then the volume of the displaced liquid in the
measuring cylinder is equal to the volume of the irregular object.

Mass
Measurement of Mass
Mass is defined as the quantity of matter a body contains.
Mass of a substance can also be defined as a measure of the amount a material contains. It
does not vary or change with pressure, temperature or any other physical change. It will have
the same value on earth, moon or in free space. The SI unit for mass is a kilogram (kg). At
present the standard mass is the mass designed at one kilogram. All other instruments for
measuring mass are standardised, derived from a standard mass of kg. The mass of an object
is measured by comparing it with a known mass from a balance. Most balances work on the

15
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

principle of a beam balance. When a known mass is equal to the unknown mass the beam
balances.

Measurement of mass using Beam balance

Mass m1=mass m2
There many types of balance e.g. the chemical balance, laboratory beam balance, lever arm
balance, triple beam balance, shop beam balance, weighing scale, electronic beam. The choice
of a beam balance to use depends on the accuracy required. For very accurate measurements
of masses, we use an electronic balance. Although the SI unit of mass is 1kg, other metric
units may be used e.g. gm.
1kg  1000 g
1g  1000mg
1kg  (1000  1000) mg
1kg  1000000mg
Larger masses are measured in tones
1tone = 1000kg

Home work
With well labelled diagrams draw the following apparatus for measuring mass.
Triple beam balance, lever arm balance, electric top pan balance, laboratory beam balance.

Density
The heaviness or lightness is referred to as density.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume of a substance.
Measurement of density
mass
Density =
volume
If mass is measured in kgs and volume in m3then density is measured (kg/m3) or (kgm-3)
kilogram per metre cubed. Although density is measured in kg/m3, it may also be measured is
g/cm3or (gcm-3) gram per centimetre cubed. The symbol for density is  (rho).
mass
density(  ) 
volume
The higher the density of a substance the more the massive a unit volume of that material is.
Since different materials have different materials density can be used to identify a material
and to determine its purity. Densities are important to engineers, architects, in the designing
of structures e.g. air craft’s, and overhead cables for the transmission of electricity are made
of alloys of aluminium because it has a lower density.
1kg  1000 g
1m 3  1000000cm3
1kg
1kg / m 3 
1m 3
1000 g

1000000cm3
1
1kg / m 3  g / cm 3
1000

16
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

By cross multiplying;
1g / cm3  (11000)kg / m3
1g / cm3  1000kg / m3

Example 1
Given that the density of mercury is 13.6g/cm3, convert it into kg/m3
Density of mercury=13.6g/cm3
1g/cm3 =1000kg/m3
Density of mercury = 13.6g/cm3
= (13.6×1000) kg/m3
= 13600 kg/m3.

Example 2
Given the density of oil as 800 kg/m3, convert it into g/cm3.
Density of oil = 800kg/m3
1
1kg / m3  g / cm3
1000
Density of oil = 800kg/m3
 1 
 800   g / cm3
 1000 

= 0.8g/cm3

Example 3
Find the density of an object whose mass is 40kg and of the volume 100cm3. Give your
answer in g/cm3
mass
Density (ρ) =
volume
40 kg
=
100 m 3
= 0.4kg/m3
1g/cm =1000kg/m3
3

0.4
Density = g / cm 3
1000
= 0.0004g/cm3

Example 4
A cube has length of 2cm and weighs 40g. Find the density of the cube in kg/m3.
Volume of the cube
=length × width × height
= (2 × 2× 2)cm
= 8cm3
mass
Density (ρ) 
volume
40 g
= =5g/cm3
8 cm 3
Density of the cube =5g/cm3
1
1kg/m3 = g / cm3
1000
x kg/m3 = 5g/cm3

17
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

By cross-multiplying;
x
 1000 = 5× 1000
1000
x = 5000kg/m3

Example 5
Given that the density of mercury is 13g/cm3, what is the mass of 12.2cm3 of mercury in kg.
Density (ρ)  mass
volume
3 mass
1.36g/cm =
12.2cm3
Let mass be m
12.2 cm3 13.6g / cm3 = m
 12.2 cm3
12.2 cm3
M =165.92g
∴mass =165.92g
1kg = 1000g
x kg = 156.92g
165.92 g 1000 x

10000 10000
x = 0.16592kg
∴ Mass of mercury in kg is 0.16592kg.

Example 6
The volume of a block of wood is 2.5 × 10-4
cm3. If the density of wood is 0.8g/cc, find the mass of wood in kg.
Volume = 2.5×10-4 m3
Density = 0.8g/cc
Mass = kg
Mass = density × volume
1g/cc = 1000kg/m3
Density of wood = 0.8×1000
= 800kg/m3
=8.0×102kg/m3
Mass = 2.5 × 10-4 m3 × 8.0 × 102 kg/m3
= 2.5 × 8.0×10-4×102
= 20.0 × 10-2
= 2.0 × 101 × 10−2
= 2.0 × 10(1 – 2)
= 2.0 ×10-1kg

More examples on conversion:

Convert the volumes to m3.
a) 2.5 litres
1litre = 1000cm3
2.5 litres = 25  100 0 cm3
10
= 2500cm3
1m3 =1000000cm3
1000000cm3 = 1m3

18
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

1
1cm3 = m3
1000000
2500
2500cm3 = m3
1000000
= 0.0025m3
b) 20000cm3
1000000cm3 = 1m3
1
1cm3 = m3
1000000
2 0000
20000cm3 =
100 0000
= 0.02m3
c) 5000 litres
1
1l = m3
1000
1 3
5000l =  5 000 m
1000
= 5m3
Convert the following densities to kgm-3
a) 0.85gcm-3
100cm = 1m
1000000cm3 =1m3
1cm3 = 1 m3
1000000
0.85 1
0.85 = 
1000 1000000
= 85 1000 000

100 000 1
= 850kg/m3

b) 1.8gcm-3
1000g = 1kg
1000
1.8g = 1.8÷
1
18 1
= 
10 1000
18
=
10000
100cm = 1m
1000000cm3 = 1m3
1
1cm3 = m3
1000000
18 1
= 
10000 1000000
= 18  100 0000
1 0000 1
3
=1800kgm

19
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Exercise
A box measures 2cm×3cm×4cm and its density is 400gcm-3.
Calculate its:
a) Volume in cm-3
b) Its mass in g
c) Express the mass in kg
d) Convert its density to kgm-3
A package has a mass of 500 gm and its dimensions are 2.5cm×3.0cm×5.0cm.
Calculate:-
a) Volume
b) Mass
c) Density

Density of a Regular Object

1. The mass of the object is determined using a beam balance.
2. The dimensions, length, width, height or radius of the object are measured and the
volume of the object is then calculated.
3. The density of the object is then calculated from :-
mass (m)
Density=
volume(v)
Example
The mass of a wooden cube is 40g and its length is 4.5cm. Calculate its density.

Solution:
Mass m = 40g
Volume v = l × l × l
=4.5×4.5×4.5
25
= × 
45 45 45 
 
10  10 10 10 
91125
=
1000
=91.125cm3
40
Density =
91.125
= 40  91125
1 1000
40 1000
= 
1 91125
= 8000
18225
320
=
729
= 0.43895 g/cm3

Density of an irregular object that sinks in water

The mass of irregular objects is determined using a beam balance.
Water is filled in a displacement can upright. The level of the beaker is placed below the
spout.
Using a string, the irregular object is slowly lowered into the displacement can and water over
flows in the beaker is measured using a measuring cylinder.

20
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

mass( m )
The density of the irregular object is then calculated from: density
volume(v )

Example:-
The mass of a certain irregular object is 9.4 kg. The initial volume of water in a measuring
cylinder was 130cm3. The final volume of water after placing the object was 136cm3.
Calculate the density of the irregular object.
Solution:
m
D=
v
Measurement of density
M = 9.4g; V1 = 130cm3 ; V2 = 136cm3
V2 – V1 = 136 – 130
= 6cm3
m
D=
v
9.4
= gcm-3
6
94 6
= 
10 1
94 1
= 
10 6
47
=
30
17
= 1 gcm-3
30

Experiments to measure the density of an irregular object that floats on water

Procedure:
The mass m of the specimen object is determined by using a beam balance. Water is poured
in a measuring cylinder and the initial volume is noted.
A strong sinker is lowered into the water in the measuring cylinder and the volume V2 is
noted.
The irregular object is then attached to the sinker and using a string the two are lowered into
the measuring cylinder.
The final volume V3 of the sinker and irregular object is noted from the results.
Volume of irregular object = V3−V2.
D1
Density of an irregular object =
V3 -V2
Practical
Weigh the mass of the object provided to you and record its mass, mass = 4.5g
Put water in the measuring cylinder and record the volume of water, V1 = 150cm3
Lower a sinker into a measuring cylinder and record the volume V2
V2 =161cm3
Attach the sinker to the irregular floating object in water in the cylinder and record the
volume V3.
V3 = 171cm 3.
Calculate the volume of the irregular object.
V3 − V2
= 171− 161

21
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

= 10cm3
Calculate the density of the object.
m
Density =
V3  V2
4.5 g
=
171  161
45
=  10
10
45 1
= 
10 10
45g

100cm 3
= 0.45gcm-3

Importances of density
 Helps when designing building structures by Engineers and Architects e.g. sky-scrappers
 It is used in chemistry to test purity of some substances
 It is used in the manufacture of aircrafts and overhead cables for transmission.
 Through density calculations, strengths of substances can be compared and relationships
can be established.
 Density has led to discovery of a new gas, Argon, important industrially.

Relative density
Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal
volume of water. It can also be defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density
of water OR relative density is the ratio of the weight of a substance to the weight of an equal
volume of water. An easy way of measuring density of (liquids and gases) fluid is to measure
its density relative to the density of water.
Relative density has no units.
1litre of water weighs 1kg
1000cm3 of water weigh 1kg
1000cm3 of water weigh 1000g
Density of water (pure) = mass of water
volume of water
1000 g
=  1kg / cm3
1000cm3
Relative density is determined from the following formula.
Relative density of a substance
density of a substance
=
density of water
mass
Since density 
volume
∴relative density of a substance
mass of asubstance
=
mass of an equal volume of water

Relative density of a substance

weight of a substance
=
weight of an equal volume of water

22
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Determination of Relative density of liquids

For liquids, relative density is determined using a relative density bottle or specific gravity
bottle. Since the relative density bottle has a fixed point volume it is not necessary to measure
its volume. This method removes errors that would arise if volume was to be measured.

Since relative density is the ratio of density of a substance to the density of an equal volume of
water knowing the relative density of a substance you can determine its density by multiplying
its relative density with the density of water.
Density of a sub stance = relative density of a substance × density of water.

Determination of relative density of a substance (methylated spirit)

Using the relative density bottle
Procedure:
Find the mass of the clean dry relative density bottle with its glass stopper on using a mass
measuring instrument e.g. triple beam balance.

Remove the glass stopper and fill the density of relative bottle with water. Replace the glass
stopper and let the excess water escape through the hole in the glass stopper.
Wipe the outside of the density bottle clean and find the mass of the water and the density
bottle with the glass stopper on using a beam balance.

Remove the glass stopper and pour water out of the density bottle and dry the density bottle.
Refill the density bottle with a liquid substance e.g. methylated spirits.
Replace the glass stopper and let the excess liquid escape through the hole of the stopper.
Wipe the outside of the density bottle clean and measure the mass of the density bottle filled
with methylated spirits and glass stopper on using a beam balance.

23
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Results:
Mass of empty density bottle with glass stopper on = M1kg.
Mass of density bottle full of water in the glass stopper on = M2kg.
Mass of density bottle of methylated spirit with glass stopper on = M3kg.
∴ Mass of water only = (M2− M1) kg
Mass of substance only = (M3− M1) kg
Conclusion:

Relative density of substance (methylated spirit)

mass of substance (menthylated spirit)
=
mass of an equal volume of water
(M 3  M1 )
Relative density of a substance =
(M 2  M1 )
Note: If the density of water is known (1000kg/m3) then the density of a substance (methylated
spirit) can be calculated.
Density of a substance
= Relative density × Density of water
(M 2  M1 )
 × Density of water
(M 3  M1 )

Example I
The density of oil is 800kgm-3 while the density of water is 1000kgm-3. Calculate the relative
density of oil.
density of a substance
R.d =
density of water
-3
= 800kgm -3
1000kgm
8
=
10
= 0.8

Example II
A metal has a density of 5000kg/m3 where as the density of water is 1000kg/m3. Calculate the
relative density of the metal.
density of metal
R.d =
density of water
5000kgm -3
=
1000kgm -3
5
= =5
1

24
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Example III
The density of a piece of metal is 2.5g/cm3 where as the density of water is 1g/cm3. Calculate
the relative density of the metal.
density of piece of metal
R.d =
density of water
2.5gcm -3
=
1gcm -3
25 1
= 
10 1
25 1
= 
10 1
=2.5

Example IV
The density of wood is 0.7gcm3 whereas the density of water is 1000kg/m3. Calculate the
relative density of wood.
Solution
Density of wood = 0.7gcm-3
1gm-3 = 1000kgm-3
7
0.7gcm-3 =  100 0
10
= 700kgm-3
density of wood
R.D =
density of water
700kgm 3
= = 0.7
1000kgm 3
Experiment to measure the relative density of a liquid using a density bottle
The mass m1 of the empty density bottle is determined using a beam balance.
The mass m2 of the density bottle filled with water is also determined using a beam balance
The density bottle dried and then filled with the liquid whose relative density is required.
The mass m3 of the density bottle filled with the specimen liquid is determined using a beam
balance.

Summary
Mass of empty bottle = m1
Mass of density bottle filled with water =m2
Mass of density bottle filled with liquid = m3
Mass of liquid = m3-m1
Mass of water = m2-m1
m3 - m1
Relative density =
m2 - m1
The above formula gives the relative density of the specimen liquid

Examples
In an experiment to determine the relative density of mercury, the following results were
obtained.
Mass of empty bottle = 20g
Mass of bottle filled with water= 45g
Mass of bottle filled with mercury=360g

25
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Calculate the relative density of mercury.

Mass of mercury = M3 –M1
=360-20
=340g
Mass of water = M2 – M1
=45-20
= 25g

mc
R.d =
mw
340
=
25
= 13.6

Experiment to measure the relative density of air

Procedure:
 The screw clip is opened and air sucked out of the flask by using a vacuum pump.
 When all the air is sucked out the levels of mercury in the barometer are equal
 The screw clip is closed and the mass m1 on the empty flask determined using a beam
balance.
 The flask is now connected to a calcium chloride drying tube.
 The screw clip is opened and air is allowed to enter the flask until it is full.
 The clip is closed and the mass M2 of the flask determined using a beam balance.
 The flask is disconnected, filled with water. The volume V of the flask is equal to the
volume of water and this is measured using a measuring cylinder.
 The room temperature is measured using a thermometer and the atmospheric pressure read
from a barometer
From the results obtained,
Mass of air in the flask = M2 –M1
Volume of air in the flask = V1
M – M1
Density of air = 2
V1
Note:
 The purpose of the connecting calcium chloride apparatus is to dry the air entering the
flask.
 There is need to record the temperature because density changes with temperature and
pressure.
 The micrometre is for showing that the flask is empty.
 The vacuum pump is for sucking out air from the flask.

Precaution when using a relative density bottle

26
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

When measuring using a relative density bottle the outside of the density bottle must be wiped
dry before weighing the mass of the density bottle and its content.
The relative density bottle should not be hold in warm hands or high temperature.
Advantages of using a relative density bottle
 Accurate measurement of density of liquids.
 No measurement of volume is needed
 Only measurement of mass (weighing) is needed
Disadvantages of using a relative density bottle
 Errors in measurement of mass
 It cannot measure density of solids

Example1:
Relative density of some type of wood is 0.96. Find the density of wood in kg/m3. Given that
the density of water is 1g/cm3.
Solution
Density of water = 1g/cm3 = (1×1000) kg/m3
=1000kg/m3
density of substance
Relative density =
density of water
Density of substance
= relative density × density of water
= 0.96 × 1000kg/m3
= 960kg/m3

Example 2
Given the following measurements find the density of a liquid substance if the density of water
is 1g/cm3
Mass of empty relative density bottle = 250g
Mass of relative density bottle full of water = 1250g
Mass of relative density bottle full of liquid substance = 950g
Solution
Relative density of a substance
mass of a substance
=
mass of an equal volume of water
Mass of water only = 1250g – 250g = 1000g
Mass of substance only= 950g – 250g = 700g
7 00 g 7
Relative density = = = 0.7
10 00 g 10
Relative density of liquid = 0.7

Example 3
A density bottle has a mass of 70g when empty 90g when full of water 94g when full of a
liquid. If the density of water is 1000kg/m3, calculate:
a. Relative density of a liquid
b. Density of the liquid
Solution
Relative density of a substance
mass of a substance
=
mass of an equal volume of water
Mass of water only = 90g – 70g =20g
Mass of substance only = 94g – 70g = 24g

27
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Relative density = 24 g = 1.2

20 g
3
Density of water = 1000kg / m = 1g/cm3
1000
density of a substance
Relative density =
density of water
∴ Density of a substance
= relative density × density of water = 1.2 × 1
= 1.2g/cm3

Relative density of insoluble solid powder

This method is used in determining relative density of a substance in powder or granular form
such as sand and lead shots. For accuracy ensure that the small air bubbles are not trapped in
the powder. Air bubbles can be removed by gently shaking the density bottle. Violent shaking
is avoided because the powder (sand) can be lodged in the glass stopper hole.

Measuring relative density of sand (powder) using a density bottle.

Procedure
Measure the mass of an empty relative density bottle with glass stopper on and let the mass be
M1kg.

Pour sand in the density bottle and measure the mass with sand and glass stopper on let mass
be M2.

Pour water in the density bottle until it completely fills the bottle and measure the mass of
water and sand in the density bottle with glass stopper on, let the mass be M3.

Pour everything out of the density bottle fill it with water and measure the density bottle full of
water with glass stopper on.

Mass of density bottle full of water with stopper on = M4

Relative density of sand (powder)
mass of any volume of sand
=
mass of an equal volume of water
Results:
Mass of any volume of sand = (M2−M1) kg
Mass of water only = (M4 – M1) kg
Mass of water added to the sand
= (M3 – M2) kg

28
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Mass of an equal volume of water

= (M4 – M1) – (M3 – M2)
Conclusion:
Relative density
mass of any volume of sand
=
mass of an equal volume of water
( m2  m1 )

( m4  m1 )  ( m3  m2 )
Example
In an experiment measure the relative density of sand a student obtained the following.
Mass of empty density bottle = 38g
Mass of density bottle, filled with sand = 74g.
Mass of density bottle, filled with sand and topped with water = 98g.
Mass of density bottle full of water only= 80g. Calculate the relative density of sand.
Solution
Relative density
mass of any volume of sand
=
mass of an equal volume of water
Mass of any volume of sand = 74g − 38g
=36g
Mass of water only = 80g − 38g = 42g
Mass of water added to sand = (98 – 74) g
= 24g
Mass of an equal volume of water
= 42g – 24g
= 18g
36 g
Relative density of sand = =2
18 g

Measuring the relative density of a stone using displacement method

Apparatus:
Measuring instrument e.g. beam balance, measuring cylinder, string, over flow can.
Procedure:
Measure the mass of a stone using a beam balance or a string balance.
Fill the over flow can with water until it starts dripping out of the spout.

Measure the mass of an empty dry beaker using a beam balance.

Place the beaker under the spout when the water has stopped dripping.
Tie the stone with a thin thread and immerse it completely in the water in the eureka can.

29
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

Remove the beaker with the displaced water when the water has stopped dripping from the
spout.
Measure the mass of the beaker with the displaced water using a beam balance.
Results:
Mass of the stone = Ms
Mass of empty dry beaker = Mb
Mass of a beaker with displaced water = Md
Mass of an equal volume of water = ( Md – Mb)
Conclusion:
mass of the stone
Relative density 
mass of an equal volume of water
ms

md  mb

Significant figures
Length of the block is 3.15cm
When taking measurements e.g. the length of the block above using a metre rule, the last digit
in the figure or reading was obtained by guessing between two points either 3.1 or 3.2. The
reading is said to be correct to three significant figures. The 1st two figures 3and 1 are known
to be correct but the 3rd digit 5 is an estimation.
Measurements are always given correct to a certain number of significant figures. To
determine the number of significant figures the following rules are applied.
1. All non zero (0) digits are significant e.g. 3.15 has 3 significant figures. 4879 has 4
significant figures.
2. All zeros between non – zero digits are significant e.g. 4000.7 has 5 significant figures.
102.09 has 5 significant figures. 103.008 has 6 significant figures.
3. Zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of a decimal point which is not
indicated (an understood decimal point) may or may not be significant e.g. 76.4000 may be
correct to 3, 4, 5, or 6 significant figures. 100 may be correct to 1, or 2 or 3 significant
figures.
4. All zeros to the right of a decimal point following a non-zero digit are significant e.g.
92.00 is correct to 4significant figures. 7.980 is correct to 4 significant figures. 1.0 has 2
significant figures.
5. All zeros not mentioned in the above rule are not significant that is to say all zeros to the
right of a decimal point and before a non- zero digit are non- significant e.g. 0.02 has only
one significant figure which is 2. 0.00002 is correct to 1 significant figure. 0.00782 has 3
significant figures.

Examples:
Correct the following readings to have 2 significant figures.
a) 6687≈6700
b) 0.000392 ≈0.00039
c) 200.05 ≈200

30
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

d) 12.016648 ≈ 12
e) 105.06 ≈ 1100

Standard form
Some numbers e.g. 0.000,000,000,000,456cm; 1,000,000,000,000kg; 0.00,000,000,000,001
km; 600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg, 0.00401s, 120145m are inconvenient to write
especially during calculation, using powers or indices or exponents of 10 these numbers can
be simplified. A positive power or positive indices is the number of times the number must be
multiplied by 10 while a negative power or indices is the number of times the number must
be divided by 10. These numbers can be written by in the form (a × 10n) where a is a number
which has only one non-zero digit to the left of a decimal point (it lies between 1.0 to 9.9) and
n is a positive integer or negative integers. This method of representing numbers is called the
standard form (exponential notation or scientific notation).
Positive integers
1 = 1× 1=1 × 100
10 = 1 × 10 = 1 × 101
100 = 1 × 100 = 1 × 102
1000 = 1 × 1000 = 1 × 103 = 1.0 × 103
10000 = 1 × 10000 = 1 × 104 = 1.0× 104
100000 =1 ×10×10×10×10×10 = 1×105
1000000 = 1×10×10×10×10×10×10= 1×106 1.0×106
Negative integers
0.1= 1 =1.0×10-1
10
1 1
0.01= = 2 =1.0×10-2
100 10
1 1
0.001= = 3 =1.0×10-3
1000 10
1 1
0.0001= = 4 =1.0×10-4
10000 10
1 1
0.00001= = 5 =1.0×10-5
100000 10
1 1
0.000001= = 6 =1.0×10-6
1000000 10
Examples:
a. 6000000000000000000000000kg
= 6.0×1024kg
b. 70000001 = 7.0000001 × 107
c. 1000000 = 1.0× 106
d. 384 = 3.84×102
e. 12 = 1.2×101
f. 7 = 7.0×100
g. 5260000= 5.26×106
h. 106000 = 1.06×105
i. 1000 = 1.0×103
j. 156.2 = 1.562×102
k. 1000.37 = 1.00037×103
8 8 8
  3
l. 1000 10  10 10 10 =8×10-3

Note: am× an = a(m + n)

31
 S.1 PHYSICS NOTES

am
= am ÷ an = a(m - n)
an
(am)n =a(m × n) = (a)mn
a0 = 1
1
a-1=
a1
1
a-n= n
1
a
n
a = a-n

32