Topics

• Mendel and
the process of
science

• Mendel and
the process
of science
• Mendel’s
principles of
inheritance
• Crosses:
 Topics
• Mendel and the process of
science
• Mendel’s principles of inheritance
• Crosses: Parental, F1, F2, and test
• Chromosome mapping
• Variations on Mendelian
inheritance
• In-breeding and out-breeding
•
• Breeders knew of hybrids at the time
that Mendel started his experiments
(in 1856), but only knew that progeny
resembled each parent, and that some
resembled grandparents. No one knew
why.
• Mendel developed a systematic way of
understanding heredity, using very
good scientific technique.
• He applied the scientific method
Class XII Biology www.vedantu.com 3
• Breeders knew of hybrids at the time
that Mendel started his experiments (in
1856), but only knew that progeny
resembled each parent, and that some
resembled grandparents. No one knew
why.
• Mendel developed a systematic way of
understanding heredity, using very
good scientific technique.
 $pe1m

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.-1 ·J ?
.· ,t.•.lf.t ·

fi·l'litibn
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iF2: pQ(l(!('&t lQf)

1.: 2 :1
dJfi:rib:w;cwc
The phenotypic and the genotypic ratio observed will be the same, that is I :2:1.

Multiple Allelism or Codominance

The condition in which three or more alternative forms of alleles present for a single
gene on the same chromosome is known as Multiple Allelism and the alleles are
known as multiple alleles.
For example, Multiple allelism is better to understand with the help of the ABO
blood group system in humans. The inheritance of the ABO blood group is a gene I
(in which I represent isohemagglutinin) that remains in the 3 allelic expressions: IA,
IB, and i which are codominant in humans. An individual can possess any two of
these alleles. Gene IA is responsible for blood group A and codes for glycoprotein A
while gene IB is responsible for blood group B and codes for glycoprotein B.
Blood Type Genotype

.A .
I I AA
A i Ai A AO

.B .
I I BB
B i Bi B BO

AB i Ai B AB

0 Ii 0
0

Class XII Biology www.vedantu.com 5

The gene 'i' does not produce any glycoprotein and so the person who will be having
these two alleles together in a homozygous condition will have 0 group blood. The
genes IA and IB are dominant over 'i' but alleles IA and IB are dominant equally and
produce both the glycoproteins A and B simultaneously and results in the blood
group AB. Such alleles are known as co-dominant alleles.

Inheritance of two genes

The inheritance of two genes requires two characters of the same trait. This can be
observed with the help of a dihybrid cross. Mendel has chosen two traits that involve
the color and the shape of the seed to explain the inheritance of two genes. Y
represents the dominant yellow color seed color, y represents a recessive green color
while R represents the round shape of the seed, and r represents the wrinkled shape
of the seed. The genotype of the parents can then be written as RRYY and rryy. The
gametes RY and ry will unite after fertilization and will produce the FI hybrid RrYy.
The dihybrid cross is also useful in the study of the Law of Independent Assortment.
After the self-pollination of the Fl hybrid, the F2 ratio was found to be 9:3:3:1.
Dihybrid Cross

YYRR

F1Generation
YyRr I'
Phenotype:

gametes from heterozygous

parent
YR yR Yr yr
"E F2
YR Generation
ci

Phenotype:

.e,
yR
! !
.c:
E
_ Yr
".,'
I
Cl>
yr

Chromosomal theory of inheritance

Chromosomal theory of inheritance was given by Walter Sutton in 1902. This theory
also explains the linear structure of chromosomes with genes in particular sites
which was mentioned as loci while Boveri also studied this theory separately. So,
this theory is also known as the Boveri-Sutton chromosome theory. According to
this theory-
(i) Genes are found at specific locations on the chromosomes.
(ii) During meiosis the homologous chromosomes separate.
(iii) After fertilization the number of chromosomes becomes diploid.
(iv) Chromosomes segregate as well as assort independently.

Linkage and recombination

Different experiments were conducted by T .H. Morgan to understand the process of
linkage and recombination. He performed several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila
(fruit fly) to study genes that were sex-linked. For example, Morgan crossed the
yellow-bodied, White-eyed females to brown-bodied , red-eyed males and then self
breed their Fl progeny that results in a slight variation from the 9:3:3: I ratio in the
F2 generation because the two genes did not segregate independently of each other.
Thus, it signifies that the genes are linked. The genes show linkage physically and
this condition is called linkage.
Recombination is the condition where the genetic material is rearranged. For
example, crossing over is known as recombination. In this, the recombinants are
formed which results in variation. The recombinants are the progenies that are the
combination of both the parents.

Wild type

b vg

. b vg

I :: I :: I· : :
·I : : I
Black Wild Cray Black

vesti ·al normal

Paren tal phenotypes Recombinant phen.otypes

Class XII Biology www.vedantu.com 7
Sex determination
Sex determination is the process where the gender of the child can be revealed. Sex
chromosomes are responsible for the determination of the sex of a child. In the case
of humans, females have XX types of chromosomes while males have one X and
one Y type of chromosomes. Thus, when the egg (female gamete) formed will be
having identical X-chromosome each but male sperms (male gametes) are not
identical as they have one X-chromosome and one Y-chromosome. So it's a matter
of chance that which sperm fuses with the egg (X or Y). Thus, the females are said
to be homogametic (same type of chromosomes) while males are said to be
heterogametic (different types of chromosomes).
In the case of insects, the mechanism of sex determination is of XO type. Here the
eggs consist of the X chromosomes while the sperms may have one or none X
chromosomes. Thus, the males are said to be homogametic (same type of
chromosomes) while females are said to be heterogametic (different types of
chromosomes).

Di'lfererit types of sex detennlnat:ion

\.V

OR

CD
-
'
·-
' '
I
I
-- ,
CD
Mutation
The sudden changes in the sequence of DNA are known as mutations. The changes
 LIV E ON LINE TUTORING

in the DNA may be heritable and will be passed onto the next generations affecting
both the genotype, as well as the phenotype of an individual. The different types of
mutation are frameshift mutations , insertions , deletions, duplications, substitutions,
etc. Mutations may be harmful or may not affect at all.
(i) The addition or deletion of DNA bases will lead to changes in the reading frame
called the Frameshift mutations.
(ii) The addition of DNA bases is known as insertions.
(iii) Removal of DNA bases is known as deletions.
(iv) If a piece of DNA is copied for more than one time is known as duplication.
Thus, these mutations will lead to a change in the DNA sequence resulting in the
formation of the wrong protein.

Genetic disorders
Pedigree analysis
The occurrence and appearance of certain phenotypes of a particular gene and
organism are represented by a Pedigree chart. It results in the presentation of the
family information with an easily readable chart.

Mendelian disorders
Genetic disorders are divided into two categories- Mendelian disorders and
chromosomal disorders. Mendelian disorders are those that are caused due to
mutation or alteration in a single gene. The most common examples of these diseases
are Hemophilia, Sickle-cell anemia, Cystic fibrosis, Color blindness , Thalassemia,
Phenylketonuria , etc. The Mendelian disorders are found to be either dominant or
recessive. The trait are also found to be linked to sex chromosomes called sex-linked
diseases, such as hemophilia and color blindness.

Chromosomal disorders
Chromosomal disorders are those that are caused due to addition or loss or abnormal
arrangement of one or more chromosomes. The addition or subtraction of
chromosomes depends upon the improper segregation of chromatids during the
process of the cell division cycle, this results in the condition called aneuploidy. For
example, In Down's syndrome results there is an addition of an extra copy of
chromosome 21. Similarly, in the case of the Turner's syndrome, there is a loss of
an X chromosome in the human females. The other condition is polyploidy where
the process of cytokinesis is absent after the telophase stage of cell division will lead
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to an increase in a whole set of chromosomes in an organism which is often seen

mostly in the case of the plants.

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