School of Engineering

ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Renewable Energy Conversions

Characteristics and Design of
Solar Collector
Dr. Asma Aziz
Semester 1, 2021
 School of Engineering
Learning outcome ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• After completing this topic, students will be able to:

– Explain how a solar thermal system works.
– Estimate the useful thermal energy from a solar thermal collector.
• Estimate the amount of energy absorbed by a solar thermal collector.
• Estimate the heat losses from the collector.
– Assess the energy balance equation for a flat plate collector
– Design and assess the performance of a solar thermal collector

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Outline ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Basic principle of heat transfer mechanism

• Types and characteristics of flat plate collectors
• Heat transfer and loss mechanism in a FPC
• Estimation of energy output FPC
• Performance evaluation of FPCs

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Heating and Phase Changes of Water ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

A graph of temperature versus

energy added. The system is
constructed so that no vapor
evaporates while ice warms to
become liquid water, and so that,
when vaporization occurs, the
vapor remains in of the system.
The long stretches of constant
temperature values at 0ºC and
100ºC reflect the large latent
heat of melting and vaporization,
respectively.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6n3o9T68qI&feature=emb_logo 4
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Heat transfer ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• What is heat?
– Heat is a form of energy that can be
transferred from one object to
T2
another
Latent heat for
Solid
• Sensible heat

Temperature (T)
phase change
sensible
Q = mλ
heat
– Q = mCp(T2-T1)
T* Liquid
• Latent heat sensible
heat
– Q = mλ T1
Storage heat (Q)

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Heat Transfer ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

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Heat transfer-conduction ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The process by which heat is directly

transmitted through a substance due
to a difference in temperature
between adjoining regions.
Outside Wall Room https://www.slideshare.net/guest451a35/heat-transfer-presentation

200C

Qcod = kA (dT/dx)
• k is the thermal conductivity of
0 0C the material
• A is the area through which
heat transfer takes place
7
x
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Practice problem 1 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Problem: The heat flux through a wood slab 50mm

thick, whose inner and outer surface temperatures are
40 and 200C, respectively, has been determined to be 40
W/m2. Determine the thermal conductivity of the wood.
• Solution
• Conductive heat flow is expressed by Qcod = kA (dT/dx)
0.05𝑚𝑚
• In this case, k = 40 W/m2 X
(40−20)0𝐶𝐶
• K = 0.10 W/m-K

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ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

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Heat transfer-Convection ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The movement caused within a fluid by

the tendency of hotter and therefore
less dense material to rise, and colder,
denser material to sink under the
influence of gravity, which consequently
results in transfer of heat.
• hc is the convective heat transfer Qconv = hcA∆T
coefficient of the liquid
• Convection can be natural and/or forced 10
 School of Engineering
Practice problem 2 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Problem: The convection heat transfer coefficient

between a surface at 40°C and ambient air at 20°C is 20
W/m2K. Calculate the heat flux leaving the surface by
convection.
• Solution
• Heat flow through convection Qconv = hcA∆T
• = 20W/m2K X (40-20)0C
• Therefore, the heat flux leaving the surface by convection = 400 W/m2
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ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

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Heat transfer- Radiation ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Thermal radiation is defined as the energy transferred

by electromagnetic waves that originate from a system
because of the temperature of the system
• Total emissive power is the total thermal radiation
energy emitted by a surface element into the entire
volume above the surface per unit area
• Energy emitted by thermal radiation is expressed by
Stefan-Boltzmann law
 School of Engineering
Heat transfer- Radiation ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Qrad = σAT4 (for black • Radiation between two parallel

bodies) surfaces
• Qrad = σεAT4 (for grey
4
(
Q σ T2 − T1
=
4
)
A 1 1
bodies) + −1
ε1 ε 2
• σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
5.670374419...×10−8 W⋅m−2⋅K−4 • Radiation between a surface
• A = Surface area and the surrounding
• ε = Emissivity of the body Q = ε A σ (T 4 − Ts4 )
• T = Surface temperature • Ts is the sky temperature 14
 School of Engineering
What is a solar thermal collector? ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

A solar thermal collector is a special energy exchanger which converts solar

irradiation energy to the thermal energy

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Image source: https://www.renewableenergyhub.co.uk/solar-thermal-information/how-do-solar-thermal-panels-work.html
Solar input in a thermal School of Engineering
system ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• When radiation strikes a body Cover (glass/plastic)

a) A fraction of its is absorbed
• Measured by ABSORPTANCE and Absorber plate
expressed by α
b) Another fraction is reflected
• Measured by REFLECTANCE and expressed
by ρ
c) The third fraction is transmitted τ+ρ+α=1
• Measured by TRANSMITTANCE and
expressed by 𝜏𝜏 16
Solar input in a thermal School of Engineering
system ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• For a transparent material like glass, the transmittance

is very high
• On the other hand, for an opaque surface like a metal
plate, the transmittance is zero.
• Only a part (of the incident radiation) is transmitted
through the glass
– The remaining is either reflected to atmosphere or absorbed by the glass
• Of the transmitted radiation striking the absorber plate
– A part is absorbed and the remaining is reflected. 17
 School of Engineering
Transmittance ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Transmittance is a measurement of how much light

passes through a substance.
• Expressed by τ, and defined as
Radiant energy transmitted through the glass surface
τ=
Radiant energy incident on the surface
• The higher the amount of light that passes through, the
larger is the transmittance.
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Attenuation coefficient ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• It is a measure of how easily a beam of light or energy

can penetrate a specific material or medium
– A large attenuation coefficient means that the beam is quickly weakened
as it passes through the medium
– A small attenuation coefficient means that the medium is
relatively transparent to the beam
• Attenuation coefficient is measured as the reciprocal of
distance the beam passes through (m-1)
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Absorptance ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Absorptance of the surface of a material is its

effectiveness in absorbing radiant energy
– The fraction α (absorptance) that is absorbed over a path length L in a
medium of attenuation coefficient K is given by 1 - α = exp(-KL)
• Absorptance and transmittance are dependent on the
incident angle
• For glass, iron oxide controls the colour and absorptivity.
– Low iron glass with about 0.05% iron oxide, α = 2.5%, while for ordinary
window glass α = 15% at normal incidence.
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Activity ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• For best performance of flat-plate

a c
Material Type EmittanceTemperatureb Absorptance

Aluminum, pure H 0.09-0.10

collectors, it is generally more important 0.102573 , 0.130773 , 0.113873

Aluminum, anodized H 0.842296 , 0.720484 , 0.669574 0.12-0.16

to maximize absorption of radiation Aluminum, SiO2 coated H 0.366263 , 0.384293 , 0.378324 0.11
rather than minimize emission of heat. Carbon black in acrylic binder H 0.83278 0.94
If the highest temperature of the Chromium N 0.290722 , 0.355905 , 0.4351072 0.415

material surface is desired, which three Copper, polished H 0.041338 , 0.036463 , 0.039803 0.35

options from the Table below would Gold H 0.025275 , 0.040468 , 0.048668 0.20-0.23

you pick? Iron H 0.071199 , 0.110468 , 0.175668 0.44

Lampblack in epoxy N 0.89298 0.96

Magnesium oxide H 0.73380 , 0.68491 , 0.53755 0.14

Nickel H 0.10310 , 0.10468 , 0.12668 0.36-0.43

Paint - Parson's black H 0.981240 , 0.981462 0.98

Paint - Acrylic white H 0.90298 0.26

H is total hemispheric emittance; N is total normal emittance.
bThe numerator is the emittance at the temperature (K) of the denominator.
Paint - White (ZnO) H 0.929295 , 0.926478 , 0.889646 0.12-0.18
cNormal solar absorptance.
https://www.e-education.psu.edu/eme811/node/7 21
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Answer ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

From quick look at the data, the three materials with the highest
absorptance should provide the highest performance :
•Carbon Black
•Lampblack
•Parson’s Black

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Types of solar thermal system ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Fluid loop

Direct or open loop Indirect or closed loop

Storage

Heat exchanger

Thermal 23
load
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Types of solar thermal system ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Fluid movement

Passive system Active system

Storage Tank Outlet

Controller

Solar collector
Solar collector

Pump

Outlet Storage Tank

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Passive solar thermal system ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The hot water from the collector rises and flows into the
top part of the storage tank
– Due to the temperature and density difference between water in the two
sections of the water circuit
• Colder denser water from the bottom of the storage tank
fills up the empty space, and it continues
• Storage tank needs to be above the level of the collector
to prevent the reverse situation occurring at night
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Flat plate collector ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Consists of a flat plate absorber,

header pipes, riser pipes, glass cover
(one or multiple), insulation and
housing case. Cover 2

– Designed for applications up to 100°C Absorber Plate

Cover 1

– Use beam and diffuse radiation Risers

– No tracking Insulation

– Simple and require little maintenance

– Used in solar water heating, building heating, air
conditioning and industrial process heat 26
 School of Engineering
The Advantages of FPCs ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

 They are inexpensive to manufacture,

 They collect both beam and diffuse radiation,
 They are permanently fixed in position, so no tracking of the
sun is required.

The collectors should be oriented directly toward the equator, facing south in
the Northern Hemisphere and north in the Southern Hemisphere. The
optimum tilt angle of the collector is equal to the latitude of the location, with
angle variations of 10 to 15 more or less, depending on the application.

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 School of Engineering
Glazing Materials ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Glass has been widely used to glaze solar collectors because it

can transmit as much as 90% of the incoming shortwave solar
irradiation while transmitting virtually none of the longwave
radiation emitted outward by the absorber plate.
Window glass usually has high iron content and is not suitable
for use in solar collectors. Glass with low iron content has a
relatively high transmittance for solar radiation
(approximately 0.85– 0.90 at normal incidence), but its
transmittance is zero for longwave radiation.
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Collector Absorbing Plates ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

The collector plate absorbs as much of the irradiation as possible

through the glazing, while losing as little heat as possible upward to
the atmosphere and downward through the back of the casing. The
collector plates transfer the retained heat to the transport fluid. To
maximize the energy collection, the absorber of a collector should
have a coating that has high absorptance for solar radiation (short
wavelength) and a low emittance for re-radiation (long wavelength).
The absorptance of the collector surface for shortwave solar radiation
depends on the nature and color of the coating and on the incident angle.
Usually black color is used, but various color coatings have been proposed

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Collector Configuration ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

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Absorbed radiance by FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

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Beam Polarisation ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

When an unpolarized light beam is

reflected from a surface, the reflected
beam will become partially polarized
depending on the angle of incidence.
For one particular angle of incidence,
called Brewster's angle, θB, the
reflected beam is completely
polarized.
At Brewster's angle of incidence, the
angle between the reflected and
refracted beams is 90°. The reflected
beam is completely polarized, with its
electric field parallel to the surface.
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ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

These two photographs of a river show the effect of a polarizing filter in reducing glare in light reflected from the surface of
water. Part (b) of this Figure was taken with a polarizing filter and part (a) was not.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/physics/chapter/27-8-polarization/ 33
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Reflectance ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The ratio of the reflected component

of the beam radiation (Iρ) to the Incident
beam Reflected

incident beam radiation (I) beam

θ1
𝐼𝐼𝜌𝜌 1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛2(𝜃𝜃2−𝜃𝜃1) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2(𝜃𝜃2−𝜃𝜃1)
r= = [ + ] n1
𝐼𝐼 2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2(𝜃𝜃2+𝜃𝜃1) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2(𝜃𝜃2+𝜃𝜃1) n2

• Where θ1 & θ2 are angles of θ2

incidence and refraction and are Transmitted

beam
related by Snells’ law n1/n2 = Sinθ2/Sinθ1
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Reflectance ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• For a system of N glass cover, transmittance is

1 1 − 𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌 1 − 𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛
𝜌𝜌 = +
2 1 + (2𝑁𝑁 − 1)𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌 1 + (2𝑁𝑁 − 1)𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛
• If the incident radiation is normal to the surface, then
2
for a single surface 𝑟𝑟 =
𝑛𝑛1 −𝑛𝑛2
𝑛𝑛1 +𝑛𝑛2
– where n1, n2 are the refractive indices of medium 1 (usually air) and
medium 2 (usually glass) respectively.
– Example: For glass with refractive index 1.526, the reflectance is 0.044
(for one surface) (i.e.) 4.4%. Approximately 8.8% of radiation is reflected
(from top and bottom). 35
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Practice problem 3 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Problem:
Calculate the reflectance of one surface of glass at
normal incidence and at 60◦ . The average index
of refraction of glass for the solar spectrum is
1.526.

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Practice problem 3 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Solution
– Given that N2=1.526; θ1 = 600; and n1=1 (for air)
– If one medium is air (i.e., a refractive index of nearly unity), radiation at nomal incidence is:

0.526 2
• r 0 = = 0.0434
2.526
𝑛𝑛1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃2 𝑛𝑛1
• At an incidence angle of 60, =
𝑛𝑛2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃1
𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒. 𝜃𝜃2 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆−1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝜃𝜃1
𝑛𝑛2
= 34.580

• The reflectance will be 1 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛2(𝜃𝜃2−𝜃𝜃1) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2(𝜃𝜃2−𝜃𝜃1)

r(60) = [ + ]
2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2(𝜃𝜃2+𝜃𝜃1) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2(𝜃𝜃2+𝜃𝜃1)

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2(𝜃𝜃2−𝜃𝜃1)
𝜋𝜋𝜌𝜌 = = 0.001 and
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡2(𝜃𝜃2+𝜃𝜃1)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛2(𝜃𝜃2−𝜃𝜃1)
𝜋𝜋𝑛𝑛 = = 0.185
So, r = 0.093 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2(𝜃𝜃2+𝜃𝜃1)
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Energy balance of a FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Useful heat of a solar thermal collector is the difference between

the energy absorbed by the system and the amount of heat is lost
(from the system)
• The Energy Absorbed by an absorbing surface is a function of:
– The area of absorbing surface
– The absorptance of absorbing surface (α)
– The transmittance of any cover materials (τ)
– The incident solar radiation
– The reflectance of any reflecting surface
Energy absorbed by the Heat loss (from
Useful energy = system/plate - the system) 38
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Energy balance of a FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The Heat Loss is a function of:

– The area of the heated surfaces
– The design of the collector (insulation
levels, use of covers, use of vacuums
etc.)
– The temperature difference between
the absorbing surface and the
surroundings
– The flow rate of the fluid in the
collector
– The ambient conditions (e.g.
Image source: http://www.volker-quaschning.de/articles/fundamentals4/index.php

temperature and wind speed)

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Energy balance equation ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Energy Balance Equation at steady state is expressed as

Qu = Qi – Ql
• In order to design an efficient system, it is important to know:
– The heat absorbed [Ha] or [HT,a] by the flat plate collector
– The total heat losses from the system.
• As the heat loss will be from the absorber plate (which is at the
highest temperature in the system) to the ambient (the lowest
temperature), the heat loss is
Ql = UL(Tpm - Ta)
• UL is the heat loss coefficient of the collector 40
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EBE for a flat plate collector ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• For a flat plate collector, EBE can be written as

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 [𝑆𝑆 − 𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 −𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )]
• Where
– Qu = the useful energy gain from the collector
– Ac = the collector area
– S = the solar radiation absorbed per unit area (i.e. AcS = heat
absorbed by the absorber plate) W/m2
– UL = the collector heat loss coefficient (W/m2K)
– Tpm = the mean absorber plate temperature
– Ta = the ambient temperature 41
Estimating heat loss School of Engineering
coefficient UL ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Solar radiation (HT)

Glass cover 2
Glass cover 1

𝜏𝜏HT Absorber plate

ρHT
αHT
Bonds

Tube/riser

Insulation

Absorption, reflection and transmission in a flat plate collector

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Heat transfer in a flat plate School of Engineering
collector ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The heat transfer between absorber plate and glass cover is by convection
• Radiative heat transfer between the absorber and glass
• Convective heat transfer from glass to ambient
• Radiative heat transfer between glass and sky
• Radiative heat transfer between absorber plate and glass cover
• Multiple absorption and transmission occur
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Heat transfer in a flat plate School of Engineering
collector ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Ta
Convection &
radiation Tc

Convection &
radiation Tp

Convection

Conduction
Tb

Convection & 44
radiation Ta
Heat transfer in a flat plate School of Engineering
collector ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Heat flow mechanism can be For electrical circuit

compared with the current ∆𝑉𝑉
flow in an electrical circuit 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅
across a resistor
• The amount of heat transfer For thermal collector
depends on the magnitude of ∆𝑇𝑇
the resistance and on the Q = 𝑈𝑈∆𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅
temperature difference
across the resistance T2 T1
R 45
Heat transfer in a flat plate School of Engineering
collector ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Assume, for a flat plate collector

– S Solar radiation absorbed by the absorber plate
– Q Heat transferred from the absorber plate to the fluid
– Ta Ambient temperature
– Tp Temperature of the fluid
Ta
– hc Convective heat transfer coefficient S
– hr Radiative heat transfer coefficient 1/UL =R
Qu
Tp
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Heat flow in a FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Ta
Double glazing system
1/hc,c2-a 1/hr,c2-a R1
Tc1=temperature of cover1
=1/hw Tc2
Tc2=temperature of cover2
Tb=temperature of the back of
1/hc,c1-c2 1/hr,c1-c2 R2 the system
Tc1 Ta=ambient temperature

1/hc,p-c1 1/hr,p-c1 R3
S Qu S Qu
Tp
1/hc,p-b 1/hr,p-b R4
Tb
1/hc,b-a 1/hr,b-a
R5
Ta 47
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Heat flow in a FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Thermal network for a

single-cover collector

Kalogirou, Soteris A.. Solar Energy Engineering : Processes and Systems, Elsevier
48
Estimating heat loss School of Engineering
coefficient UL ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Multiple absorption and transmission occur between the plate

and the glass cover. Reflection is minimised and neglected.
• So, absorptance-transmittance product (𝜏𝜏α) is greater than α.𝜏𝜏
(product of individuals)
– Given as (α𝜏𝜏) = 1.01.α.𝜏𝜏
• The energy absorbed by the absorber plate is therefore, HT(𝜏𝜏α)
per unit of collector area. (HT total incident energy)
• So, the total energy absorbed by the collector area Ac: 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇 (𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏)

So, 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 [𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 − 𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )] 49

Estimating heat loss School of Engineering
coefficient UL ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Assumptions
– Performance is in steady state
• That is HT, Ta and (𝜏𝜏α) do not change with time (in reality they do)
– Heat flow through the cover and back insulation is one dimensional only
• That is heat flow is in one direction only
– Absorber plate and cover are at uniform temperature
– Physical properties of materials are independent of temperature
– Dirt and dust on collector are neglected and there is no shading on
collector surface
– Two glass cover system
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Heat loss through the top ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The rate of heat loss through the top of the absorber plate per
unit area is be given by
– Convective heat loss+ radiative heat loss
4
𝜎𝜎(𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝4 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐1 )
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 = ℎ𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝−𝑐𝑐1 𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐1 +
1 1
+ −1
𝜀𝜀𝑝𝑝 𝜀𝜀𝑐𝑐1
• Where,
– hc.p-c1 = Convective heat transfer coefficient between the plate and the cover1
– Tp is the plate temperature
– Tc1 is the temperature of glass cover1
– σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant
51
– εp and εc1 are emissivity of the plate and cover1 respectively
 School of Engineering
Heat loss through the top ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The above equation can be simplified as

𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 = 𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐1 (ℎ𝑐𝑐,𝑝𝑝−𝑐𝑐1 + ℎ𝑟𝑟,𝑝𝑝−𝑐𝑐1 )
• Where, the radiation heat transfer coefficient
2
𝜎𝜎(𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 + 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐 )(𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝2 + 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐 )
ℎ𝑟𝑟,𝑝𝑝−𝑐𝑐𝑐 =
1 1
+ −1
𝜀𝜀𝑝𝑝 𝜀𝜀𝑐𝑐𝑐
• If R3 is the resistance to heat transfer between the plate and
cover1, then (hc.p-c1 + hr.p-c1) = 1/R3
• So, 𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 =
𝑅𝑅
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Heat loss through the top ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Similarly, the heat loss between cover1 and cover2 can be

expressed by
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐2
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 =
𝑅𝑅2
• Where
– R2 is the resistance to heat transfer between cover1 and cover2
R2 = 1/(hc,c1-c2 + hr.c1-c2)
– Tc2 is the temperature of cover2
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Heat loss through the top ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• By similar analysis, the heat loss between the cover2

and the ambient can be given by
4
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 = ℎ𝑤𝑤 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 + 𝜎𝜎𝜀𝜀𝑐𝑐2 (𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠4 )
• Where,
– hw is the convective heat transfer coefficient due to wind
– Ts is the sky temperature
(𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 )
• Further simplification will give 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 =
𝑅𝑅1
• Where R3 is the resistance to heat transfer between
cover2 and the ambient/sky 54
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Heat loss through the top ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Summing up all three components – the rate of heat loss

through the top of per unit collector area
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 = 𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
• Where,
• Utop = 1/Rtop = 1/(R1+R2+R3)
• Total heat loss through the top of the collector having
an area of Ac
𝑄𝑄𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
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Practice problem 4 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Problem: The inner and outer surface temperatures of a glass

window 5 mm thick are 15 and 5°C,respectively. What is the heat
loss through a window that is 1 m by 3 m on a side? The thermal
conductivity of glass is 1.4 W/mK
• Solution
– We have heat flow equation Qcod = kA (dT/dx)
– = 1.4 W/mK x {(15-5)0C/0.05m} = 2,800W/m2
– The window area is 3m2
– Therefore, total heat loss through the window is (3m2 X 2,800 W/m2) =
8,400 W 56
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Heat loss through the back ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Heat transfer from the back of the plate is due to conduction

through the insulation 𝑘𝑘
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑏𝑏 = (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 )
𝐿𝐿
• Where
– k is the thermal conductivity of the insulator
– L is the thickness of the insulator
– Tb is the temperature of the back of the insulator
(𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 )
• It can be rewritten, in terms of R, as 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑏𝑏 = 𝑅𝑅
4

• R4=L/k is the resistance to heat transfer

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Heat loss through the back ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Again, heat transfer from the back of the collector to the ambient
is due to both convection and radiation. So,
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑏𝑏 = ℎ𝑐𝑐,𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 + ℎ𝑟𝑟,𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎
• Where,
– hc.b-a is the convective heat transfer coefficient between the back and the ambient
– hr.b-a is the radiative heat transfer coefficient between the back and the ambient
• As the temperature at the back of the collector is low, the
radiation loss can be neglected. This reduces to
𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 Where R5 = 1/(hc,b-a)
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑏𝑏 = ℎ𝑐𝑐,𝑏𝑏−𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅5 58
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Heat loss through the back ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

(𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
• As earlier, the total heat loss from the back 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑏𝑏 =
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
• Where, Rback = R4 + R5
• Finally, as R=1/U, the heat loss from the back
𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑏𝑏 = 𝑈𝑈𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )

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Heat loss through the edges ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Heat loss from the edges can be expressed in a similar

way 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑒𝑒 =
(𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
• That leads to 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑒𝑒 = 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
• Where, 1
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 =
𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

In an efficient design, the heat loss from the edges can be neglected.

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Total heat loss ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Combining top, bottom and edges heat loss coefficients

𝑞𝑞𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑡𝑡 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑏𝑏 + 𝑞𝑞𝑙𝑙,𝑒𝑒
= 𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )+ 𝑈𝑈𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )+ 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
= (𝑈𝑈𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝑈𝑈𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑈𝑈𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 )(𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
= 𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑝𝑝 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )
• UL is the total heat loss coefficient of the collector
• Total heat loss from a collector area of Ac is
𝑸𝑸𝑳𝑳 = 𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄 𝑼𝑼𝑳𝑳 (𝑻𝑻𝒑𝒑 − 𝑻𝑻𝒂𝒂 )
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Uncertainties in measurements ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The mean temperature of the absorber plate is difficult

to calculate or measure
– It is a function of the collector design, the incident radiation and the
entering fluid conditions
– Only known (measured) is the fluid temperature entering the collector
• Difficulty in estimating the heat loss from the top
interfaces
– Requires knowledge about interface temperature
– Involves an iterative process
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Actual heat output ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• When a collector produces a stream of heated fluid, the

useful heat output can be written as
𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = ṁ𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 )
• Where
– ṁ = the mass flow rate of the fluid through the collector
– Cp = the specific heat of the fluid
– Tfo = the outlet fluid temperature
– Tfi = the inlet fluid temperature
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Heat removal factor (FR) ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The useful heat gain equation can be expressed in terms

of the inlet fluid temperature and heat removal factor
• FR for a collector is defined as
– The ratio of the actual useful energy gain of a collector to the useful gain
if the whole collector surface was at the fluid inlet temperature
Where,
ṁ = the mass flow rate of the fluid through the
ṁ𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 (𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 ) collector
𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 [𝑆𝑆 − 𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )] Cp = the specific heat of the fluid
Tfo = fluid outlet temperature
Tfi = fluid inlet temperature
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Heat removal factor (FR) ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• FR is a function of
– the flow rate in the collector, the geometry of the collector, and the
material of the collector
• The useful heat gain by the collector is (in terms of FR)
𝑸𝑸𝒖𝒖 = 𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄 𝑭𝑭𝑹𝑹 [𝑺𝑺 − 𝑼𝑼𝑳𝑳 (𝑻𝑻𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 −𝑻𝑻𝒂𝒂 )]

or, 𝑸𝑸𝒖𝒖 = 𝑨𝑨𝒄𝒄 𝑭𝑭𝑹𝑹 [𝑯𝑯𝑻𝑻 (𝜶𝜶𝜶𝜶) − 𝑼𝑼𝑳𝑳 (𝑻𝑻𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 −𝑻𝑻𝒂𝒂 )]

• Known as the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss (HWB) equation

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Practice problem 5 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Problem: What is the useful energy delivered by a flat plate

collector having the following data:
• Solar radiation on the collector surface = 720 W/m2
• Ambient temperature = 5°C
• Collector size = 1m x 2m
• Overall heat loss coefficient = 5 W/m2K
• Total mass flow rate = 0.03 kg/s
• Inlet water temperature = 50°C
• Effective (τα ) for transmittance absorptance = 0.88
• Heat removal factor = 0.878
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Practice problem 5 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Solution:
– The expression for the useful energy is given by the following equation

𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 [𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇 (𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼) − 𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )]

• We have, Ac = 2 m2; HT=720 W/m2; (ατ) = 0.88; FR=0.878; Tfi=500C; Ta=50C;

UL=5W/m2K; m=0.03kg/s: Cp=4.2kJ/kgK
• So, useful heat energy delivered by the collector Qu
• = 2m2 X 0.878 X [720W/m2 X0.88 – 5W/m2K X (50-5)0C] = 717.5 W

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Performance of FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• A measure of collector performance is the collection

efficiency
– The ratio of the useful gain over some specified time period to the
incident solar energy over the same time period
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄) 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢
𝜂𝜂 = =
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴) 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇

• We have 𝑄𝑄𝑢𝑢 = 𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 [𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇 (𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼) − 𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 −𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )]

𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿 (𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 − 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 )

• This gives 𝜂𝜂 = 𝐹𝐹𝑅𝑅 (𝛼𝛼𝛼𝛼) −
𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇
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Performance of FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• For a given collector operating under steady conditions

– FR, UL and (ατ) can be considered to be constant
• From a plot of η vs (Tfi-Ta)/HT graph
– The slope of this line represents the heat loss rate for the collector. The
intercept of the line on the efficiency axis is the optical efficiency. That is
• The slope is - FRUL; and
• The intercept is - FR(ατ)

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http://energy.kth.se/compedu/webcompedu/webhelp/S9_Renewable_Energy/B5_Solar_Energy/C3_Adv
anced_Solar_Thermal/ID107_files/Heat_Removal_Factor.htm
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Performance of FPC ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

1
• Reading from the
0.8 (0.005, 0.71) graph
0.6 • FRUL= - (0.71-
η 0.31)/(0.005-0.025)
0.4 (0.025, 0.31)

= 20 Wm-2 K-1
0.2 • FR(ατ) = 0.8
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
(Tfi-Ta)/HT

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Practice problem 7 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Assume that the following values were measured during the testing of a flat
plate solar hot water collector with an area of 1.95 m2.
– Inlet temperature into the collector = 47°C
– Outlet temperature from the collector = 53°C
– Water flow rate through the collector = 1.8 kg/minute
– Solar radiation falling on the collector = 920 W/m2
– Ambient temperature = 28 °C

• Determine the following

– The useful heat produced by the collector,
– Solar radiation incident on the collector, and
– Collector efficiency.

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Practice problem 7 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The useful heat produced by the collector is

• mass flow rate x Cp x ∆T
• (1.8/60) kg/s x 4180 J/(kg°C) x (53 – 47) °C = 752.4 W
• Solar radiation incident on the collector is
• (Area x solar radiation / m2)
• 1.95 m2 x 920 W/m2 = 1794 W
• Collector efficiency is
• Useful heat produced / incident solar radiation
• 752.4 / 1794 = 0.419 (~ 42%)

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Practice problem 8 ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Problem: Calculate the required solar collector area for

the following case
– Daily hot water requirement in a family of four is 50 litre per person at a
temperature of 650C.
– Average solar radiation is 24MJ/m2 and the ambient temperature is 220C
(constant) and the solar collector efficiency is 50%.

Solution: Useful energy = 50kg x 4 persons x 4.19 J/g0C x (65-22)0C

= 36.034 MJ
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 36.034 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝜂𝜂 = = 50% So, Ac = = 3.0 m2 79
𝐴𝐴𝑐𝑐 𝐻𝐻𝑇𝑇 0.5 𝑋𝑋 24𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀/𝑚𝑚2
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Domestic SHW sizing ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• The following guidelines can be used for sizing domestic hot water
systems:
– Area of flat plate collector required = 1 square metre for each person in the
house + 1 square metre for each major appliance using hot water (e.g.
dishwasher, washing machine)
– Storage tank volume = 75 litres of water for each square metre of collector
• The most common sized solar hot water system installed in Australian
homes at present uses 4 square metres of flat-plate collector and a 300-
litre storage tank.
• Generally the collectors come in 2 square metre modules and only a
limited range of tank sizes are available (e.g. 180, 300, 440 and 600 litre)

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Summary ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

• Heat transfer in a solar collector system involves conduction,

convection and radiation
• The useful heat gain in a flat plate collector is the amount of
thermal energy absorbed by the collector, less the heat loss from
the collector
• Heat losses in a collector occur through the top, back and edges
• Performance of a collector can be assessed by ratio of useful
energy gained by the collector to the amount of incident energy
on the collector
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ENS5562 Renewable Energy Conversions 1

Thank you

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