Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

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Results in Engineering
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Evaluating the mechanical and durability properties of sustainable

lightweight concrete incorporating the various proportions of waste
pumice aggregate
Hafiz Muhammad Shahzad Aslam a , Atteq Ur Rehman a , Kennedy C. Onyelowe *,b ,
Sadaf Noshin a , Mazhar Yasin a , Muhammad Adil Khan c , Abid Latif d ,
Hafiz Muhammad Usman Aslam d , Shabeer Hussain a
a
Department of Technology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Kampala International University, Kampala, Uganda
c
Chief Resident Engineer, National Engineering Services Pakistan, Lahore, Pakistan
d
Department of Civil Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Traditional waste management faces significant environmental, social, and economic challenges, while con­
Lightweight concrete crete’s high resource consumption highlights the need for improved, low-density alternatives. Consequently,
Waste pumice aggregate lightweight concrete (LWC) has emerged as a favored solution. Recent interest in using pumice aggregate in
dry-density
concrete arises from its advantageous properties, such as low unit weight, which enables the construction of
Flexural strength
Indirect Tensile Strength
lighter buildings and reduces the load on structural elements. This study aimed to create lightweight, sustainable
Compressive strength concrete using underutilized waste pumice aggregate (WPA). Concrete specimens with waste pumice aggregate
ratios of 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 % were analyzed at 7 and 28 days, with results contrasted against the
virgin sample. The testing protocol encompassed detailed laboratory evaluations of concrete properties,
including workability, density, strength, impact energy, ultrasonic velocity, water absorption, and cost analysis.
Experimental results indicated that the inclusion of Waste pumice aggregate as a lightweight aggregate in
concrete, in contrast to conventional aggregates, results in reduced workability, density, and strength metrics, as
well as heightened water absorption, diminished impact energy, and lower ultrasonic pulse velocity. Sustainable
or green concrete from M-20 to M-60 along strength ≥17 MPa is for load-bearing applications, while M-80 and
M-100 whose strength is <17 MPa are for non-load-bearing uses.

1. Introduction billion tons annually [14].

Fig. 1.
The demand for housing and basic amenities has surged, due to the Prominent components of concrete, aggregates, which exist 65–80 %
accelerating pace of urbanization, and population growth [1,2]. Con­ in concrete by volume, are classified into coarse and fine particles [15,
crete, being cost-effective, easy to produce, adequately durable, resis­ 16]. These key components, varying in size, are seeing growing demand
tant to water, moldable into various shapes, and widely available, is the in construction and infrastructure development [17]. In, 2025, aggre­
most extensively used building material after water [3–6], annually, gate consumption, is anticipated to reach 10–12.5 billion tons [18]. This
nearly 3 tons of structural concrete is utilized per person [7,8]. Concrete immense demand, for aggregate surpasses the availability of natural
is comprised of aggregates, cement, and water [9–11]. Each year, the supplies, resulting in their depletion. Additionally, it has been found,
construction industry consumes around 1 billion tons of water, 10–12 that the production of 1000 kg, of natural aggregate generates 20 kg of
billion tons of aggregates, and 1.5–2 billion tons of cement [12]. Global CO2, due to quarrying, crushing, and transport [19,20], which causes
concrete use is about 11.5 billion tons per year and could rise to 18 environmental degradation [21].
billion tons by 2050 [13]. Another study estimates current usage at 33 Owing to this, various researchers, recommended the utilization of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K.C. Onyelowe).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103496
Received 24 September 2024; Received in revised form 2 November 2024; Accepted 21 November 2024
Available online 22 November 2024
2590-1230/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

recycled coarse aggregate [22–33], steel slag aggregate [34–39], waste puteolanus," now known as volcanic or pumice pozzolan, was first used
glass aggregates [40–46], ceramic waste aggregates [47–50], waste by the Romans, in structures such as the Pantheon and public baths
brick aggregate [51–56], E-waste aggregate [57–60], oil palm shell [114,115]. LWC, carrying a dry density, in the range between 300–1840
aggregate [61–63], coconut shell aggregate [64–69], Expanded Poly­ kg/m³, which is 23–80 % lighter than normal concrete [116]. In struc­
styrene aggregate [70–76], sawdust ash [77], waste rubber tire aggre­ tural applications, LWC, has a unit weight, of 1400 to 2000 kg/m³, in
gate [78–84], and lightweight aggregates [85–90], as a substitution contrast to 2400 kg/m³ for normal-weight concrete (NWC) [117–121].
material of natural aggregate. For this study, WPA, Collected, Umer Siddique (US) apparel industry
In this research, lightweight aggregates, are used as a substitution, (31.399, 74.198), which is used for stone-washing denim, dye removal,
for coarse aggregates. Lightweight aggregates (LWA), are distinguished, and fabric softening. The resulting, pumice waste, is locally discarded
by their reduced bulk density, when compared to traditional construc­ and collected by locals for uses such as concrete aggregate and filling.
tion aggregates [91]. LWA, with densities under 2000 kg/m³, is utilized The industry’s location and the WPA collection process are shown in
to reduce weight, improve durability, and enhance thermal and acoustic Fig. 2.
properties in concrete [92]. A large no. of lightweight materials has been Excess, waste pumice, creates an environmental burden on the
applied, in the manufacturing, of lightweight concrete (LWC). Various environment. Pakistan’s, textile industry, the 8th-largest in Asia, wastes
researchers, recommended so far scoria [93], expanded perlite [94,95], over 240 tonnes of pumice stone, annually [122], adding to these
pumice stone [96,97], diatomite [98], exfoliated vermiculite [99,100], concerns.
bloated clay [101], and some byproducts of industrial waste, etc. The The main target, of this research, is to fix the above-cited problems,
strength, and density of these materials, differ by source, type, and by applying WPA, discarded by the US apparel industry, for the manu­
manufacture method. LWA, properties rely, on the thickness of the shell, facture of easy-to-work, environmentally friendly concrete, and sus­
pore characteristics, and aggregate shape. Textures, range from smooth tainable lightweight concrete, which is not only to save the cost of
to irregular, affecting the slump, and water to cement requirements of landfilling but also to save natural resources. To achieve the above
concrete mixes [85]. objective, NCA was replaced by WPA, by substitution, as 0 %, 20 %, 40
Normal concrete, weighing around 2400 to 2500 kg/m³, is quite %,50 %,60 %, 80 %, and 100 %. At this replacement slump, fresh den­
heavy, increasing the size of structural members due to its dead load sity, dry density, flexural, tensile, compressive strength, impact energy,
[16–18]. Normal concrete type, lightweight concrete (LWC), is gener­ water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity test, and cost analysis were
ally, constructed, with the help of lightweight aggregate (LWA) or conducted.
expanding agent [17–19,102]. LWC, carrying a dry density, in the range
between 300–1840 kg/m³, which is 23–80 % lighter than normal con­ 2. Materials and methods
crete [20]. In structural applications, LWC, has a unit weight, of 1400 to
2000 kg/m³, in contrast to 2400 kg/m³ for normal-weight concrete 2.1. Materials
(NWC) [21–25].
As per the available literature, various researchers used pumice For the preparation of lightweight, and sustainable concrete, this
aggregate, obtained by the volcanic eruption, known as natural or vol­ study used 53-grade, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), which meets the
canic pumice [96,97,103–109]. In this research, NCA is replaced by requirement, of ASTM C150 [123]. Cement, a common binder, sets,
waste pumice aggregate (WPA) to conserve natural resources and pro­ hardens, and bonds materials. It must, be free of lumps, and impurities,
duce sustainable, LWC. Despite this, very limited knowledge is available and stored in dry condition, to preserve quality. The physical and
about the usage of WPA in concrete, which depicts a research gap in the chemical properties, of OPC, are discussed in Table 1.
literature. Pumice stone (PS) is characterized by its lightweight, River sand, locally known as Lawrencepur sand, is used as fine
sponge-like structure [110–113]. Over 2000 years ago, "Pulvis aggregate or filler materials, along with a fineness modulus of 2.50. Fine

Fig. 1. Graphical abstract of this study.

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 2. Location of US apparel industry location and WPA collection layout detailed.

Water, essential for laying, setting, mixing, compaction, and hard­

Table 1
ening of concrete, affects its strength and durability. In the mix design,
Physical and chemical characteristics of OPC.
pure laboratory water, which is free from contaminants, and additives,
Physical Property Chemical Property was used. Materials were chosen, by considering, their cost-
Name of Property Standard Value Element Weight effectiveness, workability, strength, and durability.
(%)

Initial time for ASTM C191–04B 65 minutes C 18.92 2.2. Mix proportions
setting [124]
Final time for setting 3 hrs 18 O 40.73
minutes To achieve the intended objectives, two distinct groups of concrete
Specific gravity (Sg) ASTM C188 [125] 3.15 Mg 0.96 were meticulously prepared. In 1st group, a control mixture, specified
Compressive ASTM C109/ 68.26 Al 1.39 as, a virgin sample, designated as “M-0”, without WPA, composed of
strength (28 Days) C109M–21 [126] (MPA) Si 4.29 cement, river sand, NCA, and water, was created, to assess the me­
Soundness BS: 196–3 [127] 9.3 S 2.21
chanical properties of the normal concrete. In 2nd group, five, addi­
K 1.13
Consistency (%) ASTM C187–04 28.5 Ca 28.96 tional families of concrete, were produced by substitution of NCA by
[128] Fe 1.41 WPA, as 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %, by keeping the fixed
amount of cement, and river sand. These two groups are explained in
Fig. 6.
aggregate, ranging from 4.75 mm to 75 μm, is used in concrete, to fill
For, a virgin sample, the design mix and target strength were 1:1.5:3
voids, between coarse aggregates. It must be made strong, clean, hard,
and 20MPa along with the 75 mm slump for the production of non-air-
devoid of organic contaminants and harmful compounds, and main­
entrained concrete mix. All other mix was produced, using the volume
tained inert. It should meet the required standards, for shrinkage,
method, following the ASTM and ACI standards. For the verification of
strength, density, and durability in concrete applications [96].
the strength, of the virgin sample, six cylinders were cast, and testing
Coarse aggregate, serving as an inert, and filler in concrete, consists
after 28 days, of the required curing period, the average, attained
of particles, equal to or larger than 4.75 mm. Two coarse aggregates,
strength of concrete, in compression was 22.72 MPa. Table 4, represents
NCA, and WPA, both with a nominal maximum size of 20 mm, were
mixes ID, quantities of materials for virgin as well as sustainable LWC,
used, to study the properties of lightweight, sustainable concrete. The
and mix proportions, for 1m3 concrete production.
physical composition and physical and chemical condition of aggregates
are expressed in Fig. 3, Table 2, and Table 3, respectively. The gran­
ulometric analysis, SEM, and EDX image, along with the chemical po­ 2.3. Mixing, casting, and curing of the concrete
sition, of the materials are depicted in Fig. 4, and Fig. 5.
The Tam et al., [135] technique, known as two-stage mixing, was

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 3. Physical composition of NCA, and WPA used in this research.

opted to prepare, LWC. A cement paste was shaped, by mixing water,

Table 2
cement, and followed by the progressive integration of WPA, which was
Physical properties of FA, NCA, WPA.
stirred continuously for 10 minutes. Subsequently, NCA and sand were
Physical characteristics FA NCA WPA Standard used to increase the characteristics of the sustainable concrete. For the
Fineness Modulus (FM) 2.50 7.11 7.25 ASTM production, of the M20 grade mix design, materials were combined,
C136–06 [129] using a 0.6 w/b ratio. Five other families, of concrete, were also shaped,
Compacted Density (rodded) 1827.25 1638.37 537.21 ASTM C29
using WPA by substitution of coarse aggregate (CA), at ratios, of 0 %, 20
(kg/m3) [130]
Lose Density (kg/m3) 1735.46 1450.52 484.15 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %. The casting specimen size, type, age at
Bulk Specific gravity (SG) 2.61 2.49 0.70 ASTM C127 which samples were tested, total no. of samples, and procedure opted of
Bulk Saturated surface dry 2.64 2.51 1.06 [131], the ASTM specifications, were cited in Table 5. Fig. 7, depicts the
Specific gravity (Sssd) ASTM C128 sequentially phenomena for mixing, sample concrete preparation,
Apparent specific gravity 2.70 2.54 1.09 [132]
(Sapp)
compaction, curing, workability, and cylinder testing.
Water absorption ( %) 1.26 0.80 50.82
Impact Value ( %) - 8.5 21.6 BS-812
part112 [133] 2.4. Testing methods of specimens
Crushing Value ( %) - 11.95 36.54 BS-812
part110 [134]
The slump cone test, performed in accordance with ASTM C143, was
used to assess the workability, of the newly mixed concrete. Following
the aforementioned mixing process, three slump cones were simulta­
Table 3 neously filled to evaluate consistency. The mean value of the three
Chemical properties of FA, NCA, WPA. measurements is taken in this research. It is widely acknowledged, that
Chemical Elements FA NCA WPA the workability of a concrete blend, is characterized, by its consistency,
Weight ( %) and fluidity [144,145]. The density of the concrete specimen was
C 27.95 22.21 13.93 assessed in accordance with ASTM C138. The dry weights of cylindrical
O 46.86 44.9 47.81 specimens (150 mm x 300 mm), of known volume were measured, and
Na 0.75 0.85 1.78 after that, the density of the concrete was evaluated by utilizing the
Mg 1 2.36 -
Al 5.84 4.16 5.46
mass-volume relationship. The average value, derived from these six
Si 13.34 9.73 22.49 measurements, is representative of the density of the concrete mix.
K 0.97 1.05 2.48 Density, which is largely governed, by lightweight aggregate quantity,
Ca 1.51 6.4 0.69 and density controls several physical attributes, in lightweight concrete
Fe 1.78 6.89 1.74
[146]. The mechanical strength, of hardened concrete, was assessed
through compressive strength (CS), tensile strength (TS), and flexural
strength (FS) tests, in accordance with ASTM C39, ASTM C496, and
ASTM C78 standards. Cylindrical specimens (150 mm x 300 mm), and
prisms (150 mm x 150 mm x 510 mm) were casted. A compression

Fig. 4. Gradation curves of NCA, WPA, and FA.

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 5. Exhibited SEM, EDX, of used samples at cited magnification (a) OPC; (b) FA;(c) NCA; and (d) WPA.

testing machine (CTS), having a capacity of, a total load application is transmitting a wave pulse into the concrete and measuring the travel
2000KN, was used for assessing CS, and TS. Fs was obtained by the time for the pulse to propagate through the samples, which is useful for
“Three-point Loading Test”. Results were achieved on samples aged 7 assessing concrete quality and strength. The durability of concrete mixes
and 28 days under normal water curing. The impact energy (IE), of the was assessed by measuring water absorption (WA), in samples that are
concrete specimens, was founded, with the help of drop weight 50 mm thick and 100 mm in diameter, as specified by ASTM C1585. This
hammering effect apparatus, on a circular disk (100mm x 63.5mm), by involved recording W1, the 48-hour oven-dried weight of each specimen
using the specification of ACI 544.2R-89. Hammering drops were at 60◦ C, and W2, the weight of the specimen after 48 hours of immersion
applied, until the first crack appeared, recording the number of drops. in water, with a saturated surface-dried condition.
Drops then continued, until the specimen broke into fragments. Impact
energies of concrete were measured, by initial and final crack specimens. 3. Results and discussions
The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) method, a non-destructive tech­
nique, has been extensively employed, in the assessment and analysis, of 3.1. Concrete properties in the fresh state
concrete structures’ mechanical properties, and integrity, by using
ASTM C597. UPV was measured using a pulse meter with a transducer 3.1.1. Workability of concrete
pair operating at a nominal frequency of 54 kHz. This method involves The substitution dosages of WPA influence, the flow characteristic of

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 6. Virgin, and sustainable concrete group used in this research.

3.2. Concrete properties in the hardened state

Table 4
Quantities of materials for 1 m3 concrete used in this research.
3.2.1. Dry density of concrete (Dry unit weight)
Mixes ID OPC Rivers Sand (Kg NCA WPA Water Alengaram et al. [149], observed that density is influenced by the
(Kg /m3) /m3) (Kg /m3) (Kg /m3) (Kg /m3)
waste material replacement levels, specific gravity, water-cement ratio,
M-0 349 523.5 1047 0 209.4 water absorption, and sand type. But, in this research, the density of
M-20 349 523.5 837.6 68.11 209.4 control, and sustainable LWC samples were compared, by changing the
M-40 349 523.5 628.2 136.22 209.4
M-60 349 523.5 418.8 204.33 209.4
only waste material replacement levels. From the results, it is clear, that
M-80 349 523.5 209.4 272.44 209.4 a wide range of concrete densities can be produced, by incorporating
M-100 349 523.5 0 340.55 209.4 WPA, at different volume percentages in normal concrete, at 7 and 28
days of the curing period. The density of M-0, is 2696.43kg/m3,
compared with the M-100 has 1739.62 kg/m3, which is less, and the
pumice-based concrete. To demonstrate, the impact of these dosages, on
trend from 20–100 % inclusion WPA, density also decreased presented
the workability, of concrete mixtures, slump flow tests, were conducted
In Fig. 9. This decrease was noticed from 10.64–31.22 % at 7 days, while
on controls and a sustainable LWC group, and the results of each group
12.71–35.48 % at 28 days of cured sample. This reduction is because of,
are shown in Fig. 8. Results depict, at every substitution level, of WPA %,
less unit weight or the porous nature of the concrete, cited by
slump values decreased, which is from 11.69 to 53.25 %. The observed
[150–153].
decrease, in slump or workability, linked to the increased percentage of
waste pumice aggregate (WPA), incorporated into the concrete mix, can
3.2.2. Compressive strength of the concrete
be attributed to its elevated porosity, which leads to a higher rate of
CS is affected by the degree of compaction, matrix strength, cement
water absorption in comparison to conventional aggregates [147,148].

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Table 5
Details of specimen size, type, testing age, ASTM followed total no samples.
Test performed on concrete Size of Specimen Type of Specimen Age of samples testing (Days) ASTM code opted for a test Total no. of samples
(mm)

Workability test D(t)*= 100 Conical - ASTM C143 [136] Conducted on each mixture
D(b)*= 200
H*= 300
Density (Dry) 150×300 Cylinder 7, 28 ASTM C138 [137] 42
Compressive Strength 150×300 Cylinder 7, 28 ASTM C39 [138]
Tensile Strength 150×300 Cylinder 7, 28 ASTM C496 [139] 42
Flexural Strength 150×150×510 Prism 7, 28 ASTM C78 [140] 42
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test 150×300 Cylinder 28 ASTM C597 [141] Conducted on each sample of CS
Water absorption 100×50 Circular Disk 7,28 ASTM C1585 [142] 42
Drop weight Test 100×63.5 Circular Disk 28 ACI 544.2R-89 [143] 25

Note: D(t)*= Cone dia at the Top; D(b)* = Cone dia at the base; and H* = Elevation of the cone.

Fig. 7. Procedure for (a) Mixing; (b) Preparing concrete samples; (c) compaction; (d)Curing; (e) Slum measurement; and (d) cylinder testing.

content, aggregate strength, and water-to-cement ratio [154]. In this the concrete, as the principal strength-contributing phase. This “C-S-H”
work, LWA, having less strength as compared to NCA, was used to assess gel provides the binding and strength-enhancing properties of the mix.
the CS of LWC. The replacement levels of NCA by WPA were kept at The 28-day SEM images for normal aggregate concrete indicated a dense
20–100 %, with a 20 % difference for each mix. The obtained results are microstructure with minimal ettringite and CH crystals, and the surface
depicted in Fig. 10. From the results, it is noticed that the CS of the virgin appeared almost entirely enclosed by C-S-H gel. While in contrast,
sample is higher than the produced LWC. But, overall CS, of the sus­ Fig. 11 (b) shows the microstructure of waste pumice aggregate con­
tainable LWC, is decreasing from 9.92–46.05 %, and 9.31–48.91 % at 7, crete. In this sample, flaky crystals of Portlandite (CH), C-S-H gel, and
and 28 days of cured samples, respectively. Previous work, also occasional needle-like ettringite structures were observed. The 28-day
explained that using natural or volcanic pumice, in concrete causes a SEM images of recycled aggregate concrete displayed a greater pres­
reduction in the strength, because of the lightweight, porous, and less ence of pores compared to normal aggregate concrete. Over time, many
unit weight of WPA, as explained by [155,156]. of these pore voids became gradually occupied from C-S-H gel, resulting
Besides this, the SEM micrographs of the fracture surfaces of normal in a dense and solid microstructure, that pointedly improved durability
and optimized waste pumice aggregate concrete samples at 28 days are as well as the strength, of both normal and waste pumice aggregate
shown in Fig. 11. In Fig. 11 (a), the micrograph of normal aggregate concrete, which is aligned with [157–159]. The failure pattern of normal
concrete revealed the flaky crystals development, which is identified as along with sustainable concrete presented in Fig. 12.
Portlandite (CH), alongside a dense layer of C-S-H gel, which assisted in The failure pattern against uni-axial compression load, and

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 8. Slump variation against the various waste pumice-based concrete.

Fig. 9. Effect of WPA % on the density of concrete against 7, and 28-day age of samples.

Fig. 10. Effect of WPA % on the CS of concrete against 7, and 28-day age of samples.

morphology of aggregates of the samples are presented in Fig. 15, and 3.2.3. Indirect tensile strength of the concrete
Fig. 16, respectively. To assess, the impact of WPA %, on the TS of concrete, LWC was
made by substitution levels of 20 %, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %.

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 11. SEM Micrographs of the normal as well as sustainable concrete against 28-day age of samples.

3.2.4. Flexural strength of the concrete

The impact of LWAs, on FS, has been shown by various authors.
Minapu [151] found that the inclusion of natural pumice aggregate as
10–50 %, along with the 10 % difference for each mix, caused a
reduction in FS, 10–53 %. Similarly, Pravallika and Rao [166], also
noticed by using natural pumice 10–50 %, with 10 %increment for each
mix, FS reduced by 3–31 % at 7 days, while 0.61–30.36 % at 28 days age
of concrete. This research, used WPA, as a replacement for NCA, 20–100
%, by a difference of 20 % for each mix. Results obtained, shown in
Fig. 15, indicated that at 7 days, FS decreased from 9.05–65.85 %, while
at 28 days, FS reduced from 12.25–75 %. This negative impact, high­
lighted by various researchers, owing to, less unit weight, loading ca­
pacity, porous or inferior quality of the WPA, as cited by [167–169]. The
failure configuration of the samples, when subjected to a three-point
loading, is elucidated in Fig. 16.

3.2.5. Impact energy of the concrete

The impact resistance (IR), and impact energy (IE) of concrete, are
Fig. 12. Failure behavior of cited samples under compression load at the 28- contingent upon the type of reinforcement, strength, aggregate size, and
day age of samples. shape [170]. It is revealed, by the results, presented in Fig. 17, that a
lower final IE, is attained as the dosages of WPA are increased. This
Results are portrayed, in Fig. 13, which indicates TS of normal concrete reduction in IE was 26.67 %, 34.71 %, 65.35 %, 75.95 %, and 86.67 % at
is higher than the LWC, produced by using WPA. The TS, of LWC, is 1st crack generation, while 12.10 %,22.91 %,51.32 %,65.93, and 80.25
decreasing from 10.19–57.32 %, at 7 days, while 5.80–53.53 %, at 28 % at the failure state, in contrast to virgin samples at 28 days of age of
days of aging concrete, when 20–100 % dosages of WPA were used in the the concrete, when 20–100 % WPA was used, with a 20 % difference for
place of NCA. This decrease in behaviors of TS of LWC is mostly each mix. This reduction in IE resulted, was because of, the lower unit
acknowledged, by various researchers, owing to, lower unit weight, weight, and compressive strength of the LWC, as cited by [171]. From
porosity, and inferior quality of WPA [160–165]. The failure pattern of the above finding, it is also clear that as the IE, of the LWC, reduced, the
the samples, subjected to an indirect tension test, is illustrated in Fig. 14. IR also decreased, because an initial and final crack generation, in the

Fig. 13. Effect of WPA % dosages on the TS of concrete at 7, and 28-day age of samples.

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 14. Failure of cited samples by indirect tension test at the 28-day age of samples.

Fig. 15. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the FS of concrete at 7, and 28-day age.

Fig. 16. Failure configuration of the samples, when subjected to three-point loading at the 28-day age of samples.

circular sample, was early as compared to the control sample. The fail­ were used for the preparation of LWC, and tested against the UPV test, at
ure morphology of the samples, when subjected to impact loading, is the age of 28 days. Results are depicted in Fig. 19, which showed that the
elucidated in Fig. 18. UPV of virgin samples was 4.96 Km/sec, while the other was 4.34, 3.88,
3.29, 2.33, and 1.83 Km/sec which indicates a negative impact on UPV,
3.2.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity test as the WPA increased. This indicated that, as the inclusion of WPA,
Numerous factors influence UPV, such as the type of LWAs, the increased up to 100 % from 20 %, the time required for the pulse to
water-to-cement ratios, and the weight ratio of each type of aggregate to travel through a virgin sample was shorter compared to that of concrete
the total aggregate content [172]. To assess this variation, LWAs (WPA) samples containing WPA, which caused a decrease in UPV. This occurs

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 17. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the IE of concrete at 28 days of aging.

Fig. 18. Failure morphology of the samples, when subjected to impact loading at 28 days of aging.

Fig. 19. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the UPV at 28 days of aging.

due to the porosity or reduced density of the concrete, as corroborated from 20 to 100 %, by volume, at the increment level of 20 % for each
by [173–176]. mix. WA was evaluated by keeping, the temperature of the oven was
60◦ C, and found at 48 hours, at the age of 7 and 28 days. Results ob­
3.2.7. Water absorption of the concrete tained are presented in Fig. 20, which indicates the escalation trend of
The WA, of concrete is influenced by factors such as the presence of WA, as the WPA increased in concrete. The WA of the virgin sample is
mineral admixtures, concrete composition, curing age, and size [177]. lower as compared to WPA concrete. The increase in WA of the concrete
For this, in this research, LWC was made, by replacing the NCA by WPA, from 47.78–74.89 % at 7 days of curing sample, while 45.36–76.33 % at

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H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 20. Effect of WPA % substitutions on the WA against 7, and 28 days of aging.

28 days of cured sample, when the WPA, introduced in concrete from 20–60 % WPA, relative to 1 to 5 cubic meters of concrete.
20–100 % by volume. The observed increase in WA, of pumice-based
concrete, as reported by various researchers [178,179], can be attrib­
3.3. Correlation developed between dry density and various experimental
uted to the higher air void content (spongy nature) or elevated water
parameters
absorption properties of pumice aggregates.
Fig. 22 (a, b, c), depicts the trends of the mechanical strength against
3.2.8. Cost analysis of the concrete
the density, of normal as well as sustainable concrete, at the curing ages
In any construction project, concrete is deemed an essential element,
of 7 and 28 days. It is clear from the trends, as the density of the concrete
and its cost is contingent upon the prices of the raw materials used in its
enhanced, the mechanical strength of the normal as well as sustainable
production. The comprehensive cost of a project encompasses not only
concrete, also enhanced. These trends are developed by the curve fitting
the expenses related to materials and construction but also includes
techniques, known as polynomial regression analysis (PRA). This tech­
maintenance and end-of-life costs [180]. But, in this study, the cost of
nique developed R2 values, greater than 0.9, which portrays the degree,
preparing 1 cubic meter of normal concrete, for construction works, is
to which regression models, accurately present trends of mechanical
evaluated by considering the per kg ingredients cost of materials
strength, against the density at the concerned ages of concrete. Simi­
(cement, sand, Crush, and waste pumice aggregate), used in the virgin as
larly, Fig. 22 (d, e), represents the trends of impact energy, at the initial
well as sustainable concrete materials, which obtained based on the
and failure stage, and ultrasonic pulse velocity, which also indicates the
most current market quotations [181,182]. This cost varies by changing
increasing trends against the density of the concrete. Their PRA models
the target strength, mix ratio, materials density, water-to-cement ratios,
provided R2 values, also greater than 0.9. On the other hand, Fig. 22 (f)
and dry-to-wet volume factors. This decrease in cost is due to the in­
depicts, that as the density of the concrete increased, the percentage of
clusion of waste coarse aggregate, which is collected from industry,
water absorption reduced, owing to the dense packing or less percentage
without any cost [183–185]. This saved cost can be used for improving
amount of waste pumice aggregate in concrete. Their PRA model indi­
lifestyle as well as in improving the structural works.
cated that the R2 value is also greater than 0.9, which explains the ac­
The mix prepared using the volumetric method, reveals that the cost
curacy of water absorption data against the density. Future researchers,
of pumice-based concrete decreases by 5.6 % to 28 %, when NCA is
from the above-cited models, can make his viewpoint, regarding opti­
substituted with WPA, in quantities ranging from 20 % to 100 %. Fig. 21
mized concrete mixtures, and predict the performance of normal as well
shows the increasing cost trend for waste pumice-based concrete with
as sustainable concrete. While the designer, optimizes the mix design of

Fig. 21. Cost-saving trends for pumice-based concrete across different volumes and WPA replacement percentages.

12
H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

Fig. 22. Correlation developed between dry density and various experimental parameters.

concrete, for specific applications, of both normal as well as sustainable mixtures were evaluated in both their fresh and hardened states. The
concrete. The specific values and correlations of these properties, based following conclusions have been derived from this study:
on the percentage of WPA, quality, and concrete mix design, are detailed
below: 1. The workability of waste pumice-based concrete is reduced at each
level of replacement, compared to natural coarse aggregate. This
4. Conclusions decrease is due to the pumice’s lightweight, and higher water ab­
sorption, all of which result in a lower concrete slump.
In this work, comprehensive experimental analyses were under­ 2. At each substitution level, the unit weight of waste pumice-based
taken, to investigate the properties of lightweight aggregate concrete, concrete is consistently reduced in both, its fresh and hardened
utilizing waste lightweight pumice aggregate, as the primary coarse states. This reduction is attributed to the inherently spongy nature
aggregate. A cost-effective, eco-friendly, and easily workable concrete and lower density of pumice aggregate compared to virgin aggre­
was developed by substituting coarse aggregate in increments of 0 %, 20 gate, thereby yielding lightweight concrete.
%, 40 %, 60 %, 80 %, and 100 %. This approach not only reduces landfill 3. Mechanical properties, such as flexural, compressive, and tensile, of
expenses but also conserves natural resources. The properties of the waste pumice-based concrete, exhibit a progressively negative trend,

13
H.M.S. Aslam et al. Results in Engineering 24 (2024) 103496

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