MODULE IV

WORKING OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Most electric Cars are similar to the internal combus on engine cars but the main difference is that
electric Car do not have tail pipe and fuel tank.

The electric Vehicle power source is the ba ery and it supplies the electric motor with the energy
necessary to move vehicle which gives the car accelera on.

Based on pressure applied on the accelera ng pedal the controller acts as a regulator by means of
sensor and controls the amount of power received from the ba eries. Based on Power received from
the Controller the motor works and power is transmi ed to the wheels through power. transmission
System.

Advantages of electric car

1.No fossil fuel is required. Electric Car Powered by rechargeable ba eries.

2. Since no fossil fuel are used. they do not emit toxic gases

3. Low maintenance: Electric car runs on electrically powered engine with less moving Parts and no
need of lubrica on as in IC engines

4. Reduced noise pollu on.

Disadvantages of electric car:

1. Less number of recharging points.

2. short driving range and Speed. me.

3. Longer recharge 4 Electric Cars are very expensive

5. Ba eries are to be replaced frequently.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE

An electric vehicle consists of a ba ery that provides energy, an electric motor that drives the wheels,
a charger that charges the ba ery and a controller that regulates the energy flow to the motor. There
are no gearbox and clutch in these vehicles.

Power pack (Ba ery)

Automobile manufacturers use three types of rechargeable ba ery for electric car use. Those types
are lead-acid ba eries, nickel metal hydride (NIMH) ba eries, and lithium-ion (Li-ion) ba eries. The
space occupied by these heavy ba eries is large. Opera onal problems include the limited range of
the vehicle and its compara vely low maximum speed. Currently the main advantage of lead-acid
ba eries is the exis ng mature technology, which is accepted by the motor industry.

Motor

The prime mover in electric vehicle is the high-torque electric motor. The motor converts the energy
stored in the power pack into mechanical mo on. The high torque electric motor ensures a quick
accelera on. The power from the motor is delivered to the wheels directly or through the transaxle
that propels the vehicle. While braking, the motor acts like a generator (regenera ve braking) and
recharges the ba eries

There are several choices of the type of drive motor. The basic choice is between an AC and a DC motor.
The AC motor offers many control advantages but requires the DC produced by the ba eries to be
converted using an inverter. A DC shunt wound motor rated at about 50 kW is a popular choice for the
smaller vehicles but AC motors are likely to become the most popular.

Charger

Charger (E) is a ba ery charging device. Chargers get electricity from outside sources, such as the u lity
grid or solar power plants. AC electricity is converted into DC electricity and then stored in the ba ery.
The smart charger's output is connected to the power pack and ensures that op mum current and
voltage maintained at all mes.

There are 2 types of electric car chargers:

On-board charger: the charger is located and installed in the car and converts AC into DC power to
charge the power pack. The charger is computer controlled with an in-built stabilizer and auto shut-off
mechanism

Off-board charger: the charger is not located or not installed in the car.

Controller
EVs have a computerised motor controller. The electric vehicle controller is the electronics package
that operates between the ba eries and the motor to control the electric vehicle's speed and
accelera on much like a carbure or does in a gasoline-powered vehicles. This regulates the flow of
energy from the power pack to the motor in direct rela on to pressure applied on the accelerator. It
ensures perfect speed control and op mum use of energy in both forward and reverse direc ons.
Speed controllers are rated according to the voltage and amperage ranges.

DC/DC converter

The DC/DC converter changes DC power from an on-board 200-800V high voltage ba ery into lower
DC voltage (13,5, charging voltage) to recharge the auxiliary ba ery. A 12 V auxiliary ba ery is normally
used in an electric car to power all 12 V accessories such as lights, wiper and window motors, pumps
horn and so on. There is no alternator in EVs to keep this ba ery charged. EVs use a DC/DC converter
which taps the full ba ery pack voltage and cuts it down to a regulated 13.5 V output, similar to an
alternator. It is not advisable to eliminate the auxiliary ba ery completely, for safety reasons. If the
DC/DC converter fails at night or the ba ery pack falls below the low voltage shut-off of the converter,
the auxiliary ba ery will have enough charge to bring the car home.

HYBRID VEHICLE.
Internal Combus on Engine produce harmful emissions efficiency at Produces any as well as deliver
poor part load Electric Vehicles don emissions.

The concept of combining both IC engine and electric vehicles good aspects led to hybrid vehicle

A vehicle which uses two or more dis nct type of Power Such as internal combus on engine and hybrid
vehicle. electric motor is termed as

Working of hybrid vehicles

The system divides engine power through Split drive a to power the wheels. as well as the generator.
The generator drives the motor and rest of power is stored in ba ery.

During the accelera on of vehicle, both the motor and engine provides the power to wheels. While
during decelera on, motor acts as generator, conver ng Kine c energy into electricity and store it in
the ba ery.
Components of HEV
Petrol engine
The engine is similar to those fitted to conventional vehicles e.g. four cylinders, four-stroke normally
aspirated, etc. However, the capacity of the engine used is usually relatively small. These engines are
lightweight and very fuel efficient.
Electric motor
The electric motor is used to propel the car, however with the use of electronic technology, the motor
can also function as a generator to recharge the batteries.
Electric generator
Electric generator generates electricity from the rotating wheels while braking, transferring that energy
back to the traction battery pack.
Controller
Controller is connected to the accelerator pedal, for directing the flow of electricity from the energy
source to the motor.
DC/DC converter
This device converts higher-voltage DC power from the traction battery pack to the lower-voltage DC
power needed to run vehicle accessories and recharge the auxiliary battery.
Transmission
The transmission transfers mechanical power from the engine and/or electric traction motor to drive
the wheels. The transmission can be either manual or automatic.
Batteries
The batteries provide the energy source for the electric motor, either recharged by an external power
source or recharged by the generator or electric motor when it is functioning as a generator. Most
electric cars use lead-acid batteries.

Working of hybrid vehicle at different situations

1.During stop & Proceed:

During this electric motor is used to po the vehicle This is why hybrid vehicles are more efficient
during city driving.

2. During Normal Cruising

IC Engine used because it is most efficient during cruising and rest of power converted to
electricity and storied in the battery.

3. During Braking:

When brakes are applied, the electric motor power or engine power not required this power is used to
generate electricity an store in the battery using motor this and to regenerative braking.

4. During Heavy Acceleration:

Both the engine and electric motor work together with help of power split device to increase power to
wheels.

Types of Hybrid Drive Trains.

 1 Series

2. Parallel

3 combined

Series Hybrid

In a series hybrid system, the combus on engine drives an electric generator instead directly driving
the wheels. Electric motor is only means of providing power to wheels. The generator both charges
ba ery and Power electric motor to move the vehicle. When large amount of power needed, motor
draws electricity from both ba ery and generator.

Advantages
1. Can be operated within its op mum efficiency range.
2. Efficient and op mized power-plant
3. Possibili es for modular power-plant
4. Op mized drive line
6. Long life me
7. Fast response
8. Capable of a aining zero emission
Disadvantages
1. Large trac on drive system
2. Requirement of proper algorithms
3. Mul ple energy conversion steps
4. About 30% total loss of efficiency is observed due to mul ple energy conversions.
Example of series hybrid: Renault Kangoo.

PARALLEL HYBRID
These are the most common type of hybrid. In a parallel hybrid electric vehicle the single electric motor
and the internal combus on engine are installed to deliver power in parallel to drive the wheels. As
both the engine and electric motor are connected to the drive sha through a mechanical coupling,
they can propel the vehicle by the engine alone, by the motor alone, or by both together. The electric
motor can be used as a generator to charge the energy storage devices by regenera on braking or by
extra power from the engine.

Advantages

1. Total efficiency is higher during cruising and long distance highway driving

2. Higher flexibility to switch between electric and ICE Power

3. Compared to series hybrids, electric motor use can be of less power as it is used to assist the

Disadvantages

1.Complicated system.

2. Poor efficiency at every low RPM range.

3. Ba ery Carnot be charged at stand s ll.

Example of Parallel Hybrid: Honda civic

COMBINED HYBRID
Combined hybrid system has features of both Series and parallel hybrids. The power to the Wheels
can be either mechanical or electrical or both. At lower speeds, this system operates as series Hybrid
Electric vehicle (HEV). At high speeds engine power is u lised. This system is more expensive than a
parallel System as it needs a generator mechanical Split Power System and power controlling system.

Advantages:

1.Maximum flexibility.

2.More efficient

Disadvantages:

1 Very complicated system.

2. More expensive.

PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (PHEV)

These are types of HEVS which can recharge the

ba eries through regenera ve ba ery or through
the external source of power. Plug-in hybrid
vehicles (PHEVs) use an electric motor and ba ery
that can be plugged into the power grid to charge
the ba ery, but also have the support of an internal
combus on engine that may be used to recharge
the vehicle's ba ery and/or to replace the electric
motor when the ba ery is low. Because Plug-in
Hybrids use electricity from the power grid, they
o en realise more savings in fuel costs than
tradi onal HEVs.

Advantages

1. Longer range than BEV

2. Less gas consump on than gas only vehicle

3. Fewer emissions

4. Very simple mechanics, less to go wrong.

Disadvantages

1. Produces tailpipe emissions

2. Needs fuel and oil changes

3. More expensive to operate than BEV but less than tradi onal HEV.
REGENERATIVE BRAKING

The idea of regenera ve braking enables the vehicle to generate electric energy from kine c energy.
When the vehicle decelerates, the electric motor acts as a generator and generates electricity from
the kine c energy of the vehicle.

The energy which is normally lost as fric onal heat during braking can be energy converted into
electrical energy. For this purpose the electric motor is operated as a generator. The regenerated
energy can be used to recharge the ba eries of an EV or HEV. It is important to note that it will not be
possible to capture all of the energy available during vehicle braking.

At the same me the generator opera on of the electric motor brings about a vehicle braking effect.
Once the driver takes his foot off the accelerator pedal recovery of energy is ac vated. Also of
significance is the recovery of energy (poten al energy) while coas ng downhill.

Regenera ve braking may yield 10-15% fuel savings.

STORAGE BATTERIES

EVs can get the energy required to run from different sources. EVs use different types of energy storage
to store their power. They include:

Ba eries.

Ultra capacitors

Flywheels

Fuel cells
Requirements of EVs Energy Sources

The criteria such sources have to sa sfy are:

1. High specific energy and energy density

2. High specific power and power density

3. Fast charging and deep discharging capabili es

4. Long cycle and service life

5. Low self discharging rate and high charging efficiency

6. Safety and cost effec veness

7. Maintenance free

8. Environmentally sound and recyclable

BATTERY

Ba eries have been the major energy source for EVs for a long me. The ba ery converts stored
chemical energy into electric energy. The chemical reac on between the electrodes and electrolyte
generates electricity. Rechargeable ba eries can reverse the chemical reac on by reversing the
current. This way the ba ery can be recharged.

Ba ery is the most important component of an electric vehicle and typically cons tutes up to about
half of the vehicle cost and weight. The choice of ba eries depends on the energy density, weight and
costs.

The range of an electric vehicle is determined by the amount of energy at disposal in the ba ery and
the energy consump on of the vehicle. The available total energy in the ba eries for vehicles is called
the ba ery capacity and the remaining amount of energy during use is called the state of charge (SoC)
and is expressed in percentage "charge" remaining.Electric cycles and low range mopeds have simple
ba ery units while electric cars deploy a large number of ba eries.

Requirement of EV ba eries

The ba eries should have

1. A stable voltage output over a good depth of discharge

2. High energy capacity for the given ba ery weight and size

3. High peak power output per unit mass and volume u

4. High energy efficiency

5. Able to func on with wide ranges of opera ng temperatures

6. Good charge reten on on open-circuit stand

7. Ability to accept fast recharge

8. Ability to withstand overcharge and over discharge

9. Reliable in opera on

10. Maintenance free

11. Rugged and resistant to abuse

12. Safe both in use and accident condi on

TYPES OF BATTERY FOR EVs

The following types of ba eries are commonly used today in EVs:

(1) Lead-acid,

(2) Nickel-cadmium (NiCd),

(3) Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH),

(4) Lithium-ion (Li-ion),

(5) ZEBRA ba eries.

Tradi onally, most electric vehicles used lead-acid ba eries due to their mature technology, easy
availability, and low cost. More recently, ba eries using combina ons of Li-ion and its varia ons are
gaining widespread acceptance due to be er efficiency, reduced weight, lower charging me, be er
power output, longer life me, and reduced environmental implica ons from ba ery disposal.

LEAD-ACID BATTERY

Lead-acid ba eries are the oldest rechargeable ba eries. Compared to lithium and NiMH ba eries,
lead-acid ba eries do lose capacity and are much heavier, but the price is rela vely cheap and safe.
There are large capacity lead-acid electric car ba eries under development, but lead-acid ba eries are
now only used by commercial vehicles as a secondary storage system.

It is called lead-acid ba ery because its ac ve ingredients are the metal lead and sulphuric acid. The
difference in voltage between the posi ve plate (lead peroxide) and the nega ve plate (spongy lead)
is 2.13 V when a sulphuric acid solu on of 1.2651.280 specific gravity is added, and the temperature
is 68°F-80°F. Lead peroxide and spongy lead are used in the automo ve ba ery today because no other
materials have a greater voltage difference.
Discharge

During discharge, the lead dioxide (posi ve plate) and lead (nega ve plate) react with the electrolyte
of sulphuric acid to create lead sulfate, water and energy.

Charging

During charging, the cycle is reversed: the lead sulphate and water are electro-chemically converted
to lead, lead oxide and sulphuric acid by an external electrical charging source.

Advantages

1. Reliable 2. Robust 3. Be er range 4. Rapid recharge 5. Tolerant to overcharging 6. Low internal

impedance 7. Can deliver very high currents 8. Ability to hold charge over a period of not being used
9. Indefinite shelf life if stored without electrolyte 10. Can be le on trickle or float charge for
prolonged periods 11. Wide range of sizes and capaci es available

Disadvantages

1. Heavy and bulky 2. Very low specific energy 3. Danger of overhea ng during charging 4. Not suitable
for fast charging 5. Typical cycle life 300 to 500 cycles 6. Must be stored in a charged state once the
electrolyte has been introduced to avoid deteriora on of the ac ve chemicals 7. Acid Fumes and
corrosion - Results in decreased ba ery life 8. Loss of voltage over discharge
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) ba ery is now used primarily for electric vehicles, as they are much lighter which
provides a more fuel efficient vehicle. These are very expensive ba eries, and star ng costs for cars
are about 60,000. This ba ery may already be familiar to us because it is also used in many portable
electronic equipment such as cell phones and laptops. The main difference is a ma er of scale. Its
physical capacity and size on electric cars is much greater - this is o en referred to as a trac on ba ery
pack.

Li-ion ba eries have a very high power to weight ra o. This type of electric car ba ery has high energy
efficiency. Performance at high temperatures is also good. The ba ery has a greater energy ra o per
weight - a parameter that is very important for electric car ba eries.

The smaller the ba ery weight (same kWH capacity) means the car can travel further with a single
charge. This ba ery also has a low "self-discharge" level, so the ba ery is be er than any other ba ery
in maintaining its ability to hold its full charge. In addi on, most parts of Li-ion ba eries can be
recycled, making it the right choice for those interested in environmentally conscious electric cars. BEV
cars and PHEVS use the most lithium ba eries.
Li-ion cells, in their most common form, consist of a graphite anode, a lithium metal oxide cathode and
an electrolyte of a lithium salt and an organic solvent. Lithium is a good choice for an electrochemical
cell due to its large standard electrode poten al (3.04 V) resul ng in a high opera ng voltage (which
helps both power and energy) and the fact that it is the metal with the lowest density (which reduces
weight). In an automo ve applica on a Li-ion ba ery consists of tens to thousands of individual cells
packaged together to provide the required voltage. power and energy.

NICKEL-METAL HYDRIDE (NMH) BATTERY

The disadvantages of the NiCd ba eries are the reasons for the development of NIMH ba eries. NiMH
ba eries are more widely used by HEVs, but are also used successfully in some BEV cars Nickel-metal
hydride ba eries have the advantages of high specific hydride energy and long cycle life rela ve to
lead-acid ba eries (nearly double the energy density and two to four mes the life). An important
feature of this ba ery is that they can be fully charged with very li le impact on ba ery life. They
operate at ambient temperature and do not require maintenance.

The nickel-metal-hydride ba ery is a successor to the nickel-hydrogen ba ery and is already in use in
produc on HEVs. In NIMH ba eries, the posi ve electrode is a nickel hydroxide similar to that used in
a NiCd ba ery, while the nega ve electrode is a metal hydride where hydrogen is stored. The concept
of NIMH ba eries is based on the fact that fine par cles of certain metallic alloys, when exposed to
hydrogen at certain pressures and temperatures absorb large quan es of the gas to form the
metalhydride compounds. Furthermore, the metal hydrides are able to absorb and release hydrogen
many mes without deteriora on. The two electrode chemical reac ons in a NiMH ba ery are:
"M" stands for metallic alloy, which takes up hydrogen at ambient temperature to form the metal
hydride MHy. The nega ve electrode consists of a compressed mass of fine metal par cles. NiMH cells
can last 40% longer than the same size NiCd cells and will have a life-span of up to 600 cycles. This
makes them useful for high energy devices such as laptop computers, cellular phones, and camcorders.

Advantages

1. Charge up quickly 2. High cycle stability 3. 20% higher specific energy and power, and in volumetric
terms 40% higher 4. Longer life cycle than Li-ion and lead-acid ba eries 5. Safe and abuse tolerant.

Disadvantages

1. Rela vely high cost 2. Higher self-discharge rate compared to NiCd 3. Poor charge acceptance
capability at elevated temperatures 4. Low cell efficiency..

BS IV AND VI

What are Bharat Stage norms?

The Bharat Stage are standards ins tuted by the government to regulate emission of air pollutants
from motor vehicles. The norms were introduced in 2000. With appropriate fuel and technology,
they limit the release of air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
par culate ma er (PM) and sulphur oxides from vehicles using internal combus on engines. As the
stage goes up, the control on emissions become stricter. Thus Bharat Stage VI norms are two stages
ahead of the present Bharat Stage IV norms in regula ng emissions. These norms are based on
similar norms in Europe called Euro 4 and Euro 6.

Differences between two stages BS IV AND VI

The extent of sulphar is the major difference between Bharat Stage IV and Bharat Stage VI norms. BS-
IV fuels contain 50 parts per million (ppm) sulphur, the BS-VI grade fuel only has 10 ppm sulphur. BS VI
can bring PM in diesel cars down by 80 per cent . The new norms will bring down nitrogen oxides from
diesel cars by 70 per cent and in petrol cars by 25 per cent. BS VI also make on-board diagnos cs (OBD)
mandatory for all vehicles. OBD device informs the vehicle owner or the repair technician how efficient
the systems in the vehicle are.