End of 19th beginning of 20th century

E IM was well established

Biggest problems in EM
theory
I light is a wave
ofoscillating Ed B fields
all known oscillations involve
a disturbance
propagation f
e
g water waves waves travel along
surface of water water level is
disturbed no water no waves
e
g sound pressure disturbance in air
no air no sound
so what is being disturbed in the case
f light
guess
ether fabricinvisible

note the stiller the medium the faster

the propagation
ex speed ofsound in air 340 m s
lead 1210 m s
aluminum 6320 m s
speed of light in ether 300,000,000m s
 since c 37108m
Isether should be extremely
stiff but it'sinvisible
2 wave
equation for EM waves in a
vacuum w no sources starting w
Maxwell's equations

MIF
E
FET o

this equation describes a propagating wave

along x direction
E Eo cos Kx wt where o
g
This says c constant which implies that
there is some absolute reference frame where
3 108m s of EM radiation
Then you can measure
your velocityin the ether
by measuring speed of light in different
directions

it ether exists then it would bethe reference

frame of absolute rest
or if there was an absolute ref
frame then that means there's an ether
Reference frames the frame where you are not
moving

you drive
ex in a car The car is
your
reference frame You pass me I'm in
the reference frame of the ground
let can have v relativetoground
velocity
Ug

in the car someone throws a ball from back

to front seat w u
velocity
what is ball's velocitylag relative to ground
The ut u
answer is
easy Uga
More rigorous derivation coordinatesystems

Let be reference frame ground

o
of
and O in the car

g
Oy

V
E
X

v e where X is any coordinate

def
position f the car in famed
x coordinate position inside the car
relative to some agreed upon point
of the car
then x on ground is related to x'in the
how far the car has moved in
car
by
time t
x x'tut galilean transformation
 now calculate leg dye velocityof ball
relative to ground
x tut tr ut r
Ug If adz dat
in

in
how position
car frame O
fis changing
ball

Problem if
youshine light in
w EM waves
the car forward and I its velocitymeasure
on the ground Galileo says I should get
C T V
Ulight
speedof speed of car
speed
of light in car in ground'sflame
light in
frame
ground's frame
so U right c violates Maxwell's
equs
 so to measure
your velocity relative to
the ether are
measuring the
you
absolute velocityinside the universe
where 0 0 absolute

Michelson Morley experiment

1887 Case Western university Cleveland

Built interferometer
mirror f
T
L I half silvered
minor
t a mirror 2
5
V
light source L
monochromatic
detector
light from source hits a half mirror

and splits beam into 2

parts
part I half light reflected then reflects
up
back down by mirror 1 dashes
It then hits half mirror again and half
to detector
ignore other
half
goes thru
sort 2 other half goes thru half mirror and is
reflected back by mirror 2 dotted

It then hits half mirror

again half
gets reflected down to detector
Make dist from half mirror to the 2 mirrors
the same L

Both beams interfere w each other at detector

If there were ether then you could
no

adjust the distances so that the Z waves

have a path difference Ar nd where u
is some number
The waves would interfere constructively
you would see a bright spot
Next say you were moving w some velocity
relative to the other along horizontal

I t x x'tut
or Ax DX t WD t
 ti time for horizontal beam togo from half mirror
to fall mirror
to time from full mirror back to half
t te because mirror is moving in the same
direction as light
remember light moves at me in etheronly
Horizontalbea
o beam travels with vet u in dir parallel to earth
moving then ether
horizontal beam goes dist L in earth fame in time t

d ist in ether is Cdt L t udt

on return from mirror to half splitter

CD Ez L U At z

light is anti parallel to t

on 1st
At It because
leg destination
mirror is moving away from starting pf
half mirror
on return trip destination is movingtowards
startingpoint
calculatetotal time in ether frame
CAF L t UDT
C U At L
Ati In E BE Uk

Sta
Eu E I
here see It Its
you
total time is at Dtr
E ftp.t p
E ltfpItf let
Efp 83,82
Atf 241 horizontal time Dtu

IIIstheatbeam that is 1 earth's motion

thru ether
total distance is affect
this has to be 2 cat in ether frame

ME Tat so 2 cat
ZALE
 CDE I WISE
LZ C W Dt2

EEE EEE
total time Dtr z at
and Dta
211
221
so Dth Dtv

let's
say pal
8 p2 It p expand and
p keep smallest
8
p l M
n I terms
p
At E Atu Dtr 2 2

2111 81 2 BYE
BE
in that time horizontal lightgoes dist
d c At BEL
 light has wavelength soon m

if d 2 50 nm you would see it in

the interference patternchanging
for h com interferometer arm
d 50 151 Iom
B
10
50 10
B
U C Fox100 I 3
1083.7 155
21103m s
2 104mfs

I take interferometer measure interference

pattern then adjust one full mirror distance
so that you see a max

2 turn it at right angle should see

a
big change
3 do the same 6 months later when
side
on opposite
of sun

v aE
noeffectseentd no
experiment ever tried has ever seen
any
ether
So if the ether doesn't exist then
There absolute So
I is no
ref frame no

absolute velocities
Conclusion the laws of nature only depends
on
relative velocities
more accurate laws
of nature are the same in all
flames that have constant v linertial
rel shame's
2 Maxwell's equations 3 x108m
say right
but which eel frame all frames
in
this violates common sense

iii
EI
 ship has a laser shining light along
direction of motion
person on
ship can measure light
it passes
velocityby timing beam as
thru the two detectors
will measure right L on
ship
on
ground also measure
can
person
light velocity w
duplicate detectors
on the
ground
will L
measure Vii put on ground
and not ought Ct
Uship
These two postulates are Einstein's Postulates
the
says that the speed of light is
Z

largest possible relative velocity

How can both postulates be true and the

Galilean transformation hold
figuring this out is one ofEinstein's many
contributions
s t
d
2 lightning flashes
g y

gr
I

EE
person on
ground person on car wvet v

moving to
right
lightening strikes the ground the same
distance R to left and right ofperson
says lightning bolts were simultaneous
because the light arrived at at the same
time
lightning flash took t seconds to get
to person
time t
goes a distance de ut
in
and then sees 1st flash
 sees the flash from the bolt on
right
1st then the flash from the left
next
so
disagrees that the 2 events each
flash is an event were
simultaneous at the same time
But postulate I says all inertial
reference frames are equivalent
Therefore simultaneity must not be
anything fundamental
Ther fore time is not absolute

implies that we have to modify

Galilean transformation
 of is our
ref frame
of moves w rel velocity v in y

Galilean x x't ut needs adjustments

flu x'tut
1
try x

where f
71 as v50
o
since Galilean does seem to work
when race the real world
2 since time is relative and not absolute
then time could be different in the 2
flames OJ OJ
so x flu x tut t t t
new
questions
how to calculate flu
how does time transform
 9
o
o

O O

2 mirrors on train moving w velocity v in o

train is of frame
bounce beam light between the
mirrors
a
of
takes At time togo distance 2L
in train velocity of light is a
2L e At
in
flame of we see this

off on o

DFauhainfisintimst.D rat

Distance
light travels alongdiagonal d c Dt
 Distance light travels E
If Ept
and d c At since
light intravels at bel C
in frame D
flames
all
ref
22
so
f If
EJ CEE CITY
rid 2
rearrange get of
Z
Ce DE v2 DE
define
c Dt
At
DE
Dt't DEFY
Ffp
note OJ frame whereevents are happening
is
at locations x that are not
changing
of the and
proper fame
is

At is the
proper time I AT
Proper time is the time in the frame where
position isn't changing
ex
you
are on an
airplane and hold your
breath for 60 see
 in
your frame position isn't changing
so
proper
time DE 60sec

then a time interval in some frame

w v relative to
moving velocity
It and
proper frame is

HER FIL Bok

DT isalwaysth shortest time
interval than the interval in
other frame
any
This is called timedilation
ex you are moving w
velocity v relative
to a in
me
year goes by your
frame
DE l
year
what do I measure

At DAT
if u lo ooo mph
 we
04mg 51ft T.mg bIos
104 mph 0.45 4500 m s
49
1.5 10
B E SEE
D f pj's p I
Ipg
what if 0.1 v 3 107m s 18,600mils
B
8 1.005
Fan
Dt 1.005 DE 1 005
yr
0005 1.825 days
yr 365yd

ex a muon particle that decays

is a
on
average after 2.2ps
muons are made constantly in the upper
atmosphere when cosmic rays hit the
created with velocities
atmosphere They are

B 0.99 wot earth frame

How long do the muons line in earth's
 frame
It 2.2ps in muon's nest frame where it is

standing still
At earth THE 7.09 2
as
2212
1
15.6ps
in
15.6ps muons travel distance in earth's flame

D Ut 99C 15.6ps
0.99 3 108 X 5.6 155

4631 m 4.6km w 3 miles

Alpha
qÉ see
earth
same
age
Beta
stays on

flies away on spaceship

B 0.6
towards nearest star
Alpha OJ 2 Centauri 5 It
Beta Oy yrs
away
O G D 1.25
B so
1pm fan
Alpha frame earth Beta goes 5 It yrs at
O G
B
 d o At I Ata c

note c It is distance light travels in

time It
p dimension less number
I
so if we measure distances in light time
e.g light years and time in years then JEB

years so Dta years

so 0 0.6 and d light

Dta 8.3 years time interval in

I 5ftyears Alphaframe

Alpha measure's Beta cloglopenturaBetaframe

DEET Atp
Dtp 6.7
Af SEE yrs
Beta turns around and heads home at
same
velocity
total time in
Alpha earth frame
At 2 8.3 16
bys
total time in Beta ship fame
6.7 13.4
Atp 2
yrs
A 1
 Alpha is now older than Beta
lets gon go into the
Relativity
future
Why does this work Since velocity is
relative and the is
symmetric
journey
why a
different age
Because Beta had to accelerate at

some
point That makes the 2 frames

unequal not symmetric

Time dilation covers time intervals
what about length intervals

of

O
Dio O

shine a light in proper frame it hits a mirror

a distance h away and bounces back
 so cat's 2 Lo Dt is transit time in o

in frame of the time to go from source to

enter is measured to be At and the
distance is L which maybe is not the same as to

total distance light traveled in o to mirror

de L t o Dt c Dt
So L C USA t
or
DEF Ev
on return trip mirror to source measured It
and de L u Dtr c It

Dta
In
so

then Dt Dt Ate
Eat w

IEEE E
At 2182
At 2 0
 and we know that At At's Cat propertime

8
so
241 f
La Lo
tangy
This is called Lorentycontraction a
length
a spaceship goes at 0.9 and is
ex
p
100m This means in proper flame
long
the spaceship it is measured to
of
be 100m Lo Loom
what is the length on earth's frame where it
goes at p 0.9
2.3
He if
on earth L 43.6m
Lg 102.03

how can this be

It's because the relativityofsimultaneity
of
On earth ship passes your loom ruler
as the
back
you record the position of thefront and
ofthe ship AT THE SAME TIME
But on the ship they will
say you
measured the front lot then the back
But this that you could have
means
the loom ship in a room with
front rear doors closed at same time

and it will fit

in
your Game
How to use this

Galilean X x'tu t
this is
very
t t
accurate
Relativistic transformation has to reduce to Galilean
when u 30

try x flu x tut

and flu fl v and
f o 1
if you reverse frames then O goes at vel v
with respect to o
and x x ut

so
try x flu x ut relativistic
This also works for intervals

DX flu LAX UDE

Now we measure the length
of a moving object

Lo 7 W

it has length Lo in the proper frame

DX Lo
in OJ we measure the length by recording
 ends the moving object
the beginning
with a
stationary
f ruler
Lo 7 W
i i i i c c e t c c e t c e r e

Ax
1 4
we get a length L DX
when we record the ruler values we do so

simultaneously at both ends

so It 0 between the events recording

transforming back
DX FIU DX VAT

but It 0

so DX FA DX
Lo flu L
flashy
so far 8
so the coordinate transformations are

X O lx't ut'S 2 x
pet
 X SIX Bet
y y perpendicular to E

These are relativistic transformations of

position
For previous inter example
DX 8CDX't Be At
DX AXE Lo T
So O CLo
Be Dt
Lo
E 8 TPC DE
Dt that's what a person
LgG in ship will say
is the time dill
between
the 2 measurements in O

I I 4 pi I BZ
so At
Lod
or C At Lop
 note at ta t so Atco means t
is before t

how does time transform

back to DX 81 DX Udt
then DX
DI UDT

to transform to other frame switch and

make v s v and
swap prime
then DX rat
AE
DX VDT fromequs
so 1 V At LAX OAT

AXLE 8 JUDE ODE

S
I I 1211 op
11,115
So TEDx JUDE UDE
BC so peat TBCDE TRIX
CAT SLCDE BAX
 This is full Lorentz transformation

swapp.IE
CDI TCCDt
and
PAx DX
8CDItBCDEJ
SCCALTAD
CDt

note at Axs r eat pay'S

FLAX Beat
Y2 KAE'S IBCAEDX't DX

DX zpest Ax pest's
P lest's
III
Dx

Cat'S
GF
DX'S
fists xD all
so is
invariant same in

frames
ex take 2 events in frame O
event 1 at Xist
is z at Xz Ez
DX Xe X
At Ez t
then in
any frame moons
w velocity o
in frame 0 the O frame
CDT'D DX D CCDEF DX
this is called an invariant
same value in
all reference frames
as long as they are inertial a constant

Special Relativity
relativity only relative velocities matter
and there is no absolute
velocity
is constant
special velocity
Lorentycoordinatetransformation
relative velocity is along x direction
out
z is
of page
y y of

Galileo transform from OJ to of fame

x X tu t

1
z z
I to direction
f motion

to transform from OS to OJ
x x ut

z z
1 to direction
f motion
Relativistic Of to d
X S x't Bet
y y t
Z z
c t 8 CE't B X
OJ to OJ
x SL x Bet
y y
z Z
CE OLE Bx
note o
write time as at so it has same
units as space 4 D space time
motion along x mixes space i time
for p 20 8 21 reduces to Galilean
4 vector
in space 3 vector F x yZ
now we are in 4 D so 4 vector will be

x et E shorthand for et x z
y
an event is a 4 D coordinate space time
 in 3 D space dist between coordinates is
invariant w respect to coordinate transformations
pick coordinate system same ar
any
Kaye
Ar
Dr DX't Dye
x D
in 4 D space time the inariant is

DR CDE Ar
C EY Ir
or other coordinate
any
note an event is
something that happens at
time t
a
position x
we write E Cat x coordinates
for 2nd event we have Ez CE X

then DR Atf x2 is in variant

inthe proper flame a time interval de
happens at a fixed place
so DR DID C SED X's
so DR proper time interval
Velocity transformation
frame Of moves w rel v in frame of
in of something moves along direction
of motion w
velocity n

T y Oy
g
I

ex in an w vel o
you are
airplane moving
and you throw a ball down the aisle
w
velocity u in the airplane's frame
what does someone on the ground measure
call that velocity u
x marks the position of the ball
x SC x't pet
t t Let B x

and u
Et
 dx 81 d x t ped t
cdt sled t t pdx's
then
IIIII
Effigy
w date

so
CE ctfu

III
a u
III
Be v

pied
so

check if instead of throwing a ball w vel a

shine
we a
light then u c

u
CETI
c yes

velocityof light is the same in both frames

ex spaceship goes at 0 0.80 in earth frame
it throws a probe forward at U 0.5C

in earth's frame w
YÉg
E 0.93C s
now take 8 and unravel
1pm
82 82 273 1
fp this 88
Baule so is re c

this looks like an invariant

remember Gt3 X value same in all
frames
if we define 4 velocity like this
se SES

then the inariant is a

now
multiply by Mo the mass
of an
object
Mo I rest mass mass as measured in
the proper frame
then P Mov more more
looks like the Y D analog
this of momentum
invariant is me
Ms 8 d Miro meet
 let E more relativistic energy
p Moro momentum

then the invariant is

word I Morua LMocte

more Morrie Moc

VE T
so
1E mity pe
notice moc is independent of velocity
write E patent m.EE f
the term is
always small except
mpg
when B 71 parmar
I I
I
n
so expand x

so E MEILI Eg
moi
after
Mod
If
 Ilm Iz Mur I Kinetic
YEA
energy
SO E MOC't KE
rest
no
mass
Thetic
energy
from above E More so we write M Tmo
to get famous formula

lEmIy
What does this formula mean

when 8 1 0 E Moe
8
this is called rest
energy
All particles that have mass have
an internal rest even if
energy
they are not
moving in their properframe
Ex Igm particle at rest
E me to kg 3 1081
3
9 1013 J enormous

note I 13Th 1055J so I contains

gram
 E 9 10 J 8.5 10 BTU
Iggy
0.085 Trillion BTU
in 2018 state MD used 1400 Trillion BTU
of
so 14 T BTU
foggy at 165g m t pound
pound
f
contains enough mass energy
mass

to power all of MD for a

year
The nest mass the
energy of
is
energy
something in the proper frame
if a mass no moves w velocity u in d
E a Moc in
proper frame of
B ok 8 rel of in
of
Ipe f
energy
in OJ is
given by
E Moc pet
where E O Mo Ca I p 8mV
 if pea mac then can write
E MOC KE KE mo
as usual
note E me
some physicists say
where M O Mo is the mass

Then when you add it speeds

and 8
energy up
increases

Does this mean mass increases

well it's true that E mo c and if
were in
of and measured mass
you
of you would
of particle
in measure
M 8M o
But isn't
mass
really increasing
J is
increasing
you add energy 8 increases
so as

but velocity increases slowly and

will to l
never get exactly B
Here is a
plot of B us t

p 8 MY JB Moe
f and E OMoc

E Cpc Moc'T
Know CopMo C J t Moc'S
cancel out me everywhere
SECY g c t c
p
divide e4
by
22 ga p t I

22 1 B2 1

o
Ip
 3
ex election mass 9.109 10 leg rest mass
3
Me 9.109 10
kg
3
Mac 9.109 10 3 1084
kg
14
8.198 10 J

remember eV election volt

previous chapter
as a measure
f energy
a charged particle w charge
q going
thru a
potential change DV will
downhill or lose
gain uphill
an amount
ofenergy E GAV
if 1.6 10 190 I volt then
q DV
19
E l 6 10 C IV 1.6 10195
we can define lev l.be J
rest election will be
f
so
energy
Eo Moc 8.198 10 T
fag
511 103 e v
103 V l Kev thousand
lobeV I MeV million
 109ev I Ge U billion
can write Eo 0.511 MeV for election rest
energy
in
any relativity problem we
alway see

Mo with c n c

Eo MoCZ
E Ma Am 8 Mo
so Ian White E SEO

p mo Ju Moc JB
so Pc Moc
Tp Of Eo
trick use eV for masses momentum
energy
ex election has v 2.5 108 m s

0.833
B 2.351 8
8 2.81

p my 8 9.109
22
10316g 2 5
1084 1.81
4.12 10
ligm s

E Mo T 8.198 10 145 1.81 1.48 15135

now convert to eV

PC 4.12 1027 3 108 1.24 10135

1.24 18 772 10 0
Ty.de g

0.77 MeV so D 0.77 MeV le

E 1 48 101354 9.27x10teU
gg g
0.93 MeV

no do the peoplem in ell from start

7 2 Mov 8 Moc TIMOR B le
P I
Tsuneo
I 81 0.511 MeV 0.831C
0.77 Melle
E S Mod 1.81 0.54 MeV 0.93 MeV
voila
 ex a proton and anti proton move towards
each other at opposite speed v
equal
27
Proton mass is Mo 1.67 10
kg
anti is the same
27
Moc 1.67 10 19 13 108 8
1.503 15 J 0.939 10 0
y.ge gg
939 MeV

now when p t hit their entire

p anti proton
gets turned into another particle called
energy
the X particle which has a mass
of
Mox 5.7 GeV
what the the p
energy f p
is

Before Eto Ept Ep 8 Moc JMoc

20 Mold
tot PI PI o opposite direntions

After E Moxa not moving

Eg Mox C 5.7 GeV 28top

28M
so D Fox 2Eop
 Eox 5.7 GeV
Eop 939 MeV O 939GeV

so 8 3.04
2 7939
So
Ep JE 3.04 6.939 GeV 2.85GeV
Ep o

velocityof protons D 3.04

y
0.108
1
p z
B 1 0.108 0.89
B 0.944
BC 0.944 3 10823
2.8 1084

ex protons w equal opposite velocity collide

2

when they come to rest is converted

energy
to a pion w Eo Mod 135 MeV
what is initial proton velocity
BEFORE E Z
Ep 28 Eop

FINAL E ZEopt EOE

SO 28 MopC2 2 Mope t Moya
28 Mp 2
Mpt MIT
8 I
2mpztY Img
It
58 I 1.072

82 l
f 22 1
fp p t y I

p
It
QEII
so 0.36
p
0.36 3 1.08 1084
BC 1083