3A 01

Process maps
Process Analysis
and 02
Documentation

Documentation
.
 Process Maps
❖ Flow chart and process map are
used interchangeably
❖ Process mapping is the process of
creating a diagram; the diagram
itself is called a flow chart.
Start / End

Process

Direction of flow

Decision

Link

Process Map - Elements

Slide 3
Start / End Delay / Wait

Process Input / Output

Direction of flow
Document

Decision
Manual Operation

Link Preparation

Process Map - Elements

Slide 4
 Receive Design Fabricate
Start
Order
Fail

Inspect

Dispatch Pack
End
Pass

Process Map – Hand drawn Example

Slide 5
 Receive Design Fabricate
Start
Order
Fail

Inspect

Dispatch Pack
End
Pass

Process Map – Hand drawn Example

Slide 6
 Receive
Sales

Start
Order
Design

Design
Fabrication

Fabricate Pass Pack Dispatch

Inspect End
Fail

Process Map – Swim Lane

Slide 7
Suppliers Inputs Process Outputs Customers

SIPOC
Slide 8
 Quality
Documentation
Manual

Procedures ❖ Procedures specify what is done,

when, where and why
Work
Instructions ❖ Work Instructions specify the
details such as how and who.
Forms
 3B 01
Basic probability concepts
Probability
And 02
Central limit theorem

Statistics
.
 3B-1 01
Independent events

Basic 02
Mutually exclusive events
Probability
.

Concepts 03
Multiplication rule

04
Permutations & combinations
• Classic Model
Number of outcomes in which the event occurs
Total Number of possible outcomes of an experiment

• Relative Frequency of Occurrence

Number of times an event occurred
Total number of opportunities for an event to occur

Probability
❖ Experiment/Trial: Some thing done
with an expectation of result.

❖ Event or Outcome: Result of

experiment

❖ Sample Space: A sample space of

an experiment is the set of all
possible results of that random
experiment.
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Probability
❖ Sample space: In roll of two dices

{(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6),

(2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6),
(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6),
(4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6),
(5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6),
(6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6),}

Probability
❖ Venn diagram:
Event A: Probability of getting 1 or 4 in
the roll of a dice.

A
6
1 2
4 3 5
Probability
❖ Venn diagram:
Event A: Probability of getting 1 or 4 in
the roll of a dice.
Event B: Probability of getting 2, 3, 5 or 6

A B

Probability
1 2 6
4 3 5
❖ Venn diagram:
Event A: Probability of getting 1 or 4 in
the roll of a dice.
Event B: Probability of getting 2, 3, 5 or 6
Mutually Exclusive Events: When two
events cannot occur at the same time
A B

Probability
1 2 6
4 3 5
❖ Venn diagram:
Event A: Probability of getting 1 or 4 in
the roll of a dice.
Event C: Probability of getting 1, 2, 3, 5
or 6

A C
2

Probability
6
4 1 3
5
❖ Union:
Probability that events A or B occur
P(A ∪ B)
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

❖ Intersection:
Probability that events A and B occur
P(A ∩ B) {1}

A C
2

Probability
6
4 1 3
5
❖ Mutually Exclusive Events: When
two events cannot occur at the
same time

❖ Independent Events: The

occurrence of Event A does not
change the probability of Event B

❖ Complementary Events: The

Probability
probability that Event A will NOT
occur is denoted by P(A').
❖ Rule of Multiplication:
The probability that Events A and B both
occur =
Probability that Event A occurs
x
Probability that Event B occurs, given that
A has occurred

P(A ∩ B) = P(A) P(B|A)

Probability
❖ Rule of Multiplication:
The probability that Events A and B both
occur =
Probability that Event A occurs
x
Probability that Event B occurs, given that
A has occurred

P(A ∩ B) = P(A) P(B|A)

❖ In two rolls of dice what is the

probability of getting 6 in both?
(independent event)
Probability
❖ Rule of Multiplication:
The probability that Events A and B both
occur =
Probability that Event A occurs
x
Probability that Event B occurs, given that
A has occurred

P(A ∩ B) = P(A) P(B|A)

❖ There are 10 candies in the plate (5

Green, 2 Yellow, 2 Orange and 1
Red). If I pick 2 random ones, what
is the probability of getting both
Yellow? Probability
❖ Rule of Addition
The probability that Event A or Event B
occurs
=
Probability that Event A occurs
+
Probability that Event B occurs
-
Probability that both Events A and B occur

P(A ∪ B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A ∩ B)

A B

2
1
3
5
4
6
Probability
❖ Factorial of a non-negative integer
n, denoted by n!, is the product of
all positive integers less than or
equal to n

5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
1! = 1
0! = 1

Factorial
❖ Permutation: A set of objects in
which position (or order) is
important.

❖ Combination: A set of objects in

which position (or order) is NOT
important.

Permutations
Combinations
Permutation: With repetition

❖ In case of the lock, total

permutations are
❖ 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 10,000

nr

Permutations
Excel Formula =PERMUTATIONA(10,4) With repetition
Permutation: Without repetition

❖ How many ways we can select 3

players out of 5. The first selected
becomes the captain, second the
vice-captain and third the
treasurer.
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 !
𝟓!
𝟓 𝑃𝟑 = = 5 x 4 x 3 = 60
𝟓 −𝟑 !
Permutations
Without repetition
Excel Formula = PERMUT(5,3)
❖ Combination: Without repetition:

❖ How many ways we can select 3 players

out of 5

𝑛!
𝑛𝑪 𝑟 =
𝑛 − 𝑟 ! r!
5!
𝟓𝑪𝟑 =
5 − 3 ! 3!
5x4x3

Combinations
𝟓𝑪𝟑 = = 10
3x2x1

Without repetition
Excel Formula = COMBIN(5,3)
❖ Combination: With repetition:

❖ e.g. In the store there are 5 varieties

of juice bottles. You want to buy 3
bottles. How many possible
combinations you can buy?
𝑛!
Without repetition: 𝑛𝑪 𝑟 =
𝑛 − 𝑟 ! r!
(𝑟 + 𝑛 − 1)!
𝑟! 𝑛 − 1 !

(5+3 −1)!
3! 5−1 !
=
7!
3!4!
=
7x 6 x 5
3x2x1
= 35 Combinations
With repetition
Excel Formula = COMBINA(5,3)
 With repetition Without repetition

❖ Permutation: r 𝑛!
n 𝑛𝑃𝑟 =
𝑛−𝑟 !
Order is important.

MS Excel Formula >> PERMUTATIONA(n,r) PERMUT(n,r)

❖ Combination: (𝑟 + 𝑛 − 1)!
𝑛𝑪 𝑟 =
𝑛!
𝑟! 𝑛 − 1 ! 𝑛 − 𝑟 ! r!
Order is NOT important.

MS Excel Formula >> COMBINA(n,r) COMBIN(n,r)

PERMUTATIONS / COMBINATIONS SUMMARY

Slide 31
 3B 01
Basic probability concepts
Probability
And 02
Central limit theorem

Statistics
.
 Population: Sampling
Complete Process Sample: Part
collection to of population
be studied

𝜇 − population mean Inference

Statistic xത - sample mean
Parameter s – sample std. dev.
σ - population std. dev.
Characteristic of Characteristic
a population of a sample

SAMPLING
Slide 33
 102 101 Mean = 100.5
σ
99 100 CI = xത ± zαΤ2 ⋅
n
Population: CI = 100.5 ± 1
Sampling
Complete Process Sample: Part
collection to of population
be studied

Inference
Parameter Statistic
Characteristic of Characteristic
a population of a sample

SAMPLING – CONFIDENCE INTERVAL

Slide 34
 102 101 𝑥ҧ − 𝜇
99 100 𝑧=
𝜎Τ 𝑛
Population: Sampling
Complete Process Sample: Part
collection to of population
be studied

Inference
Parameter Statistic
Characteristic of Characteristic
a population of a sample

SAMPLING – HYPOTHESIS TEST

Slide 35
Xbar Control Limits Range Control Limits

CONTROL CHARTS
Slide 36
❖ For almost all populations, the
sampling distribution of the
mean can be approximated
closely by a normal distribution,
provided the sample size is
sufficiently large.

Central Limit
Theorem
Slide 37
❖ If a variable has a mean of µ and
the variance 𝜎 2 , as the sample
size n increases, the sample
mean approaches a normal
distribution with mean 𝜇𝑥ҧ and
𝟐
variance 𝜎𝒙ഥ

𝜎𝒙𝟐
𝜇𝑥ҧ = 𝜇 𝜎𝒙ഥ𝟐 =
𝒏

𝜎𝑥ҧ =
𝜎𝑥 Central Limit
Theorem
𝑛
Slide 38
CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM
Slide 39
❖ Standard deviation of the sampling
distribution of the sample mean
❖ Called “standard error of the mean”

𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑥ҧ =
𝑛

Central Limit
Theorem Slide 40
 01
02
Normal distribution
3C Binominal distribution
Statistical 03
Poisson distribution
Distributions 04
Chi square distribution

05
.

Student’s t distribution

06
F distribution
 CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Normal distribution Binominal distribution

Chi square distribution Poisson distribution

Student’s t distribution

F distribution

CONTINUOUS vs DISCRETE DATA

Slide 42
❖ If you flip a coin 2 times, what is the
probability of getting 1 head?

H H
H T
T H
T T

Binomial
Distribution
❖ If you flip a coin 2 times, what is the
probability of getting 1 head?

Distribution Plot
Binomial, n=2, p=0.5

0.5

0.4

H H
Probability

0.3
H T
0.2
T H
T T 0.1

0.0
0
X
1 2
Binomial
Distribution
❖ If you flip a coin 4 times, what is the
probability of getting 1 head?

H H H H
H H H T
H H T T
H T T T
T H H H
T H H T

Binomial
T H T T
T T T T

Distribution
.. .. .. ..
❖ If you flip a coin 4 times, what is the
probability of getting 1 head?

H H H H
H H H T
H H T T
H T T T
T H H H
T H H T
T
T
H
T
T
T
T
T Binomial
.. .. .. ..
Distribution
❖ A binomial experiment has the
following properties:
❖ The experiment consists of n repeated
trials.
❖ Each trial can result in just two possible
outcomes. We call one of these outcomes a
success and the other, a failure.
❖ The probability of success, denoted by p, is
the same on every trial.
❖ The trials are independent; that is, the
outcome on one trial does not affect the
outcome on other trials. Binomial
Distribution
 𝐏 𝐱 = 𝐧𝐂 𝐱 ⋅ 𝐩 𝐱 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝐩 𝐧−𝐱

𝐧!
𝐏 𝐱 = . 𝐩𝐱 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝐩 𝐧−𝐱
𝐱! 𝐧 − 𝐱 !

❖ x: The number of successes that result from

the binomial experiment.
❖ n: The number of trials in the binomial
experiment.
❖ p: The probability of success on an
individual trial.

Binomial
❖ P(x) : Binomial probability - the probability
that an n-trial binomial experiment results

Distribution
in exactly x successes, when the probability
of success on an individual trial is p.
❖ If you flip a coin 4 times, what is the
probability of getting 1 head?

𝐧!
𝐏 𝐱 = . 𝐩𝐱 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝐩 𝐧−𝐱
𝐱! 𝐧 − 𝐱 !

𝟒!
𝐏 𝟏 = . 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟒−𝟏
𝟏! 𝟒 − 𝟏 !
𝐏 𝟏 = (𝟒). (𝟎. 𝟓)𝟏 ⋅ 𝟎. 𝟓 𝟑

𝐏 𝟏 = (𝟒). (𝟎. 𝟓)𝟒 = 0.25 Binomial

BINOM.DIST(1,4,0.5,FALSE) = 0.25 Distribution
BINOM.DIST(2,4,0.5,FALSE) = 0.375
❖ The mean of the distribution (μx) is
n.p

❖ The variance (σ2x) is

n.p.(1-p)

❖ The standard deviation (σx) is

Binomial
𝐧⋅𝐩⋅ 𝟏−𝐩

Distribution
❖ The mean of the distribution (μx) is
n . p = 4 x 0.5 = 2

❖ The variance (σ2x) is

n.p.(1-p)
4 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 1
❖ The standard deviation (σx) is

Binomial
𝐧⋅𝐩⋅ 𝟏−𝐩
4 x 0.5 x 0.5 = 1
Distribution
❖ A manufacturer has 12% defects rate in
production. The buyer decides to test 20
random pieces and will accept the
supplier if there are 2 or less defectives.
What is the probability of getting
accepted?
=BINOM.DIST(2,20,0.12,TRUE) = 0.56
Distribution Plot
Binomial, n=20, p=0.12
0.30

Binomial
0.25

0.20
Probability

0.15

Distribution
0.10

0.05

0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X
 ❖ p = 0.12, n = 20, x = 0, 1, 2
𝐧!
𝐏 𝐱 = . 𝐩𝐱 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝐩 𝐧−𝐱
𝐱! 𝐧 − 𝐱 !
𝟐𝟎!
𝐏 𝟎 = . 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟎 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟎−𝟎
𝟎! 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟎 !

𝟐𝟎!
𝐏 𝟏 = . 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟏 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟎−𝟏
𝟏! 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏 !
𝟐𝟎!
Binomial
𝐏 𝟐 = . 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟐 ⋅ 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝟐𝟎−𝟐
𝟐! 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟐 !

P (0,1, 2) = 0.077563 + 0.211535 + 0.274034 = 0.563132 Distribution

❖ p = 0.12, n = 20, x = 0, 1, 2
❖ The mean of the distribution (μx) is
n . p = 20 x 0.12 = 2.4

❖ The variance (σ2x) is

n.p.(1-p)
20 x 0.12 x 0.88 = 2.112
❖ The standard deviation (σx) is Binomial
= 1.453
Distribution
𝐧⋅𝐩⋅ 𝟏−𝐩
 01
02
Normal distribution
3C Binominal distribution
Statistical 03
Poisson distribution
Distributions 04
Chi square distribution

05
.

Student’s t distribution

06
F distribution
 CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Normal distribution Binominal distribution

Chi square distribution Poisson distribution

Student’s t distribution

F distribution

CONTINUOUS vs DISCRETE DATA

Slide 56
Binomial vs Poisson Distribution
Similarities:
❖ Both are for discrete distribution
❖ Both measure the number of successes
Differences:
❖ In Poisson distribution the possibilities
of success are infinite.

Binomial distribution is one

in which the probability of
Poisson Distribution gives
the count of independent Poisson
Distribution
repeated number of trials events occur randomly
are studied. with a given period of
time.
A Poisson experiment has the following
properties:
❖ The experiment results in outcomes that
can be classified as successes or failures.
❖ The average number of successes (μ) that
occurs in a specified region is known.
❖ Outcomes are random. Occurrence of one
outcome does not influence the chance of
another outcome of interest.
❖ The outcomes of interest are rare relative

Poisson
to the possible outcomes.
❖ Example: Road accidents, queue at the counter

Distribution
 x
μ
P x, μ = e−μ ⋅
x!
• e: A constant equal to approximately
2.71828. (Actually, e is the base of the
natural logarithm system)
• μ: The mean number of successes that occur
in a specified region.
• x: The actual number of successes that
occur in a specified region.
• P(x; μ): The Poisson probability that exactly
x successes occur in a Poisson experiment, Poisson
when the mean number of successes is μ. Distribution
 x
μ
P x, μ = e−μ ⋅
x!
• On a booking counter on the average 3.6
people come every 10 minute on weekends.
What is the probability of getting 7 people in
10 minutes?
• μ = 3.6, x=7
• P(x; μ) = (e-μ) (μx) / x! = (e-3.6) (3.67) / 7!
• =0.02732 x 7836.41 / 5040 = 0.0424
Poisson
=POISSON.DIST(7, 3.6, FALSE) = 0.042484
Distribution
• On a booking counter on the average 3.6
people come every 10 minute on weekends.
What is the probability of getting 7 people in
10 minutes?
• P(7; 3.6) = 0.0424

Distribution Plot
Poisson, Mean=3.6

0.20

0.15
Probability

0.10

Poisson
Distribution
0.05

0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
X
• The Poisson distribution has the following
properties:
• The mean of the distribution is equal to μ .
• The variance is also equal to μ .

Poisson
Distribution
 01
02
Normal distribution
3C Binominal distribution
Statistical 03
Poisson distribution
Distributions 04
Chi square distribution

05
.

Student’s t distribution

06
F distribution
 CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Normal distribution Binominal distribution

Chi square distribution Poisson distribution

Student’s t distribution

F distribution

CONTINUOUS vs DISCRETE DATA

Slide 64
• Symmetrically distributed

• Long Tails / Bell Shaped

• Mean/ Mode and Median are same

Normal
Distribution
• Two factors define the shape of the curve:

• Mean

• Standard Deviation

Normal
Distribution
• About 68% of the area under the curve falls
within 1 standard deviation of the mean.

• About 95% of the area under the curve falls

within 2 standard deviations of the mean.

• About 99.7% of the area under the curve

falls within 3 standard deviations of the
mean.

Normal
Distribution
• The total area under the normal curve = 1.
• The probability of any particular value is 0.
• The probability that X is greater than or less
than a value = area under the normal curve
in that direction

Normal
Distribution
 𝑥−𝜇 2
−
ⅇ 2𝜎2
𝑃 𝑥 =
𝜎 2𝜋
• where x is a normal random variable,
• μ = mean,
• σ = standard deviation,
• π is approximately 3.14159,
• e is approximately 2.71828.

Normal
Distribution
Z Value / Standard Score

❖ How many standard deviations an

element is from the mean.
❖ z = (x - μ) / σ

❖ z is the z-score,
❖ x is the value of the element,
❖ μ is the population mean, Normal
❖
Distribution
σ is the standard deviation.
 Normal
Distribution
Z Value / Standard Score
❖ Perfume bottles are filled with the
average volume of 150 cc and the
standard deviation of 2 cc.
❖ What percent of bottles will have
the volume more than 153 cc?
μ = 150 cc
σ = 2 cc
z = (x - μ) / σ = (153 – 150)/2 = 1.5
Normal
Distribution
Z Value / Standard Score Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2

0.20

❖ Perfume bottles are filled with the

average volume of 150 cc and the 0.15

standard deviation of 2 cc.

Density
0.10

❖ What percent of bottles will have 0.05

the volume more than 153 cc? 0.00

150 153
0.06681

μ = 150 cc
σ = 2 cc
z = (x - μ) / σ = (153 – 150)/2 = 1.5

𝑃 𝑥 = 0.06681 or 6.681%
Normal
Distribution
=NORM.DIST(153,150,2,TRUE) = 0.933193
Z Value / Standard Score
❖ Perfume bottles are filled with
the average volume of 150 cc and
the standard deviation of 2 cc.
❖ What percent of bottles will have
the volume between 148 and 152
cc?
μ = 150 cc
σ = 2 cc
z1 = (x - μ) / σ = (148 – 150)/2 = -1
z2 = (x - μ) / σ = (152 – 150)/2 = 1 Normal
𝑃 𝑥 = 1 − 0.15866 − 0.15866 = 0.68268 Distribution
Z Value / Standard Score
❖ Perfume bottles are filled with the
average volume of 150 cc and the
standard deviation of 2 cc.
❖ Four bottles are selected from it.
What is the probability that the
average of 4 bottles will be more
than 153 cc?
μ = 150 cc
σ𝑥ҧ = 2 / 4
z = (𝑥ҧ - μ) / σ𝑥ҧ = (153 – 150)/1 = 3
Normal
𝑃 𝑥 = 0.00135 or 0.135%
Distribution
 01
02
Normal distribution
3C Binominal distribution
Statistical 03
Poisson distribution
Distributions 04
Chi square distribution

05
.

Student’s t distribution

06
F distribution
 CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Normal distribution Binominal distribution

Chi square distribution Poisson distribution

Student’s t distribution

F distribution

CONTINUOUS vs DISCRETE DATA

Slide 77
 ❖ If a random variable Z has the Standard
Normal Distribution, then Z2 has a χ2
distribution with 1 degree of freedom.

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1

0.4

0.3
Density

0.2

0.1

Distribution Plot
0.0 Chi-Square, df=1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
X 1.6

χ2
1.4

1.2

1.0
Density

Chi Square
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Distribution
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
X
 ❖ If a random variables Z1, Z2 , Z3 … Zk are
the Standard Normal Distributions, then
Z12 + Z22 + Z32 + … + Zk2
❖ has a χ2 distribution with k degree of
freedom.
Distribution Plot
Chi-Square, df=1
1.6
Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1
1.4
0.4
1.2

1.0
0.3

Density
0.8
Density

0.6
0.2

0.4

0.1 0.2

χ2
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0 X
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
X

Distribution Plot
Distribution Plot
Chi-Square, df=2
Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1

Chi Square
0.4 0.5

0.4
0.3

0.3
Density
Density

0.2

Distribution
0.2

0.1
0.1

0.0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
X
X
 Distribution Plot Distribution Plot
Chi-Square, df=1 Chi-Square, df=2
1.6
0.5

1.4

1.2 0.4

1.0
0.3
Density

Density
0.8

0.6 0.2

0.4
0.1
0.2

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6 8 10
X X

Distribution Plot Distribution Plot

Chi-Square, df=3 Chi-Square, df=4
0.25 0.20

0.20
0.15

0.15
Density

Density
0.10

0.10

0.05
0.05

0.00 0.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
X X

χ2
Distribution Plot Distribution Plot
Chi-Square, df=10 Chi-Square, df=50
0.10
0.04

0.08
0.03

Chi Square
0.06
Density

Density

0.02
0.04

0.01
0.02

Distribution
0.00 0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
X X

Min zero, max infinity

 Distribution Plot Distribution Plot
Chi-Square, df=1 Chi-Square, df=2
1.6
0.5

1.4

1.2 0.4

1.0
0.3
Density

Density
0.8

0.6 0.2

0.4
0.1
0.2

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 2 4 6 8 10
X X

❖ Mean = df
❖ Variance = 2. df
❖ Mode = df – 2 (for min 2 df)

χ2
Distribution Plot Distribution Plot
Chi-Square, df=10 Chi-Square, df=50
0.10
0.04

0.08
0.03

Chi Square
0.06
Density

Density

0.02
0.04

0.01
0.02

Distribution
0.00 0.00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
X X

Min zero, max infinity

 Distribution Plot
Chi-Square, df=10
0.10

0.08

0.06

Density
0.04

0.02

Gamma Function 0.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
k = degrees of freedom X

χ2
Chi Square
Distribution
 01
02
Normal distribution
3C Binominal distribution
Statistical 03
Poisson distribution
Distributions 04
Chi square distribution

05
.

Student’s t distribution

06
F distribution
 CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Normal distribution Binominal distribution

Chi square distribution Poisson distribution

Student’s t distribution

F distribution

CONTINUOUS vs DISCRETE DATA

Slide 84
❖ Student’s t distribution is formed by
combining the Standard Normal
Distribution and the Chi Square
Distribution.
❖ Suppose Z has Standard Normal distribution
❖ U has a Chi square distribution with 𝜈
degrees of freedom as
❖ and Z and U are independent

𝒁
Student’s t
𝑇= Has t distribution with
𝑈 𝜈 degrees of freedom
𝜈
Distribution
𝜈 is the number of degrees of freedom
Γ is the gamma function

Student’s t
Distribution
 z = (𝑥ҧ - μ) / σ𝑥ҧ
𝑥ҧ − 𝜇
𝑧=
𝜎Τ 𝑛
❖ We used the above equation in the
Normal distribution example.

❖ What if we do not know the population

standard deviation 𝜎
Student’s t
Distribution
 𝑥ҧ − 𝜇
𝒕=
𝒔Τ 𝑛
❖ This has a t distribution with n-1 degrees
of freedom.
❖ s is the sample standard deviation.

Student’s t
Distribution
 Student’s t
Reference: Wikipedia Distribution
 Distribution Plot
T, df=4
0.4

0.3

Density
0.2

0.1

0.0
-5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0
X

Student’s t
Distribution
=T.DIST(2.132, 4, TRUE) = 0.950009

Student’s t
Distribution
 01
02
Normal distribution
3C Binominal distribution
Statistical 03
Poisson distribution
Distributions 04
Chi square distribution

05
.

Student’s t distribution

06
F distribution
 CONTINUOUS DISCRETE

Normal distribution Binominal distribution

Chi square distribution Poisson distribution

Student’s t distribution

F distribution

CONTINUOUS vs DISCRETE DATA

Slide 93
❖ F Distribution is the ratio of two chi
square distributions divided by their
respective degrees of freedom.

❖ U1 has a χ2 distribution with 𝜈1 degrees of

freedom
❖ U2 has a χ2 distribution with 𝜈2 degrees of
freedom
❖ U1 and U2 are independent

𝑈1 Τ𝜈1

F Distribution
X= ~ 𝐹 𝜈1 , 𝜈2
𝑈2 Τ𝜈2
❖ Source: Wikipedia

F Distribution
 𝐹 𝜈1 , 𝜈2 ≠ 𝐹 𝜈2 , 𝜈1

𝐹 𝟔, 𝟐𝟎 ≠ 𝐹 𝟐𝟎, 𝟔
Distribution Plot Distribution Plot
F, df1=6, df2=20 F, df1=20, df2=6
0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5
Density

Density
0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X X

❖ F Distribution is used in ANOVA to test the

equality or two or more means.
F Distribution
 01
Types of data & measurement
3D
02
scales

Collecting and Sampling and data collection

methods
Summarizing 03
Descriptive statistics
Data
.

04
Graphical methods
❖ Continuous Data: (variable)
❖ Measurements: Length, height, time
❖ More information with less samples
❖ More sensitive
❖ Provide more information
❖ More expensive to collect
❖ Discrete Data: (attribute)
❖ Count: Number of students, Number of
heads

Types of Data
 Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Measurement
Scales
 Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Example:
Color: Blue, Green, Red

Measurement
Scales
 Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Example:
Pass/Fail
Good, Bad, Worst

Measurement
Scales
 Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Example:
Temperature: Celsius

Measurement
Scales
 Data

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Example:
Height, mass, volume

Measurement
Scales
 Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Ordered N Y Y Y
Difference N N Y Y
Absolute Zero N N N Y
Example Red, Blue Good, Bad, Temperature: Length,
Worst Degree C Weight
Central Tendency Mode Mode, Median Mode, Median, Mode,
Measurement Mean Median,
Mean

Measurement Scales Slide 104

 01
Types of data & measurement
3D
02
scales

Collecting and Sampling and data collection

methods
Summarizing 03
Descriptive statistics
Data
.

04
Graphical methods
❖ Because of the cost and time
involved in studying the entire
population.

Why
Sampling?
❖ Probability Samples
❖ Everyone in the population has an
equal chance of being selected
❖ Non-Probability Samples
❖ Where the probability of selection
can't be accurately determined.
❖ Sample may not be (generally isn’t)
representative of the general
population
Types of
Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Probability

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Accidental / Convenience Sampling

Non Probability

Judgemental Sampling
Sampling

Quota Sampling Types of

Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

❖ Each item in the population has an equal

chance of being selected.
❖ Examples: Using random tables, Random
draw of lot (lottery)

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Types of
Probability

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling

Cluster Sampling Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

❖ Select elements at regular intervals through

that ordered list.
❖ Example: Checking every 6th piece produced
by the machine.

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Types of
Probability

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling

Cluster Sampling Sampling

 Stratified Random Sampling

❖ Used to ensure that sub-groups within a

population are represented proportionally
in the sample.
❖ Example: If 10 people are drawn to
represent a country, 5 of them are male and
5 females to avoid the sex bias.
Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Types of
Probability

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling

Cluster Sampling Sampling

 Cluster Sampling
❖ Sometimes it is more cost-effective to select
respondents in groups ('clusters'). Sampling
is often clustered by geography, or by time
periods.
❖ Example: Survey all customers visiting
particular stores on particular days.
Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Random Sampling

Types of
Probability

Stratified Random Sampling

Sampling

Cluster Sampling Sampling

 Convenience Sampling
❖ The researcher selects whomever is
convenient. The samples are being drawn
from that part of the population which is
close to hand
❖ Example: A researcher at the mall selects
the first five people who walk by to get
their opinion of a product.

Accidental / Convenience Sampling

Non Probability

Judgemental Sampling Types of

Sampling

Quota Sampling Sampling

 Judgmental Sampling
❖ The researcher chooses the sample based
on who they think would be appropriate for
the study.
❖ Example: Auditor selects a sample based on
the concerns he/she had in the earlier audit

Accidental / Convenience Sampling

Non Probability

Judgemental Sampling Types of

Sampling

Quota Sampling Sampling

 Quota Sampling
❖ A quota is established and auditor are free
to choose any sample they wish as long as
the quota is met.
❖ Example: 2% of the calibration records.

Accidental / Convenience Sampling

Non Probability

Judgemental Sampling Types of

Sampling

Quota Sampling Sampling

 Defect Count
Excess glue
Weak joint
Abrasion marks
Asymmetry
Nail / sharp points

Check sheets Slide 116

❖ Adding, Subtracting
❖ Example: -95, -97, -98, -90
❖ Add 100 to each: 5, 3, 2, 10
❖ Coded mean: 5
❖ Un-coded mean: 5-100 = -95
❖ Standard deviation remains same and
is not affected by addition and
subtraction.
❖ s = 3.559

Data Coding
❖ Multiplying or dividing
❖ Example: 1.05, 1.03, 1.02, 1.10
❖ Multiply 100 to each: 105, 103, 102, 110
❖ Coded mean: 105
❖ Un-coded mean: 105 / 100 = 1.05
❖ Standard deviation need to divided by you
multiplied for coding.
❖ For coded data s = 3.559
❖ For original data s = 3.559/100 = 0.03559

Data Coding
❖ By truncation of repetitive terms
❖ Example: 0.555, 0.553, 0.552, 0.550
❖ Truncate 0.55 from all: 5,3,2,0
❖ This means we multiplied it by 1000 and
subtracted 550
❖ Coded mean: 2.5
❖ Un-coded mean: (2.5+550)/ 1000 =.5525
❖ Standard deviation need to divided by you
multiplied for coding.
❖ For coded data s = 2.0816

Data Coding
❖ For original data s = 2.0816/1000 =
0.0020816
 01
Types of data & measurement
3D
02
scales

Collecting and Sampling and data collection

methods
Summarizing 03
Descriptive statistics
Data
.

04
Graphical methods
 Descriptive
Statistics

Central
Variability
Tendency

Mean Range

Standard
Mode
Deviation

Interquartile
Median
Range

Quantile Descriptive
Statistics
 Mean
❖ Also known as Average
❖ Affected by extreme values
❖ Example: 10, 11, 14, 9, 6
❖ Mean = (10+11+14+9+6)/5 = 50/5 = 10

Descriptive
Central
Tendency

Statistics
Mean Mode Median Quantile

Quartile
 Mode
❖ Most occurring item
❖ Example: 10, 11, 14, 9, 6, 10
❖ Mode = 10

Descriptive
Central
Tendency

Statistics
Mean Mode Median Quantile

Quartile
 Median
❖ Middle value when put in ascending or
descending order.
❖ Example 1: 10, 11, 14, 9, 6
❖ In ascending order - 6,9,10,11,14
❖ Median = 10
❖ Example 2: 10, 11, 14, 9, 6, 11
❖ In order - 6,9,10,11, 11,14
❖ Median = 10.5
Descriptive
Central
Tendency

Statistics
Mean Mode Median Quantile

Quartile
 Quartile
❖ Arrange in ascending or descending order
❖ Divide the data into 4 parts (just like we
divided it into 2 parts for median)
❖ Example: 6,9,10,11, 11,14
❖ Q1=9, Q2=10.5, Q3=11

Descriptive
Central
Tendency

Statistics
Mean Mode Median Quantile

Quartile
 Percentile
❖ Arrange in ascending or descending
order
❖ Calculate location(i) = P.(n)/100
❖ P=percentile, n=numbers in data
set
❖ If i is whole number – Percentile is
average of (i)th and (i+1)th location
❖ If i is “not” a whole number –
Percentile is located at (i+1)th
whole-num. Descriptive
❖ Example: 6,9,10,11, 11,14
Statistics
❖ Q1=9, Q2=10.5, Q3=11
 Quantile
❖ Quantiles can go from anything to
anything.
❖ Percentile divides data in 100 parts
❖ Quartile divides data in 4 parts
❖ Percentiles and quartiles are examples
of quantiles.

Descriptive
Central
Tendency

Statistics
Mean Mode Median Quantile

Quartile
 Variability

Interquartile Standard
Range
Range Deviation

Descriptive
Statistics
 Range
❖ Difference between lowest and the
highest value.
❖ Example: 6,9,10,11, 11,14
❖ Range = 14-6 = 8

Variability Descriptive
Range
Interquartile
Range
Standard
Deviation
Statistics
 Interquartile Range
❖ Range of middle 50% data
❖ IQR = Q3-Q1
❖ Example: 6,9,10,11, 11,14
❖ Q1=9, Q2=10.5, Q3=11
❖ IQR = 11-9 = 2
❖ Box-and-Whisker Plot

Variability Descriptive
Range
Interquartile
Range
Standard
Deviation
Statistics
 Standard Deviation
❖ Variance = average of squared deviation
about the arithmetic mean.
❖ Square root of variance is standard
deviation

σ 𝑥−𝜇 2 σ 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝜎= 𝑠=
𝑁 𝑛−1

Variability Descriptive
Range
Interquartile
Range
Standard
Deviation
Statistics
 x x-x̅ (x-x̅ )2
100 0 0
101 1 1
99 -1 1
102 2 4
98 -2 4
100 0 0
x̅ =100 ∑(x-x̅ )=0 ∑(x-x̅ )2=10

σ 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝑠=
𝑛−1

10
Descriptive
𝑠=
6−1
𝑠 = 2 = 1.414
Statistics
Volume
150.270
150.552 Histogram of Volume

148.448
Normal
25 Mean 150.0
StDev 1.915

145.241 20
N 200

147.832 15

Frequency
152.614
149.804 10

149.920 5

153.426 0
145.5 147.0 148.5 150.0 151.5 153.0 154.5

153.780
Volume

…..
…..

Frequency Distribution Slide 133

 Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2

0.20

0.15

Density
0.10

0.05

0.00
145.0 147.5 150.0 152.5 155.0 157.5
X

Empirical CDF of Volume

Normal
Mean # 150
100
StDev # 2
N 200

80

60

Percent
40

20

145.0 147.5 150.0 152.5 155.0

Volume
# This estimated historical parameter is used in the calculations.

Cumulative Frequency Distribution Slide 134

 01
Types of data & measurement
3D
02
scales

Collecting and Sampling and data collection

methods
Summarizing 03
Descriptive statistics
Data
.

04
Graphical methods
 01
Scatter diagrams

3D-4 02
Histograms

Graphical
Methods
03
Box-and-whisker plots
.

04
Stem-and-leaf plots

05
Normal probability plots
❖ One of seven basic quality tools
❖ To see relationship between two
variables
❖ Relationship should make practical
sense
❖ Temperature(X) vs Ice cream sale (Y)
❖ Some times relationship between two
variables is because of a third variable.
(ice cream sale vs heat stroke cases)
❖ Correlation/Regression is covered in the
Analyze Phase Scatter
diagrams
 Worksheet column Description
Vehicle The model identifier
Scatterplot of Combined MPG vs Total Volume
Type The body type: SUV, Sedan, Hatchback, Wagon,
50
or Minivan
45
Fuel The type of fuel used: Gas or Hybrid
40
City MPG Fuel economy for city driving in miles per gallon
Combined MPG

35
Hwy MPG Fuel economy for highway driving in miles per
30
gallon
25
Combined MPG Overall fuel economy in miles per gallon
20
Retail ($1000) Retail price in units of $1000
15

100 150 200 250 300 Safety (0-5) Safety rating (0 to 5), where 0 is poor and 5 is
Total Volume
excellent
Interior Volume Passenger volume in cubic feet
Cargo Volume Cargo volume in cubic feet
Total Volume Total volume in cubic feet
Minitab: Graph > Scatter plot …

Scatter diagrams Slide 138

 Scatterplot of Combined MPG vs Total Volume Scatterplot of Combined MPG vs Total Volume

50 50

45

40
40
Combined MPG

Combined MPG
35

30
30

25
20
20

15
10
100 150 200 250 300 100 150 200 250 300
Total Volume Total Volume

With Linear Regression Line

Scatter diagrams Slide 139

 Worksheet column Description
Vehicle The model identifier
Scatterplot of Combined MPG vs Total Volume
Type The body type: SUV, Sedan, Hatchback, Wagon,
50
or Minivan
Fuel The type of fuel used: Gas or Hybrid
40 City MPG Fuel economy for city driving in miles per gallon
Combined MPG

Hwy MPG Fuel economy for highway driving in miles per

30
gallon
Combined MPG Overall fuel economy in miles per gallon
20
Retail ($1000) Retail price in units of $1000
10
Safety (0-5) Safety rating (0 to 5), where 0 is poor and 5 is
100 150 200 250 300
Total Volume
excellent
Interior Volume Passenger volume in cubic feet
Cargo Volume Cargo volume in cubic feet
Total Volume Total volume in cubic feet

Scatter diagrams Slide 140

 Scatterplot of Combined MPG vs Total Volume Scatterplot of Combined MPG vs Total Volume

50 100 150 200 250 300

Gas Hybrid
50

40
40
Combined MPG

Combined MPG
30
30

20 20

10
10 100 150 200 250 300
100 150 200 250 300 Total Volume
Total Volume
Panel variable: Fuel

Scatter diagrams Slide 141

Volume
150.270
150.552 Histogram of Volume

148.448 25

145.241 20

147.832 15
Frequency

152.614
10

149.804
149.920 5

153.426 0
145.5 147.0 148.5 150.0 151.5 153.0 154.5

153.780 Volume

….
….
Histogram
Minitab: Graph > Histogram… (Simple)
Volume
150.270
150.552 Histogram of Volume
Normal

148.448 25 Mean 150.0

StDev 1.915
N 200

145.241 20

147.832 15
Frequency

152.614 10

149.804
149.920
5

153.426 0
145.5 147.0 148.5 150.0
Volume
151.5 153.0 154.5

153.780
….
….
Histogram
Minitab: Graph > Histogram… (with fit)
❖ Also known as Box Plot
❖ Shows the median
❖ Shows Q1, Q3 and IQR

Volume Boxplot of Volume

155.0
150.270
150.552
148.448 152.5

145.241
147.832
Volume

152.614 150.0

149.804

Box-and-Whisker
149.920 147.5
153.426
153.780
….
….
145.0

Plot
 Histogram of Volume
25

20

Volume
15
Frequency
145.0

147.5

150.0

152.5

155.0
10

0
145.5 147.0 148.5 150.0 151.5 153.0 154.5
Volume

Boxplot of Volume Box-and-Whisker

Plot
❖ Outlier – A data point which is more
than 1.5 times IQR from the box.

Boxplot of Volume

160.0

157.5

155.0
Volume

152.5

150.0 149.846

147.5
Box-and-Whisker
Plot
145.0
 Histogram of C2
60

50

40

Frequency
30

20

10

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180

C2C2

200
100

150
50
0

Boxplot of C2
Box-and-Whisker
22.5

Plot
 Histogram of C2
60

50

40

Frequency
30

20

10

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180
C2

Boxplot of C2
200

150

Box-and-Whisker
100
C2

Plot
50

22.5

0
❖ 11, 22, 55, 13, 45, 14, 19, 10, 33, 52, 13

Stem Leaf
1 013349
2 2
3 3
4 5
5 25

Stem-and-leaf
Plot
Volume
150.270
150.552
148.448
145.241
147.832
152.614
149.804
149.920
153.426
153.780
….
…. Stem-and-Leaf
Minitab: Graph > Stem-and-Leaf…
Plot
 Histogram of Volume
Normal
25 Mean 150.0
StDev 1.915
N 200

20

15
Frequency

10

0
145.5 147.0 148.5 150.0 151.5 153.0 154.5
Volume

Minitab: Graph > Probability Plot …

Normal
Probability Plots
 Boxplot of Volume
155.0

152.5
Volume

150.0

147.5

145.0

Minitab: Graph > Probability Plot …

Normal
Probability Plots
❖ The p value > 0.05 and hence data
is normal with 95% confidence
level.

Normal
Probability Plots
2022 – Changes in the BoK – 3D
 Moved from BB to GB
Data Collection Plan
❖ Why you need to collect data?
❖Goal and Objective
❖Operational Definition
❖How much? How? Where? When? Etc.
❖Type of data – NOIR
❖Manual or Automatic
❖Past data vs Future
❖Is data reliable?
Data Collection Plan
Measurement Operational How is it Type of Data Sample size Who? Data Comments
Definition measured? Recording
Form
Time to Time from Using a stop Continuous Every 10th Operator Assembly
assemble picking up watch piece Record
the first Ratio F-0156
piece to
placing the
assembled
item in tray
Quality Checks on Data
❖ Minimum/maximum values
❖ Range Check (e.g. Employee age between 18 to 65)
❖ Erroneous data
❖ List of Options (e.g. US, CA, IN for country codes)
❖ Null values or Missing value (discussed on the next slide)*
❖ Duplicate check (e.g. Employee ID)
Data Cleaning – Missing Data
❖ In statistics, imputation is the process of replacing missing data
with substituted values.
❖ Missing data can introduce bias.
❖ Missing randomly
❖ Reason for missing
❖Options in case the data is missing
❖Delete the row
❖Replace with the average value
 3E 01
Definitions
Measurement
System Analysis 02
Gage R & R studies
.

(MSA) 03
Precision to Tolerance Ratio
• You need measurement to see how the
process is performing.
• Process has variation.
• What about measurement error / variation?

Measurement
System
Analysis
❖ Measurement System :
❖ Operator
❖ Measuring instrument
❖ Procedure

Measurement
System
Analysis
❖ True Value – Actual value, which is
unknown
❖ Reference Value – Accepted value or
substitute of true value.

Measurement
System
Analysis
 Resolution
• Resolution/ Discrimination
• Smallest readable unit of the measuring
instrument.
• 10 to 1 Rule of Thumb:
• “Rule of Ten” or “one to ten” is that the
discrimination (resolution) of the measuring
instrument should divide the tolerance of the
characteristic to be measured into ten parts.
Measurement
System
Analysis
 Resolution
❖ 10 to 1 Rule of Thumb:
❖ Which of these two would you use if the
part tolerance is 52.00 +/- 0.05 (51.95 –
52.05)

Measurement
System
Analysis
 Resolution
❖ 10 to 1 Rule of Thumb:
❖ Which of these two would you use if the
part tolerance is 52.00 +/- 0.05 (51.95 –
52.05)
❖ Tolerance Range = 0.10
❖ Minimum Reading of Digital Vernier = 0.01
❖ Digital Vernier divides the tolerance into 10

Measurement
parts, hence acceptable.

System
Analysis
❖ Resolution

❖ Accuracy
❖ Bias
❖ Linearity
❖ Stability

❖ Precision
❖ Repeatability
❖ Reproducibility
Measurement
System
Analysis
❖ Accuracy
❖ “Closeness” to the true value, or to an
accepted reference value.
❖ Bias
❖ Linearity
❖ Stability
❖ Precision
❖ “Closeness” of repeated readings to each
other Measurement
❖ Repeatability
❖ Reproducibility
System
Analysis
 Bias
❖ Bias is the difference between the
observed average of measurements
and the reference value.
Reference Measured
Value (psi) Value (psi)
100 100
100 101

Measurement
100 102
100 102

System
100 101
100 100

Analysis
Average 101
Bias = 101 psi -100 psi = 1 psi
 Reference Measured
Value (psi) Value (psi)
100 100
100 101
100 102
100 102
100 101
100 100
Average 101
Bias = 101 psi -100 psi = 1 psi

Reference Average
Value
Measurement
System
Bias Analysis
 Bias
❖ Bias is the systematic error.
❖ Bias is addressed by calibration.

Measurement
System
Analysis
 Linearity
❖ Linearity measures the bias across
the operating range of a tool or
instrument.

Reference Average Bias

Value (psi) Measured
Value (psi)

Measurement
0 0 0
50 50.5 0.5

System
100 101 1
150 151.5 1.5

Analysis
200 202 2
Reference Average Bias
Value (psi) Measured
Value (psi)
0 0 0
50 50.5 0.5
100 101 1
150 151.5 1.5
200 202 2

BIAS
2.5

Measurement
2

1.5

System
1

0.5

Analysis
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
 Stability
❖ Stability measures the bias over time.
Also known as drift.

Time

Time 2
Bias 2
Measurement
System
Analysis
Time 1
Bias 1
❖ Accuracy
❖ “Closeness” to the true value, or to an
accepted reference value.
❖ Bias
❖ Linearity
❖ Stability
❖ Precision
❖ “Closeness” of repeated readings to each
other Measurement
❖ Repeatability
❖ Reproducibility
System
Analysis
❖ Accuracy
❖ “Closeness” to the true value, or to an
accepted reference value.
❖ Bias
❖ Linearity
❖ Stability
❖ Precision
❖ “Closeness” of repeated readings to each
other Measurement
❖ Repeatability
❖ Reproducibility
System
Analysis
 Repeatability
❖ Variation in measurements obtained
with one measuring instrument when
used several times by an appraiser.
❖ Also called Equipment Variation (EV)
❖ It’s the capability of the gauge to
produce consistent results.

Measurement
System
Analysis
 Reproducibility
❖ Variation in the average of the
measurements made by different
appraisers using the same gage
❖ Also called Appraiser Variation (AV)
❖ It’s the capability of the appraiser to
produce consistent results.

Measurement
System
Analysis
 Gage R&R (GRR)
❖ Combined estimate of repeatability and
reproducibility.

Measurement
System
Analysis
 Gage R&R (GRR)
❖ Combined estimate of repeatability and
reproducibility.

Measurement
System
Analysis
Precision to Tolerance Ratio
❖ How capable your measurement system
is?
❖ Precision/Tolerance (P/T) is the ratio
between the estimated measurement
error (precision) and the tolerance of
the characteristic being measured.

Measurement
System
Analysis
Precision to Tolerance Ratio
❖ P/T ratio is the most common
estimate of measurement system
precision Measurement
Tolerance System
Variation
P/T = 10%

P/T = 100% Measurement

P/T = 200%
System
LSL USL Analysis
Precision to Tolerance Ratio
PTR
❖ PTR = 6 σms
USL-LSL

Instead of 6σms some use 5.15 σms

6 sigma includes 99.73% area
5.15 sigma includes 99% area
Measurement
System
Analysis
 01
Process performance vs process
3F
02
specification

Process and Process capability studies

Performance 03
Process capability and process
Capability
.

performance

04
Short-term vs long-term
capability and sigma shift
Process Performance
Natural process limits

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2

0.20

0.15
Density

0.10

Process
0.05

0.00

Performance vs
145.0 147.5 150.0 152.5 155.0 157.5
X

Specifications
Process Performance
Specification: 140 to 160

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2
1.000
0.20

0.15
Density

0.10

Process
0.05

0.00

Performance vs
140 150 160
X

Specifications
Process Performance
Specification: 148 to 152
Rejections: 1-0.6827 = 0.3173

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2
0.6827
0.20

0.15
Density

0.10

0.05
Process
0.00
148 150
X
152
Performance vs
Specifications
Process Performance
Specification: 145 to 155
Rejections: 1-0.9876 = 0.0124
Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2
0.9876
0.20

0.15
Density

0.10

Process
0.05

0.00

Performance vs
145 150 155
X

Specifications
 Process Performance
Specification: 148 to 152
Rejections: 1-0.9759 = 0.0241

Specification: 145 to 155

Rejections: 1-0.9875 = 0.0124
Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2
0.9876
0.20

0.15
Density

Distribution Plot
0.10
Normal, Mean=151, StDev=2

Process
0.20

0.05 0.9759

0.15

Performance vs
0.00
145 150 155
Density

X
0.10

Specifications
0.05

0.00
145 151 155
X
 Process Performance
Process sd = 1
Rejections: 1-1 = almost zero
Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=1
1.000
0.4

Process sd = 2
0.3

Specification: 145 to 155

Density
0.2

Rejections: 1-0.9875 = 0.0124 0.1

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2
0.0
0.9876 145 150 155
0.20 X

0.15
Process sd = 3
Rejections: 1-0.9044 = 0.0956
Density

0.10

Process
Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=3
0.05
0.14
0.9044

0.12

Performance vs
0.00
145 150 155
0.10
X

0.08
Density

Specifications
0.06

0.04

0.02

0.00
145 150 155
X
Capable Process
LSL LCL UCL USL

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=1
1.000
0.4

0.3
Density

Process
0.2

Performance vs
0.1

Specifications
0.0
145 150 155
X
Is this process capable? .. No
LCL LSL USL UCL

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=150, StDev=2
0.9876
0.20

0.15
Density

0.10

0.05
Process
0.00
145 150 155
Performance vs
Specifications
X
Process Performance Matrices
❖ Percent Defectives
❖ PPM
❖ DPMO
❖ DPU
❖ Rolled Throughput Yield

(already covered in 2E-1)

Process
Performance vs
Specifications
 01
Process performance vs process
specification
3F
Process and 02
Process capability studies

Performance 03
Process capability and process
Capability
.

performance

04
Short-term vs long-term
capability and sigma shift
Process Capability Studies
❖ Select the process
❖ Data Collection Plan
❖ Measurement System Analysis
❖ Gather data
❖ Confirm normality of data
❖ Confirm that the process is in control
❖ Estimate the process capability (Cp, Cpk)
❖ Continually improve process Process
Capability
 01
Process performance vs process

3F
specification

Process and 02
Process capability studies

Performance 03
Process capability and process
Capability
.

performance

04
Short-term vs long-term
capability and sigma shift
 Process Capability Indices
❖ Ratio of the spread between the process
specifications to the spread of the
process values, (6 process standard
deviations) .

❖ Voice of customer / Voice of process > 1

Cp, Cpk
Pp, Ppk
 Process Capability Indices
❖ Voice of Customer:
❖ LSL – Lower Specification Limit
❖ USL - Upper Specification Limit

❖ Voice of Process:
❖ LCL – Lower Control Limit
❖ UCL - Upper Control Limit
Cp, Cpk
Pp, Ppk
Cp
𝑼𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
6 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏

Cp, Cpk
Pp, Ppk
Cpk
𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝐧 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝐶𝑝𝑳 =
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏
𝑼𝑺𝑳 − 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝒏
𝐶𝑝𝑼 =
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏

Cpk = Min (CpU, CpL )

Cp, Cpk
Pp, Ppk
 σ within
❖ Short term standard deviation
❖ It is an estimate of the variation within
the subgroups.
❖ It should not be influenced by changes
to process inputs, such as tool wear or
different lots of material.
σ overall
❖ Long term standard deviation Cp, Cpk
Pp, Ppk
piston ring diameter are 74.0 mm ± 0.05 mm.
Every 5 rows represent a subgroup.
Total 25 subgroups Cp, Cpk
Diameter
74.030
74.002 ❖ Conditions to be met:
74.019 ❖ Sample to represent the
73.992
74.008
population
73.995 ❖ Normal distribution of data *
73.992
74.001
❖ The process must be in
74.011 statistical control *
74.004 ❖ Sample size must be sufficient
73.988

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 201

piston ring diameter are 74.0 mm ± 0.05 mm.
Every 5 rows represent a subgroup. Cp, Cpk
PistonRingDiameter
Diameter
74.030
74.002
74.019
73.992
74.008
73.995
73.992
74.001
74.011
𝑅ത 74.004
𝑆= 73.988
𝑑2
d2 = 2.326

Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Sixpack > Normal …

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 202

Piston ring
diameter are 74.0
mm ± 0.05 mm.

𝑼𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
6 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏

𝟕𝟒. 𝟎𝟓 − 𝟕𝟑. 𝟗𝟓
𝐶𝑝 =
6 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟗
𝟕𝟒.𝟓−𝟕𝟑.𝟓
𝐶𝑝 = = 1.658
6×𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟗

Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Analysis > Normal …

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 203

Piston ring
diameter are 74.0
mm ± 0.05 mm.

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝐧 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿

𝐶𝑝𝑳 =
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏
𝟕𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐−𝟕𝟑.𝟗𝟓
𝐶𝑝𝑳 = = 1.698
𝟑×𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟗

𝑼𝑺𝑳 − 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝒏

𝐶𝑝𝑼 =
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏
𝟕𝟒.𝟎𝟓 −𝟕𝟒.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐
𝐶𝑝𝑼 = = 1.618
𝟑×𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟎𝟗

Cpk = Min (CpU, CpL ) = 1.618 Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Analysis > Normal …

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 204

piston ring diameter are 74.0 mm ± 0.05 mm. The film thickness must be 50 ± 3 microns
Every 5 rows represent a subgroup. Subgroup size of 3.

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 205

The film thickness must be 50 ± 3 microns
Subgroup size of 3.
Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk
FilmThickness
Coating Roll
50.3175 1
50.1432 1
50.4081 1
49.5077 2
50.2715 2
49.4091 2
49.3587 3
49.1436 3
49.5229 3

𝑅ത 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝑆= 𝑠=
𝑑2 𝑛−1
For Cp, Cpk use For Pp, Ppk use
Short-term sd Long-term sd

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 206

The film thickness must be 50 ± 3 microns
Subgroup size of 3.
Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk
FilmThickness
Coating Roll
50.3175 1
50.1432 1
50.4081 1
49.5077 2
50.2715 2
49.4091 2
49.3587 3
49.1436 3
49.5229 3

𝑅ത 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝑆= 𝑠=
𝑑2 𝑛−1
For Cp, Cpk use For Pp, Ppk use
Short-term sd Long-term sd

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 207

 𝑼𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿 𝑼𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑷𝑝 =
6 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 6 × 𝜎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝐧 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿

𝐶𝑝𝑳 = 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝐧 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝑝𝑳 =
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑼𝑺𝑳 − 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝒏

𝐶𝑝𝑼 = 𝑼𝑺𝑳 − 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐜ⅇ𝐬𝐬 𝐌ⅇ𝐚𝒏
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝑝𝑼 =
𝟑 × 𝜎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍

Cpk = Min (CpU, CpL ) Ppk = Min (PpU, PpL )

Process capability Process Performance

Potential capability Stat > Quality Tools > Capability Analysis > Normal … Overall capability

Short term vs Long term SD Slide 208

Cpm
𝑼𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝑷𝑝 =
6 × 𝜎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍

𝑼𝑺𝑳 − 𝑳𝑺𝑳
𝐶𝑝𝑚 =
6 𝜎2 + 𝜇 − 𝑇 2

Cpm Slide 209

 01
Process performance vs process
specification
3F
Process and 02
Process capability studies

Performance 03
Process capability and process
Capability performance

04
Short-term vs long-term
capability and sigma shift
 6 Sigma = 3.4 DPMO … Why?
❖ SPC required processes to be controlled
within plus minus 3 sigma.
❖ This results in 2.7 defects per thousand
or 2700 DPMO. (with no long-term shift)
Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1

0.4

0.3
Density

Long-term
0.2

Sigma Shift
0.1

0.001350 0.001350
0.0
-3 0 3
X
 6 Sigma = 3.4 DPMO … Why?
❖ Instead of plus minus 3 sigma, if the
process is controlled in plus minus 6
sigma, what will be the DPMO?

Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1

0.4

0.3

Long-term
Density

0.2

Sigma Shift
0.1

9.8659E-10 9.8659E-10
0.0
-6.000 0 6
X
❖ 2 x 9.86 x 10 -10 Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1

❖ 2 x 9.86 x 10 -4 per million 0.4

❖ 0.001972 DPMO 0.3

Density
But this should have been 3.4 DPMO .. 0.2

Why it is so low? 0.1

❖ The difference is because of 1.5 sigma 9.8659E-10

0.0
-6.000 0 6
9.8659E-10

shift allowed on long-term X

Long-term Sigma Shift Slide 213

 Distribution Plot
Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1

0.4

0.3

❖ After 1.5 sigma shift, one side will be in

Density
0.2

4.5 sigma and other side in 7.5 sigma. 0.1

❖ Rejections will be sum of 0.0

0
X
3.1863E-14
7.5

❖ 3.397 DPMO Distribution Plot

Normal, Mean=0, StDev=1

❖ 3.186 x 10 -8 DPMO 0.4

❖ Hence 3.4 DPMO

0.3

Density
0.2

0.1

3.3977E-06
0.0
0 4.5
X

Long-term Sigma Shift Slide 214