Dr.

Aouail Nouria University Center of

Naama
Mathematics I: Logic and reasoning 2024/2025

Chapter 1: Logic and reasoning

I) Logic:
1) Assertion or proposition:

Definition 1.1:

A proposition is a sentence that is either true or false, but not both at the same time.

Example:
The sentences:

- Algeria is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa.

- 2+9=10.
- 8 is greater than 5.

Are assertions.
While the sentences:

- Are you going out somewhere?

- 3-5
Are not assertions.

Definition 1.2:

A proposition is a mathematical expression denoted by symbols such as {P, Q, F, ...} to which

we can assign the truth value of true or false.

Note:

• We denote that the proposition P is true as “1” or “T”.

• We denote that the proposition P is false as “0” or “F”.
Example 2:

• 2+3=5, (is a true statement).

• For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, there exists a 𝑦 ∈ ℝ where: 𝑥 < 𝑦. (is true)
• There exists 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, for all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦. (is false)

Definition 1.3 (Negation). Let P be a proposition, the negation of P is a proposition denoting the
opposite, which we denote as ¬P (~P or 𝑃̅). Here is its truth table.

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Mathematics I: Logic and reasoning 2024/2025

P ¬P
T F
F T

2) Logical connective:

To build up a complex statement, we use operators called logical connective (logical operators).
2.1) Conjunction <and˃:

Conjunction is the logical operator: and denoted “˄”. The proposition (P and Q) or (P ∧Q) is the
conjunction of the two propositions P and Q.

• The assertion "P ∧ Q" is true if both P and Q are true.

• The assertion "P ∧ Q" is false otherwise.

This can be summarized in a truth table:

P Q P∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 1: the truth table of P ∧ Q.

Example:

• 6 is an even number and 3 is an odd number. (True)

2
• 10 ≤ 11 and > 1. (False)
3

2.2) Disjunction <or˃:

Disjunction is the logical operator: or denoted “∨”, the proposition (P or Q) i.e., (P ∨ Q) is the
disjunction of the two propositions P and Q.

• The assertion "P ∨ Q" is false if both P and Q are false.

• The assertion "P ∨ Q" is true otherwise.

This can be summarized in a truth table:

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Dr. Aouail Nouria University Center of
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Mathematics I: Logic and reasoning 2024/2025

P Q P˅Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 1: the truth table of P ˅ Q.

Example:

• 2 is an even number or 3 is a prime number, (this proposition is true).

• 3 ≤ 1 or 2 ≥ 4, this proposition is false.

2.3) Implication (→):

The implication of two propositions P and Q is denoted as P→Q, we say P implies Q or if P then
Q.

Note: The assertions (P→Q) and (¬P˅Q).

Example:

⏟′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑖𝑓 𝑖𝑡 ⏟ 𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑦
𝑃 𝑄

P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

¬P Q ¬P ˅ Q
F T T
F F F
T T T
T F T

Example:

• 0 ≤ x ≤ 25 →√x ≤ 5. this proposition is true.

• 6+2=8→ 8 > 9. This proposition is false.

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2.4) Equivalence (↔):

The equivalence of two propositions P and Q is denoted as P↔Q, we can also write (P → Q) and
(Q → P).

We say that:

• P↔Q is true if P and Q have the same truth value.

• P↔Q is false for all other cases.
This can be summarized in a truth table:

P Q P↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

𝑃→𝑄 𝑄→𝑃 (𝑃 → 𝑄)˄(𝑄 → 𝑃)

T T T
F T F
T F F
T T T

Example:

• x − 1 = 1 ↔ x = 2, this proposition is true

• 𝑒 𝑥 ↔ x = 0, this proposition is true.
• 𝑥 + 3 = 5 ↔ 𝑥 = 0, this proposition is false.

3) Quantifiers:
Keep in mind that "x is an integer" is not a proposition. This is because various values for x alter
the statement's truth. Such a sentence is called an open sentence or predicate. However, using
variables in our statements is highly beneficial, thus our reasoning need to be able to account for
it. In order to do this, we present quantifiers.
A quantifier is a symbol which states how many instances of the variable satisfy the sentence.

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a) The quantifier “∀” or “for all”:

The assertion “∀ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝑷(𝒙)” is true when the proposition 𝑷(𝒙) is true for all values of x
belong to E.
Example:

- ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 . is true.
- ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 1. Is false.
- ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 2 . Is False

b) The quantifier “∃” or “there exists”:

The assertion “ ∃ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝑷(𝒙)”, is true when it is possible to find at least one element 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, in
order for P(x) to be true.

Example:

- ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 . is true.
- ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 1. Is true.
- ∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 2 . Is true

c) The negation of quantifiers:

▪ The negation of “∀ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝑷(𝒙)” is :” ∃ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, ¬𝑷(𝒙)”.
▪ The negation of “∃ 𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, 𝑷(𝒙)” is :” ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑬, ¬𝑷(𝒙)”.

Example:

- The negation of ∀ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ, 𝒙𝟐 ≥ 𝟎 is: ∃ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ, 𝒙𝟐 < 𝟎.

- The negation of ∀ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ, 𝒙𝟐 ≥ 𝟏 is: ∃ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ, 𝒙𝟐 < 𝟏.
- The negation of ∀ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ, 𝒙 ≤ 𝒙𝟐 is: ∃ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ, 𝒙 > 𝒙𝟐 .
- The negation of ∃ 𝒙 ∈ ℝ, 𝑷˄𝑸 is: ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ¬𝑷˅¬𝑸.

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II) Reasoning:
how can we prove an implication?
1- Direct proof:

Is used commonly to prove statements of the form: 𝑃 → 𝑄. By using this type of proof, we:

o Assume that P is true.

o Deduce from P that Q is true.

Example:
𝑎+𝑏
1) Prove that: 𝑎 = 𝑏 → = 𝑏.
2
- We assume that a=b is true.
𝑎 𝑏
- 𝑎=𝑏→ =2
2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
→ +2=2+2
2
𝑎+𝑏
→ ⏟2 = 𝑏.
𝑄

𝑎+𝑏
So, the statement 𝑎 = 𝑏 → = 𝑏 is true.
2

2) Prove that: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛.

- We assume that “x is even”, which means that x=2p, where 𝑝 ∈ ℤ.
- We must find that 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, which means that 𝑥 2 = 2𝑞, where 𝑞 ∈ ℤ.
- 𝑥 = 2𝑝 → 𝑥 2 = (2𝑝)2 , 𝑝 ∈ ℤ
→ 𝑥 2 = 4𝑝2 , 𝑝 ∈ ℤ
→ 𝑥 2 = 2 (2𝑝
⏟ 2) , 𝑝 ∈ ℤ
𝑞
2
→ 𝑥 = 2𝑞, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ

So, the statement: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, is true.

3) Prove that, for any odd integer 𝑛, the number 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 4 must be odd.
- We assume that n is odd which means that n=2p+1, where 𝑝 ∈ ℤ.
- We must find that 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 4 is an odd, which means that 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 4 = 2𝑙 + 1,
where 𝑙 ∈ ℤ.
- 𝑛 = 2𝑝 + 1 → 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 4 = 2(2𝑝 + 1)2 + 5(2𝑝 + 1) + 4, 𝑝 ∈ ℤ

→ 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 4 = 2 (4𝑝
⏟ 2 + 9𝑝 + 5) + 1, 𝑝 ∈ ℤ
𝑙

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→ 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 4 = 2l + 1, 𝑙 ∈ ℤ

So, the statement: for any odd integer 𝑛, the number 2𝑛2 + 5𝑛 + 4 must be odd, is true.

2- Contrapositive proof:

The expression ¬𝑄 → ¬𝑃 is called the contrapositive form of 𝑃 → 𝑄.

The contrapositive proof con be done by the following steps:

o We assume that the statement ¬𝑄 is true.

o We deduce from ¬𝑄 that ¬𝑃 is true.

Example:

3𝑛 + 7 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 → ⏟
1) Prove that: ⏟ 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.
𝑃 𝑄
- The contrapositive form of the previous assertion is:
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 → ⏟
⏟ 3𝑛 + 7 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
¬𝑄 ¬𝑃
- We assume that 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟, is true.
- 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 → 𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1, 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ
→ 3𝑛 + 7 = 3(2𝑘 + 1) + 7, 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ
= 6𝑘 + 10, 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ
= 2(3𝑘
⏟ + 5) , 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ.
𝑚
= 2𝑚, , 𝑚 𝜖 ℤ.

→ 3𝑛 + 7 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

the assertion 𝑛
⏟𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 → 3𝑛
⏟ + 7 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 is true, then
¬𝑄 ¬𝑃
3𝑛 + 7 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 → ⏟
⏟ 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
𝑃 𝑄

𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → ⏟
2) Prove that: ⏟ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑃 𝑄
- The contrapositive form of the previous assertion is: ⏟ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → ⏟
¬𝑄 ¬𝑃
- We assume that: 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → 𝑥 = 2𝑛, 𝑛 𝜖 ℤ.
→ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = (2𝑛)2 − 6(2𝑛) + 5, 𝑛 𝜖 ℤ.

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→ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 = 2 (2𝑛
⏟ 2 − 6𝑛 + 2) + 1, 𝑛 𝜖 ℤ.
𝑘
2
→ 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 5 = 2𝑘 + 1, 𝑘 𝜖 ℤ.

So, the statement: ⏟ 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 , is true, then: the statement:

𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → ⏟
¬𝑄 ¬𝑃
2
𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → ⏟
⏟ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 , is true.
𝑃 𝑄

3- Proof by contradiction:

To prove that a statement R is true, we begin by assuming R false, and show that this leads to
contradiction.

We assume that R is false and look for a contradiction ¬𝑅 true.

R: 𝑃 → 𝑄

¬𝑅: ¬𝑃 → 𝑄 ↔ ¬(¬𝑃˅𝑄) ↔ 𝑃˄¬𝑄

- We will assume that 𝑃˄¬𝑄 is true and look for a contradiction.

Example:

1) Prove that: 𝑛⏟∈ ℕ∗ → ⏟

√𝑛2 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.
𝑃 𝑄
2
- We assume that 𝑃˄¬𝑄 ↔ (𝑛 ∈ ℕ )˄√𝑛2 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 is true.
- We look for a contradiction.
𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
- } → 𝑛2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛2 + 1 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠!
√𝑛2 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
There is no two consecutive squares of non-null integers (1, 4, 9, ….). So, we are coming
to a contradiction.

¬𝑅: (𝑛 ∈ ℕ2 )˄√𝑛2 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 is false, then R: 𝑛⏟∈ ℕ∗ → ⏟

√𝑛2 + 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 is
𝑃 𝑄
true.

2) Prove that the sum of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.

-Suppose that the sum of a rational number and an irrational number is rational.

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𝒑
- The first rational number can be expressed as 𝒒, where p and q are co-prime integers. Let the
𝒓
irrational number be a. Their sum can be expressed as 𝒔, where r and s are co-prime integers.
Then:

𝒑 𝒓
+𝒂=
𝒒 𝒔
𝒑
Subtracting 𝒒 from both sides of this equation gives

𝒓 𝒑
𝒂= −
𝒔 𝒒
𝑞𝑟 − 𝑝𝑠
𝑎=
𝑞𝑠

𝑞𝑟 − 𝑝𝑠 is an integer, and so is 𝒒𝒔. Therefore, a is a rational number. However, a was defined

to be irrational. This is a contradiction.

Hence, the sum of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.

4- Proof by counter example:

A counterexample is a form of proof. To prove that a statement of the form ∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥) is false, we
need to find an element x such that P(x) is false. In other words, we disprove the given assertion.

Example:

1) ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 ≥ 1. We look for one example, at least, where: 𝑥 2 < 1 (∃ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 < 1)

- 𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑥 2 = 0.25 < 1
For example, ⏟
↓
Is a counter example.

2) Disprove that: ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎2 > 𝑏2 → 𝑎 > 𝑏.

- −3, 2 ∈ ℤ, −32 > 22 → −3 ≤ 2
- −3 and 2 are counter example. So, the assertion ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎2 > 𝑏 2 → 𝑎 > 𝑏 is false.

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5- Proof by Inductive reasoning:

This method allows us to show that an assertion P(n), depending on n, is true for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁. It
can be done by following these steps:

o We prove that 𝑃0 (𝑛) is true.

o We assume that P(n) is true, and we prove that P(n+1) is true.

Example:

1) Prove that: ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 2𝑛 > 𝑛

- For n=0: 20 = 1 > 0, is true.
- We assume that: 2𝑛 > 𝑛 and we prove that: 2𝑛+1 > 𝑛+1
- 2𝑛+1 = 2𝑛 . 2 > 2. 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛 + 1

2𝑛+1 > 𝑛 + 1

So, P(n+1) is true, then ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 2𝑛 > 𝑛 is true.

2) Prove that: ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 3 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛3 − 𝑛.

- We start by proving 𝑃0 (𝑛) = 03 − 0 = 0 = 3.0. (It is true)
- We assume that ⏟ 3 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛3 − 𝑛 is true and we prove that
𝑃(𝑛)
3
3 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝑛 + 1) − (𝑛 + 1) is true.
⏟
𝑃(𝑛+1)

3 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛3 − 𝑛 → 𝑛3 − 𝑛 = 3𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℕ.

Then Now notice that: (𝑛 + 1)3 − (𝑛 + 1) = (𝑛 + 1)((𝑛 + 1)2 − 1)

= 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)

= 𝑛3 + 3𝑛2 + 2𝑛

= (𝑛3 − 𝑛) + 3𝑛2 + 3𝑛

⏟+ 𝑛2 + 𝑛)
= 3(𝑘
𝑙

= 3𝑙, 𝑙 ∈ ℕ

So, the assertion: ∀ 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 3 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑛3 − 𝑛 is true.

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Exercises
Exercise N° 1:
1) Are the following propositions True or False:
• ∀(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 , (𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0) → (𝑥 = 0 ˄ 𝑦 = 0)
• ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 2 .
25 5
• (6 < ) → (√6 < 2)
4
• ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, (𝑥 ≤ 0) → (𝑥 − 1 < 0)
1 1
• ∀ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 , ( 𝑥𝑦 ≠ 0 ˄ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦) → (𝑦 ≤ 𝑥)
|𝑥 + 𝑦| ≤ |𝑥| + |𝑦|
• ∀(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 , {
|𝑥 − 𝑦| ≥ |𝑥| − |𝑦|

Exercise N° 2:
Use the truth table to check the validity of the following propositions:

1) 𝑃 ↔ ¬(¬𝑃).
2) ¬(𝑃˄𝑄) ↔ (¬𝑃˅¬𝑄).
3) ¬(𝑃˅𝑄) ↔ (¬𝑃˄¬𝑄).
4) ¬(𝑃 → 𝑄) ↔ 𝑃˄¬𝑄.
5) (𝑃 → 𝑄)˄(¬𝑃 → 𝑄).
6) ¬(𝑃˄¬(𝑄˄𝑅)) ↔ 𝑄.
7) ((𝑃˅𝑄) → 𝑅) ↔ (𝑃 → 𝑅)˄(𝑄 → 𝑅).

Exercise N° 3:
Prove the following propositions:

1) The sum of two odd integers is even.

2) If n is odd, 𝑛2 must be odd.
3) ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ, (3𝑎 + 1)𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 → 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑.
4) ∀(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ2 , (𝑎 + 𝑏 ≥ 15) → (𝑎 ≥ 8 ˅ 𝑏 ≥ 8).
5) (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℤ2 → 𝑎2 − 4𝑏 ≠ 2.
6) ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, ( 𝑛2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛) → (𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛)
7) ∀(𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ ℝ2 , (𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 ) → (𝑎 = 𝑏).
8) ∀(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 , (𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0) → (𝑥 = 0 ˄ 𝑦 = 0).
𝑛(𝑛+1)
9) ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = .
2
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
10) ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = .
6

11