Eit-m

School of mechanical and industrial

Engineering (SMIE)
Course Title: refrigeration and air conditioner
Course Code: MEng 4114
Project title: AC system for server room

Group Members
1. Haile G/selassie ……....158134/11
2. Huluf Syum …………..158079/11
3. Kalab Asefa …………..160925/11
4. G/yohans Abera…….....158106/11
5. G/gergs Zeru…………..129450/10

Submitted to: Ins. Brhane

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Table of Contents Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................ 3

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................. 4

CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................... 5

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Background ....................................................................................................... 5

1.2. Problem Statement ........................................................................................... 6

1.3. Objective of the Project ................................................................................... 6

1.3.1 General objective ........................................................................................ 6

1.3.2. Specific objective ....................................................................................... 6

1.4. Methodology ................................................................................................... 6

1.4.1. Primary data ............................................................................................... 6

1.4.2. Secondary data ........................................................................................... 6

1.5. Significance of the project ............................................................................... 7

1.6. Scope and Limitation of the project ................................................................. 7

1.7. Organization of the project .............................................................................. 7

CHAPTER TWO...................................................................................................... 8

LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 8

2.1. Air conditioning system................................................................................... 8

2.1.1. Types of air conditioning systems.............................................................. 9

2.1.2. Comfort air conditioning systems ............................................................. 16

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 2.1.3. sensible and latent heat gain… ................................................................. 16

2.1.4. Factor which Affect the Heat Gain........................................................... 17

2.1.5. Heating and Cooling Loads...................................................................... 17

2.1.6. Infiltration ................................................................................................ 20

2.1.7. Air Conditioning Requirements for Human Comfort ............................... 20

2.2. Factors Affecting Building Air Conditioning Loads ...................................... 21

2.2.1. Building Materials ................................................................................... 21

2.2.2. Building Orientation ................................................................................ 23

2.2.3. Building Location .................................................................................... 24

2.2.4. Building Type .......................................................................................... 24

2.2.5. Internal Conditions and Internal Loads .................................................... 24

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................ 25

DESIGN ANALYSIS ON LOAD .......................................................................... 25

3.1 HVAC load calculation .................................................................................. 25

3.1.1 .data collection procedure… .................................................................... 26

3.2 Design analysis............................................................................................... 28

3.2.1 Cooling Load Calculation.......................................................................... 28

3.2.2 Heating load calculation… ....................................................................... 35

3.3 Air handling unit ............................................................................................ 39

3.4 Duct design..................................................................................................... 40

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 3.4.1 Duct Components ..................................................................................... 40

3.4.2 Classification of Duct Systems ................................................................. 42

3.4.3 Duct lay out………… ............................................................................... 42

3.4.4 Duct sizing ............................................................................................... 43

3.4.5 Design of supply duct ............................................................................... 44

3.4.6 Design of return duct ................................................................................. 44

3.4.7 Duct Materials .......................................................................................... 45

3.4.8 Duct Shapes .............................................................................................. 47

3.5 Diffuser .......................................................................................................... 48

3.6. Fan ................................................................................................................. 48

3.6.1 Dan design analysis.................................................................................... 50

3.6.2 principle of operation ……………………………………… .................... 55

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................. 56

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................. 56

4.1 Results ............................................................................................................ 56

4.2 Discussions ..................................................................................................... 56

CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................... 58

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...................................................... 58

5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 58

5.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................ 58

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REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 59

Appendix ............................................................................................................... 60

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First of all, we express our greatest gratitude to God and would like to plead God to
be with us for the rest of our life. And thanks our family without your encouragement
and Advice we could not achieve this success. We would like to say thank you to
our instructors Brhane Aregawi for their valuable guidance, help and
encouragement to do this project. We also take this opportunity to thank our friends,
colleagues who have contribution in the project especially students use the computer
lab, the librarians’ who help us in collecting of data of the project. Besides to this we
want to say thank you for who gave us different data and other accessories. Lastly
we would like to thank for all our class mates.

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A field of study was conducted to investigate the thermal environment and
occupants’ comfort in a central SERVER ROOM, using the A/C (air conditioning)
system and natural ventilation. The occupants’ thermal perceptions in the library
were measured and characterized. The response of the occupants has indicated that
the thermal conditions at the library are better with the use of Natural Ventilation
than with the use of A/C system. Besides, both of the cases are satisfactorily in
accordance with the ASHRAE Standard. However, the temperature and the relative
humidity (RH) were too high compared to the optimal range of 25-29.8°C and
55±5% respectively. Findings of this study are very useful for designing heating,
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems with energy-saving methodology
for library buildings in hot and cold humid regions.

Having Conditioned air is a non-questionable comfort issue for both commercial and
Residential buildings. To do so there should be a specified air condition requirements
for air conditioning design so that the required comfort will effectively be attained.
Mainly the cooling load which is the main parameter for AC design is determined.
The cooling capacity for the library is determined by summing the sensible and latent
heat gains. Knowing the cooling capacity of the library air handling unit is selected.
The duct design both for supply and return air also go through similar design
procedure with different considerations in speed to be generated depending on the
flow rates, noise and other considerations so that proper air flow to be ensured. The
results show that the air conditioning design for quiet buildings depend on many
Factors. These are geographical locations, orientation of the building, types of
applications to which the building is used for, number of population, the floor to
which the room is located and the material to which the building is made. In general
it is observed that south west oriented buildings have lower cooling load in relative

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to other orientations. And the cooling load is specified for based on south west
orientation. And also other parameters have their own effect on the effective design
of the room from AC perspective. Hence it is recommended for the air conditioning
designers of the building to use these local or national standards in which the above
factors are considered and to have an effective air conditioning system.

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1.1 Back ground
Air conditioning
✓ is a process that simultaneously conditions air distributes it combined with
ventilation air to the conditioned space and at the same time controls and
maintains the space’s temperature, humidity air cleanliness, sound level
and pressure differential with in predetermined limits for the health and
comfort of the occupant, for product processing or both.
✓ Though it is difficult to define the word comfort because of its subjective
nature, some definitions have been given. Among these is the one given
by ASHRAE.ASHRAE Comfort Standard 55-74 defines comfort as
―that state of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment‖ but points out that most of the studies regard comfort as a
subjective sensation that is expressed by an individual, when questioned
as neither slightly warm nor slightly cool.
❖ the factors that influence comfort, in their order of importance are:
• temperature
• radiation
• humidity
• air motion, and
• quality of the air with regard to odor, dust, and bacteria.
With a complete air conditioning system all of these factors may be controlled
simultaneously. It is found that in most cases a reasonably comfortable environment
can be maintained when two or three of these factors are controlled. Hence, air
conditioning of buildings is mainly concerned with the comfort of people. We will
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see different component of the air conditioning system. The main part is duct design,
supply and return duct, Damper, air filter, fan and air out let materials are needs to
use the system in the SERVER ROOM. The prevention of contamination and cross
contamination is an essential design consideration of HVAC system.

The term HVAC stands for heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning. It describes
the field that is concerned with heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning the indoor
environment in order to meet the comfort, health, and safety needs of building
occupants and the environmental needs of indoor equipment or processes. Although
HVAC systems are required for airplanes, ships, automobiles, and other special
applications like, hotels, library auditorium etc.
Mechanical cooling (air-conditioning) systems are a relatively recent development.
The first central building air-conditioning system, designed for the Missouri State
Building, was demonstrated to the public during the 1904 World’s Fair held in St.
Louis. In addition to heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning the indoor
environment to meet the comfort and health needs of the building occupants, modern
HVAC systems are frequently required to protect the safety of the occupants or, in
industrial applications, to provide a clean environment for the processes performed
within the building. For example, smoke control systems may be required to
minimize the spread of smoke within a building during a fire. Also, the HVAC
systems may be required to maintain air pressure relationships between adjacent
spaces where hazardous materials are handled and to signal the building operator or
activate emergency ventilation systems if these pressure relationships are not
maintained. HVAC systems may also be required to provide a high level of air
filtration in order to maintain a clean indoor environment for such processes as
semiconductor fabrication. With the understanding of what HVAC systems are and
what they are expected to accomplish, it is the role of the HVAC system designer to

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design HVAC systems to meet project needs. In order to do this, the HVAC system
designer must first understand the project requirements. The designer must then use
this information, along with knowledge of the potential HVAC system options, to
design the HVAC systems (in accordance with the applicable

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codes) that are appropriate for the project. Factors governing the HVAC system
selection and the ultimate HVAC system design include:
HVAC system types that are available to meet the
project needs Building owner’s preferences or
standards
Building owner’s budget
Installed cost, operating cost, and maintenance cost of the
potential HVAC
system options
Space limitations, both indoors and outdoors, and coordination
with other building elements such as the architectural,
structural, and electrical
systems

1.2. Problem Statement

SERVER ROOM are vital for keeping computer systems up and running , but they
can face a number of challenges .
Here are some common server room problems
Environmental issues (temperature , humidity)
Poor air flow
Power problem
Physical security
Cable clutter

1.3. Objective of the Project

1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of this project is to design air conditioning system
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 for SERVER ROOM
1.3.2 Specific objective
❖ To collect data’s required for designing the of air conditioning system.

❖ To calculate all internal and external loads.

❖ To select air handling unit.

❖ To design all ducts and normalizing the air condition.

1.4. Methodology

The data collection process will be conducted in the two perspectives of data
types, which include:-
1.4.1. Primary data

Design Parameters
The critical inputs during estimating the cooling load are:
Design conditions: Location, latitude, elevation, outdoor temperature
and relative humidity
Orientation
Internal conditions: Indoor temperature and relative humidity
Building enclosure: Insulation levels of walls, ceilings and floors, Window
specification, Thermal conductivity, solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC),
Infiltration and ventilation levels and Interior and exterior shading
Internal loads: Number of occupants, electronics, lighting and appliances
1.4.2. Secondary data
➢ Reference and hand books.

➢ Internet (Google),Wikipedia

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To calculate the internal and external loads of the sensible and latent heat gains
conduction, solar radiation, electrical equipment heat gains, occupancy, infiltration
formulas are used. The AHU is selected based on the cooling and heating capacity
(TOR) required for the auditorium hall. Equal friction method is used to design and
size the duct system.

1.5. Significance of the project

Designing of such a good air conditioning system in buildings are very important for
health, thermal comfort, human performance and human feelings depending up on
good indoor climate in the buildings. Fresh air, normal temperature of air, good air
distribution and quality of air conditioning are some of the main things of good
indoor climate. The combinations of these factors can ensure comfortable
conditions. The study has so many advantages of these advantages for us who deal
with the design of air-conditioning system it helps us to know more about how to
design and install air-conditioning system, It improves the air quality of the
auditorium hall. So, it is beneficial for the occupants during symposiums and for
those who want to deal with it will be a good guidance and good reference for further
research works.

1.6. Scope and Limitation of the project

This project was intended to use CHILELD WATER SYSTEM operated air-
conditioning for the SERVER ROOM with the objective to optimize thermal
comfort for the occupants. This paper scope only energy analysis and determining
cooling load for the auditorium areas will be considered for analysis in order to make
it simple and easier. Air changing in door opening is considered as infiltration.

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2.1. Air conditioning system
The basic concept behind air conditioning is known to have been applied in ancient
Egypt where reeds hung in windows had water trickling down. The evaporation of
water cooled the air blowing through the window, though this process also made the
air more humid. In ancient Rome, water from aqueducts was circulated through the
walls of certain houses to cool them down. Other techniques in medieval Persia
involved the use of cisterns and wind towers to cool buildings during the hot season.
As described earlier air conditioning is the process of altering the properties of air
(primarily temperature and humidity) to more favorable conditions. It is also used to
provide conditions that some processes require. For example Textile, Printing, Photo
graphic processing facilities, as well as server rooms and medical facilities, require
certain air temperatures and humidity for successful operation. Or air conditioning
is the supply of conditioned air that is intentionally cooled heated, humidified or
dehumidified air in to the room. Air Conditioning mostly required in building which
have a high internal temperature. If inside temperature of a space rises to above 25oC
then air conditioning will probably be necessary comfort levels.
Air conditioning may be required in buildings which have a high heat gain and as a
result a high internal temperature. The heat gain may be from solar radiation and/or
internal gains such as people, lights and business machines. These all are attain in
the desired manner if there are air conditioning standards.
Most air conditioning systems perform the following functions: it may be required
to provide the cooling and heating energy required, for conditioning the supply air,
that is, heat or cool, humidify or dehumidify, clean and purify, and attenuate any
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objectionable noise produced by the HVAC&R equipment, to distribute the
conditioned air containing sufficient outdoor air to the conditioned space, or to
control and maintain the indoor environmental parameters such as temperature,
humidity, cleanliness, air movement, sound level, and pressure differential between
the conditioned space and surroundings within predetermined limits modern air
conditioning emerged from advances in chemistry during the 19th century. The first
modern electrical air conditioner was invented in 1902 by Willis Havilland
Carrier, a skilled engineer who began

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experimenting with the laws of humidity control to solve an application problem at
a printing plant in Brooklyn, New York. Borrowing from the concepts of mechanical
refrigeration established in earlier years, Carrier’s system sent air through coils filled
with cold water, cooling the air while at the same time removing moisture to control
room humidity.
In 1906 Stuart Cramer, a textile mill engineer in North Carolina, creates a ventilating
device that adds water vapor to the air of textile plants. The humidity makes yarn
easier to spin and less likely to break. He's the first to call this process "air
conditioning."

1914 Air conditioning comes home for the first time. The unit in the Minneapolis
mansion of Charles Gates is approximately 7 feet high, 6 feet wide, 20 feet long and
possibly never used because no one ever lived in the house.

1931 H.H. Schultz and J.Q. Sherman invent an individual room air conditioner that
sits on a window ledge a design that's been ubiquitous in apartment buildings ever
since. The units are available for purchase a year later and are only enjoyed by the
people least likely to work up a sweat the wealthy.

In 1933, the Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America developed an air

conditioner using a belt-driven condensing unit and associated blower, mechanical
controls, and evaporator coil, and this device became the model in the growing U.S.
marketplace for air-cooling systems. The first practical semi-portable air
conditioning unit was invented by engineers at Chrysler Motors and offered for sale
starting in 1935.

In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts invented a portable, in-window air

conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air. By
the late 1960s, most new homes had central air conditioning, and window air
conditioners were more affordable than ever, fueling population growth in hot-
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weather states like Arizona and Florida. Air conditioning is now in nearly 100
million American homes, representing 87 percent of all households, according to the
Energy Information Administration

2.1.1. Types of air conditioning systems

Broadly based on centralization the air conditioning system can be classified in two
broad categories:
a) Decentralized systems

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 b) Centralized air conditioning systems

Decentralized air conditioning systems typically serve single or small spaces

from a location within or directly adjacent to the space. These are essentially
direct expansion (DX) type, where The air is cooled directly exchanging heat from
the refrigerant. These systems are widely used in small to medium sized
buildings. For larger and more complex applications, centralized air
conditioning systems are used. These systems serve multiple spaces from one
base location. These typically use chilled water as a cooling medium and use
extensive ductwork for air distribution.
The principle advantages of decentralized air conditioning systems is lower initial
costs, simplified installation, no ductwork or pipes, independent zone control, and
less floor space requirements for mechanical room, ducts and pipes. A great benefit
of decentralized systems is that they can be individually metered at the unit.
Disadvantages are short equipment life (10 years), higher noise, higher energy
consumption (kW/ton) and are not fit where precise environmental conditions need
to be maintained.
The principal advantages of central air conditioning systems are better control of
comfort conditions, higher energy efficiency and greater load-management
potential. The main drawback is that these systems are more expensive to install and
are usually more sophisticated to operate and maintain.
Decentralized Systems

Decentralized air conditioning systems commonly known as by various generic

names viz. local systems, individual systems, floor-by-floor systems, unitary
systems or packaged systems provide cooling to single room/spaces rather than the
building. These are also referred to as Direct Expansion or DX types since the
cooling is delivered by exchanging heat directly with a refrigerant type cooling coil

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and these do not use chilled water as an intermediate cooling medium.

Figure1: DX systems

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In this schematic, the heat is extracted from the space and expelled to the outdoors
(left to right) through 3 loops of heat transfer. Depending upon the capacities
required and areas served the decentralized equipment category includes:
Window air conditioners:

Residential and light commercial split systems, packaged thru-the-wall and window
air conditioners, Self-contained (floor by floor) package systems, Commercial
outdoor roof top packaged systems and Heat pumps.
Window Air Conditioner

Window air conditioner provides cooling only when and where needed and is less
expensive to operate. In this air conditioner all the components, namely the
compressor, condenser, expansion valve or coil, evaporator and cooling coil are
enclosed in a single box which is fitted in a slot in the wall of the room, or often a
window sill. Room air conditioners are generally available in capacities varying
from about 0.5 TR to 3 TR.

Figure2: Typical Air-Conditioner

Split Air Conditioning Systems

The split air conditioner comprises of two parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor unit.
The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor,
condenser and expansion valve. The indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling
coil and the cooling fan. The indoor and outdoor units are connected by refrigerant
piping. Split-systems are popular in small, single-story buildings. Flexibility is the
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overriding advantage of a split system. Because a split system is connected through
a custom designed refrigerant piping system, the engineer has a large variety of
possible solutions available to meet architectural and physical requirements
particularly for buildings with indoor and/or outdoor space constraints. In both
window mounted and split type air conditioners, the cooling capacity is controlled
by switching the compressor on- and-off. Sometimes, in addition to the on-and-off,
the fan speed can also be regulated to have a modular control of capacity. It is also
possible to switch off the refrigeration system completely

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and run only the blower for air circulation. Both the split type air conditioner and
room air conditioners are equally reliable. But, it is not possible to provide fresh air
in split air conditioners. Room air conditioners generally have small damper for
letting the fresh air in.

Figure3: split air conditioning systems

Central Systems

Centralized systems are defined as those in which the cooling (chilled water) is
generated in a chiller at one base location and distributed to air-handling units or
fan-coil units located throughout the building spaces. The air is cooled with
secondary media (chilled water) and is transferred through air distribution ducts.
These are usually pre-packaged by the manufacturer with the evaporator and
condenser attached, so that only water pipes and controls must be run in the field.
The components of a chilled-water central system include a chiller, air-handling
units with chilled water Coils, chilled-water loop(s) with chilled-water pump(s), a
condenser water loop, and condenser.
Those decentralized systems and centralized air conditioning systems can be further
classified based on fluid media, duct, and volume.
Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution
system, air Conditioning systems can be classified as:

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 1. All air systems

2. All water systems

3. Air- water systems

4. Unitary refrigerant based systems.

1. All air systems

In an all air system air is used as the media that transports energy from the
conditioned space to the AC plant. In these systems air is processed in the AC plant
and this processed air is then conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated
ducts using blowers and fans. This air

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extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of sensible and latent
heat from the conditioned space. The return air from the conditioned space is
conveyed back to the plant, where it again undergoes the required processing thus
completing the cycle. No additional processing of air is required in the conditioned
space.
Based on duct all air systems can be further classified into:

➢ Single duct systems

➢ Dual duct systems

The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same duct,
but not either heating or cooling simultaneously. Based on volume flow rate these
systems can be further classified into:
❖ Constant volume, single zone systems

❖ Constant volume, multiple zone systems

❖ Variable volume systems

The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating
simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:
❖ Dual duct, constant volume systems

❖ Dual duct variable volume system

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 Figure4: single duct, Constant volume and singe zone

Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume systems

Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with small external load
e.g. theatres, auditoria, and departmental stores.
Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories

The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large buildings such as
factories, office buildings etc.

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Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone systems

For very large buildings with several zones of different cooling/heating

requirements, it is not economically feasible to provide separate single zone systems
for each zone. For such cases, multiple zone systems are suitable. Constant volume
of this air is supplied to the reheat coil of each zone. In the reheat coil the supply air
temperature is increased further to a required level depending upon the load on that
particular zone. This is achieved by a zone thermostat, which controls the amount of
reheat, and hence the supply air temperature. The reheat coil may run on either
electricity or hot water.

Figure5: Single duct, constant volume system with multiple zone and reheat
coils Advantages of single duct, multiple zones, constant volume systems with

Reheat coils

Relatively small space requirement

Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of zone loads

Proper ventilation and air quality in each zone is maintained as the supply air
amount is kept constant under all conditions
Disadvantages of single duct, multiple zone, and constant volume systems with Reheat coils.

High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first cooled to a very low
temperature and is then heated in the reheat coils. Thus energy is required first

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for cooling and then for reheating. The energy consumption can partly be
reduced by increasing the supply air temperature, such that at least one reheat
coil can be switched-off all the time. The energy consumption can also be
reduced by using waste heat (such as heat rejected in the condensers) in the
reheat coil.
Simultaneous cooling and heating is not possible version.

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Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems

Figure below shows a single duct, multiple zone, and variable air volume system for
summer air conditioning applications. As shown, in these systems air is cooled and
dehumidified to a required level in the cooling and dehumidifying coil (CC).

Figure6: Single duct, multiple zones, and variable air

volume system Selection of a suitable air conditioning system
depends on:
❖ Capacity, performance and spatial requirements

❖ Initial and running costs

❖ Required system reliability and flexibility

❖ Maintainability

Table: comparison of all air and air water system

No. Criteria All air Air - water

1 Space Occupy more space Less space
2 Retrofitting No retrofitting Retrofitting
3 Height Difficult to provide AC in Possible to provide AC in high-
high- rise buildings with rise buildings with the plant on
the plant on the ground
the ground floor or basement. Floor
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4 Power Electricity Possible to use solar or waste
heat for

winter heating
5 Noise level High Low
6 Efficiency Not efficient due to OD air efficient

influence
7 Initial Low High
&running

Costs
8 Required Simultaneous cooling Simultaneous cooling and heating
system &Heating.

Reliability Balancing of air in VAV

systems
&flexibility
could be difficult.
9 Maintainability Low Higher maintenance cost
10 Architectural High effect Low effect

Constraints

So from the above selection criteria’s single duct, variable air volume, multiple zone
AC system is preferred for the library.

2.1.2 Comfort Air Conditioning Systems

Comfort air conditioning systems provide occupants with a comfortable and healthy
indoor environment in which to carry out their activities. The various sectors to

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which comfort air Conditioning systems applied are as follows:

➢ The commercial sector includes office buildings, supermarkets,

department stores, Shopping centers, restaurants, and others

➢ The institutional sector includes such applications as schools, colleges,

universities, libraries, museums, indoor stadiums, cinemas, theaters, concert

halls, and recreation centers.
➢ The residential and lodging sector consists of hotels, motels, apartment

houses, and private homes.

➢ The health care sector encompasses hospitals, nursing homes, and

convalescent care facilities.

➢ The transportation sector includes aircraft, automobiles, railroad cars, buses,

and cruising ships.

2.1.3. Sensible and Latent Heat Gain

Sensible heat is the heat which a substance absorbs, and while its temperature goes
up, the substance does not change state. Sensible heat gain is directly added to the
conditioned space by conduction, convection, and/or radiation. Involves direct
addition of heat to an enclosure; it is a function of the dry-bulb temperature. Sensible
heat gains to a space include: Heat transmission through the building structure as a
result of conduction, convection and radiation, Heat entering the space as a result of
solar radiation through windows or other transparent or translucent component,
Sensible heat produce by occupants, Sensible heat produced in the space by light
appliances and motor, Sensible heat brought in as a result of ventilation and
infiltration of outside air. Note that the sensible heat gain entering the conditioned
space does not equal the sensible cooling load during the same time interval because
of the stored heat in the building envelope. Only the convective heat becomes
cooling load instantaneously. The sensible cooling load refers to the dry bulb

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temperature of the building and the latent cooling load refers to the

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wet bulb temperature of the building. Latent Heat Gain (related with moisture
content and relative Humidity). Is any heat source that adds water vapors to the air
in a conditioned space?

Loads as a result of ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air and the space heat gain
could be, sensible or latent heat gain.

Generally, there are two types of heat gains, these are:

Sensible Heat Gain (related with increase of Temperature). Is any heat source that
rises the dry bulb temperature (DBT) of the air in the conditioned space?

It may be external or internal load.

External Loads:

➢ Solar Heat gain From: Roof; Wall; Window; door etc.

➢ Ambient Temperature: Roof; Wall; Window; door etc.

➢ Hot air infiltration.

Internal Loads: Electric Lamp; Occupants; Electric apparatus etc.

Latent Heat Gain (related with moisture content and relative Humidity). Is any heat
source that adds water vapors to the air in a conditioned space?

It may also be external or internal

➢ External Loads: Humid air infiltration.

➢ Internal Loads: Occupants; Boiler; Hot food etc.

2.1.4. Factor which Affect the Heat Gain

The heat gain in the auditorium hall depends on: The temperature difference between
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outside temperature and the desired temperature, the type of construction and the
amount of insulation on ceiling and walls. How much shade is on building’s
windows, walls, and roof size of the room and surface area of the walls, the amount
of air leaks into indoor space from the outside? Infiltration plays a part in
determining the air conditioner sizing, the number occupants, activities and other
equipment within a building, Amount of lighting in the room, how much heat the
appliances generate.

2.1.5. Heating and Cooling Loads

Heating and cooling loads are the measure of energy needed to be added or removed
from a Space by the Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system to
provide the desired level of comfort within a space. Right-sizing the HVAC
system begins with an accurate

34
understanding of the heating and cooling loads on a space. Right-sizing is selecting
HVAC equipment and designing the air distribution system to meet the accurate
predicted heating and cooling loads of the house. The values determined by the
heating and cooling load calculation process will dictate the equipment selection and
duct design to deliver conditioned air to the rooms of the house, right-sizing the
HVAC system.

Heat always travels from a warmer to a cooler area. Most heating and cooling
systems have at a minimum the following basic components. First there should be a
heating source that adds heat to a fluid (air, water, or steam) & a Cooling source that
removes heat from a fluid (air or water). Then there should be a distribution system
(a network of dust or piping) to the rooms to be heated or cooled. Equipment (fans
or pumps) for moving the air or water and devices (e.g. radiation) for transferring
the heat between the fluid and the room are also needed.

Analytically the cooling loads are calculated as follows.

a) Conduction through Exterior Walls, Roof, and Glass

Cooling Load through Roof,

✓ Q = U × A × CLTD

Cooling Load through Wall,

✓ Q = U × A × CLTD

Cooling Load through Window by Conduction Gain,

✓ Q = U × A × CLTD

b) Solar Radiation through Glass

The amount of solar radiation through the glass is given by

35
 ✓ Q = SHGF × A × SC × CLF

Where, U= Overall heat transfer coefficient, A = area of roof, wall, window or glass,
CLTD=

Corrected cooling load temperature difference, SHGF= Maximum solar heat gain factor,
SC=

Shading coefficient, CLF = Cooling load factor for glass, Q= Cooling load for roof
wall, window, wall or glass.

c) Lighting Cooling Load

By observing the number of lights and their wattage the load from lighting can be
calculated by using.

Q = W × BF × CLF

36
Where Q= Cooling load from lighting, W=Lighting capacity, CLF=Cooling load
factor for lighting, Bf= Ballast factor.

d) People

The heat gain from people is composed of two parts. These are sensible heat and
latent heat resulting from perspiration. Some of the sensible heat may be absorbed
by the heat storage effect, but not the latent heat.

Specifying Air Conditioning Requirements for Commercial Buildings

of Ethiopia The sensible heat loads from people is given by:
Q = Qs × n × CLF

And for latent heat we use the

following Q = Ql × n × CLF
Where, Qs & Ql =sensible and latent heat gains per person respectively, n=
number of people. In general the load on an air-conditioning system consists of:
❖ Sensible Transmission through glass

❖ Solar Gain through glass

❖ Heat gain through walls

❖ Heat gain through roof

❖ Ventilation and/ or infiltration gains

❖ Internal heat gain from persons

❖ Internal heat gain from lightening

❖ Internal heat gain from equipment

37
There are ways to reduce these heat gains where ever possible. These are:

❖ Solar radiation can be reduced by having heat reflecting glass

❖ Sensible heat gain from lights can be reduced by having higher ceiling heights
and by using lights having lower level of overhead illuminance.

❖ To reduce infiltration loads increase insulation in fabric

❖ Heat from working machines can be removed by a purpose made extract ventilation

system.

The occupancy or the number of people per area in m2 can have a vital in the cooling
load. If the number of people in a certain area is high the cooling load will also be
high. Because there is a latent and sensible heat losses from each individual.

2.1.6. Infiltration

Infiltration is the flow of outdoor air into a building through cracks and other
unintentional openings and through the normal use of exterior doors for entrance and
egress. Infiltration is also known as air leakage into a building. Infiltration may be
caused by wind, negative pressurization of the building, and by air buoyancy
commonly known as the stack effect. It is the volumetric flow rate of outside air into
a building, typically in cubic feet per minute (CFM) or liters per second (LPS). It is
the product of the wind speed with the area of the openings to which infiltration
occurs.

Minimizing infiltration gives many advantages. These are minimizing dust,

increasing thermal comfort, decreases energy consumption. For all buildings,
infiltration can be reduced by sealing cracks in a building's envelope, and for new
construction or major renovations, by installing continuous air retarders. In buildings

38
where forced ventilation is provided, their HVAC designers typically choose to
slightly pressurize the buildings by admitting more outside air than exhausting so
that infiltration is dramatically reduced.

2.1.7. Air Conditioning Requirements for Human Comfort

The general definition for thermal comfort is that, ―Thermal Comfort is that
condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment‖
(ASHRAE Standard 55). ASHRAE Standard 55 recommends temperature range
guidelines perceived as ―comfortable‖ Specifying Air Conditioning Requirements
for Commercial Buildings of Ethiopia to be 74 to 82 oF (23 to 28oC) during the
summer and 68 to 78oF (20 to 25.5oC) during winter.

Most individuals generally consider an indoor relative humidity level maintained

between 30 and 65 percent to be comfortable.

39
2.2. Factors Affecting Building Air Conditioning Loads

As the intensity of solar heat gain is the major factor for the cooling or heating load
in a particular building there are also many factors that influence on the AC load.
This includes building materials, building envelopes, orientations, geographical
location of the building, the purpose of the building or building type, even the floor
level to which the room is located within same building, population size of the room,
infiltration and ventilation, room size and etc.

2.2.1. Building Materials

As the heat transfer between the inside and the outside of the room is through the
building envelopes, the properties of these components will have a critical role on
heat transfer. In addition to this both indoor and outdoor materials must be durable,
resistant to vandalism, easy to maintain, and affordable. They must be strong enough
to meet structural and seismic codes, yet appear aesthetically pleasing. Building
construction, proper details, and materials are critical components of the heating and
cooling load calculations.

40
41
Wall Materials

Stone, concrete, and burnt clay are the most common materials used for buildings
walls. Other types of wall materials like wood, steel and structural insulated panels
are also sometimes used. The wall may be composed of either a single wall material
or a combination of different layers. The layers include the wall finishing material
as well.

Table2: Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for Wall Materials

Roof and Ceiling

The materials for the roof are also various. It is depending on the floor to which the
room is located. If the room located in the intermediate floor, it will be low weight
42
concrete roof and if it is in the last floor or only one floor case, the layers for the roof
may contain ply wood, air space, and steel deck. The roof can have different layers.
Some of these materials include: air space, ply wood of different sizes, Built-up
roofing, Wood siding, 22 gage steel deck, Slate, plaster board.
Window and Door

Most of the heat transfer in the room through building envelops is through door and window.

43
Almost all windows and doors are made up of glasses which have high U-value. So
the designer should take care to the position of window and door so as not to direct
in direction of maximum solar hat gain. The selection of window and door material
is mostly depends on the overall heat transfer coefficient.
The overall heat transfer coefficient for some of window &door is given below.

Table3: U-value for Window and Glass Materials

2.2.2. Building Orientation

Building orientation is the sun's path about the buildings. It is one of the main factors
in calculating the cooling load calculation. This highly determines solar gain
characteristics of the building. The solar heat gains changes at various times of the
day and the impact of those gains affect highly the load calculation. North,
Northeast, East, Southeast, South, Southwest, West, Northwest or North are
typically the orientations used for undertaking load calculations as shown below.

44
 Figure7: Orientations in Building AC Design for a Particular Room

2.2.3. Building Location

The building location is described by its latitude and elevation. This location
describes the values for the outdoor design conditions such as the elevation of the
location, latitude, winter heating dry bulb temperatures, summer cooling dry bulb
temperatures and relative humidity (RH) information.
2.2.4. Building Type

The type or purpose of the building also affects the air conditioning design. And also
the type of the room has a vital effect. It may be of residential or commercial type.
And the rooms may be for bed room, conference hall, office, shop, barber shop,
medical applications etc. The standards in this paper are used for commercial
purposes, such as office bed, room, conference hall, shop.
2.2.5. Internal Conditions and Internal Loads

These include the number of occupants, area of the room, types and number of
electrical equipment in the room, infiltration and ventilation, floor to which the room
is located.

45
Load are the heat that must be supplied or removed by HVAC equipment to maintain
space at the desired conditions loads depend on the indoor conditions that one wants
to maintain and on the weather. The cooling load calculation is the first step of the
iterative air conditioning (AC) design procedure, a full AC design involves more
than the just the load estimate calculation. Right-sizing the AC system, selecting AC
equipment and designing the air distribution system to meet the accurate predicted
cooling loads, begins with an accurate understanding of the cooling loads on a space
to find the tonnage capacity of the HVAC system, a load calculation is required.
Load is the amount of heat transfer to the system which must be removed to obtain
the desired comfort and temperature levels. It also provides information for
equipment selection, system sizing and system design.

HVAC load calculations are the foundation upon which the HVAC system design is
built. Therefore, it is imperative that the HVAC system designer accurately calculate
the peak heating and cooling loads for the project in order to properly design the
HVAC systems. The most accurate method for calculating the HVAC loads of a
commercial building is the heat balance method. Buildings are affected by heating
and cooling loads both external to and internal to the building. External loads include
heat gains or losses from exterior walls (above or below grade), windows, roofs,
skylights, doors, floors, partitions (walls, floors, or ceilings internal to a building that
separate conditioned spaces from unconditioned spaces), and outdoor air leakage

46
(referred to as infiltration). External loads vary with outdoor air temperature and
relative humidity, the intensity and position of the sun, wind speed, and the
temperature of the ground. External loads are also dependent upon the geographical
location of the project. Internal loads include heat gains from people, lighting, and
equipment. These loads also vary and depend upon the occupancy of the various
spaces within the building and equipment usage.

In most situations, the goal of proper HVAC system design is to maintain a constant
indoor air temperature year-round, regardless of the outdoor conditions or internal
function. In some cases, it is desirable to maintain a constant indoor air relative
humidity. However, for the sake of simplicity, we will assume that only indoor air
temperature is being controlled.
In order to maintain a constant indoor air temperature, the HVAC systems serving a
building must be sized to offset the heat that is lost from the various spaces within
the building (when the heat losses exceed the heat gains) and offset the heat that is
added to the various spaces within the building (when the heat gains exceed the heat
losses).

There are two types of loads:

47
1) Cooling load-cooling load calculations are carried out to estimate the heat gain
of the building in the summer to arrive at the required cooling capacities.
2) Heating load-heating load calculations are carried out to estimate the heat

loss from the building in the winter to arrive at required heating capacities.

To calculate the space cooling load, detailed building information, location, site and
weather data, internal design information and operating schedules are required.
Information regarding the outdoor conditions and desired indoor conditions are the
starting point for the load calculation Outdoor design weather conditions, Indoor
design conditions and thermal comfort, Indoor air quality and outdoor air
requirements and building characteristics.
To calculate space heat gain, the following information on building envelope
is required: Architectural plans,
Sections and elevations – for estimating building dimensions/area/volume
building orientation (N, S, E, W, NE, SE, SW, NW, etc.), location etc.
External/Internal shading, ground reflectance etc.
Materials of construction for external walls, roofs, windows, doors, internal
walls, partitions, ceiling, insulating materials and thicknesses, external wall
and roof colors, amount of glass, type and shading on windows.
Operating Schedules and Obtain the schedule of occupants, lighting,
equipment and appliances.

48
✓ Given parameters AC system for server room
Number of overhead light : 16

✓ Number of 42U Racks :10 with full load of

server

✓ Wattage : 36 without ballast

✓ Occupant : 2 people working inside

✓ Average ventilation : 1times per hr

✓ Volume of room :15m*5m*4m

49
 Table 4: DB Temperature and RH for Comfort Air Conditioning

We select the general comfort application for selection of internal

C
o
parameters Dry bulb temperature =25
Relative humidity =50%
We assumed that outdoor relative humidity=60%

Table 5: outdoor design for different location of Ethiopia for cooling load design

50
51
For the location of Tigray region, Mekelle city;
Latitude 13033'N
Altitude 39030'E
Elevation=2084m
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) =29.8 oC
Wet bulb temperature (WBT) =26.57oC

To calculate the space cooling load, detailed building information, location, site and
weather data, internal design information and operating schedules are required.
Information regarding the outdoor conditions and desired indoor conditions are the
starting point for the load calculation Outdoor design weather conditions, Indoor
design conditions and thermal comfort, Indoor air quality and outdoor air
requirements and building characteristics.

Cooling load is the rate at which the cooling equipment would have to remove
thermal energy from the air in the space order to maintain constant temperature and
humidity in a conditioning space and it will have four components Heat gain by
conduction from warmer surrounding, Heat gain by radiation through transparent
surface, Heat gains by forced or natural convection i .e air infiltration and fresh air
supply and Internal heat source like light, peoples, machines etc.

Internal Cooling Loads

The various internal loads consist of sensible and latent heat transfers due to
occupants, processes appliances and lighting. The lighting load is only sensible. The
conversion of sensible heat gain (from lighting, people, appliances, etc.) to space

52
cooling load is affected by the thermal storage characteristics of that space and is
thus subject to appropriate cooling load factors (CLF) to account for the time lag of
the cooling load caused by the building mass. The weighting factors equation
determines the CLF factors. CLF = Q cooling load / Q internal gains.
1. Heat Gain from Occupants
Occupants give out both sensible and latent heat. This heat gain from occupants
depends up on the activity, application of occupant.
Table 6: heat gain from occupants

We select an activity seated and quiet which have:

53
 Total heat gain=100w
Sensible heat gain =60w
Latent heat gain =40w

Zone1

Q Sensible= N *QS*CLF,
Where CLF=0.96 from table 8.19 ASHRAE
(Assume that occupant stay in library for four hour and the library opened
for 12 hours) Where, N = number of people in space
Q Sensible=2*60*0.96
=115.2 w
Q latent=N *QL
=2*40
=80w

2. Heat Gain from Lighting

Zone-1
Q=wattage*CLF…….(since no ballast)
Where, Special allowance ballast factor for
incandescent = 1.0 Wattage = Total wattage of light
Usage factor for conditioning system shut off
at night (Used wattage /installed wattage) = 1
CLF=0.91

54
Number of florescent=16
=16*36*0.91
=524.16w

55
3. Heat Gain from Electrical Equipment
Computers
✓ Pc&monitor (200-400)w/hour

Zone-1
Q Sensible =no of PC*load* work hour

=40*75*24

=64.0KW

External Cooling Load

The external loads consist of heat transfer by conduction through the building walls,
roof, floor, doors etc., heat transfer by radiation through fenestration such as
windows and sky lights.

1. Heat Gain from Solar Radiation and conductions through walls and windows

Solar cooling load (SCL) depends on the following factor: - direction of window
faces, time of day, month, latitude construction of interior partition walls, and type
of floor covering and existence of internal shading device. Solar cooling load is to
estimate the rate at which solar energy radiates directly into space as a sensible heat
gain. SCL factor is account for the capacity of the space to absorb and store heat.
Solar load through glass has two components: Conductive and Solar Transmission.

Q = A*SC*SCL

Where: - Q - Heat gain by solar radiation through glass

SC- Shading coefficient of window [dimensionless parameter] in

between 0 and1 SCL- Solar cooling load factor
Location for radiation SE
56
 I. Solar Radiation through glass windows only

Zone-1

Q = A*SC*SCL, where SCL=1

Q =75*0.9=67.5w

57
II. Conduction through glass door

only (Q2)
Q2= U*A*CLTD, CLTD=4.8
U=5w/m2K (ASHRAE table 4)

Q2=5.2*5*15

=390w

III. Conduction through wall only

Zone-1

Q3= U*A* ΔT A=5*4=20m2

ΔT = 5.2 K

U =1.056 w/m2K

58
Q3 =1.056*20*5.2

=109.824W
IV. Conduction through roof

Zone-1

Q4= U*A* ΔT where A=75m2

U=0.304 w/m2K (ASHERAE 17)

ΔT=5.2
Q4= U*A* ΔT

=0.304*75*5.2

=118.56W

59
VII: heat transfer through the window by conduction

Zone-1

Q=U.A.CLTD where (CLTD= ΔT=5.2k)

U=5 w/m2K (ASHRAE table 4)

A=20
=20m2

Q=1(U.A.CLTD) for both sides

=5*20*5.2=520w

60
VIII. Cooling Load Due to Infiltration

Infiltration is the air leakage through wall due to porosity of materials used or due
to actual cracks in the construction through windows, door gaps & door openings.
Ventilation is the process of supplying and removing air by natural or mechanical
means to and from space. It is the portion of supply air which is outdoor air plus any
acceptable in door quality.

The load source due to ventilation and infiltration is given by:

➢ Q sensible =𝑄m* cpm*(𝑡𝑜-𝑡𝑖)

➢ Q Latent = Ql=𝑄m *ρ* hfg*( Ф 𝑜- Ф 𝑖)

✓ Where, 𝑄m – outside air flow rate in m3/s

✓ 𝑡𝑜-𝑡𝑖 - outside and inside temperature difference, 1.2

✓ Average humidity %Ф0- Ф𝑖, outside and inside dry bulb

temperatures differences
✓ Hfg= latent heat of vaporization of water

✓ ρ=density of air =1.225kg/m3

✓ Cpm = specific heat of moist, Cpm=1.005+1.82*H

✓ Where Ф is specific humidity Kg of water vapor per Kg of dry

air in the mixture =0.013

✓ Cpm=1.0287kJ/kgoc

✓ 𝑡0 =29.8oc and 𝑡𝑖 =250c

✓ Average humidity Ф0= 60 %, Ф𝑖 =50 %,

hfg=2256kJ/kg Walls infiltration = G=factor G=3 (internet)

H=4, L= 15m and W=5m

61
Walls infiltration = (4*5*15*3)/60=15m3/s

62
𝑄 = (wall infiltration)*rate factor= 15 m3 /s*0.45

=6.75m3/s

Q sensible =𝑄 * cpm*(𝑡𝑜-𝑡𝑖) =6.75*1.0287*(29.8-25) =33.33w

QL= Q Latent = Ql=𝑄m * ρ* hfg*(Ф0-Ф𝑖) =6.75*1.225*2225*(60-50)

=183.99kw

Total cooling load = Total sensible + Total latent heat

=(115.2+80+524.16+64000+67.5+390+109.824+118.56+520+15+33.33+183990) w

=249.96KW
Tons of refrigeration = Total cooling load/3500

=249960w/3500

=71.42TOR

The air handling unit is selected based on the above cooling load capacity.
Therefore, the library needs 58.94TOR (204.06kw).

⚫ As mentioned before, conventionally steady state conditions are assumed for

estimating the building heating loads and the internal heat sources are
neglected. Then the procedure for heating load calculations becomes fairly
simple.

⚫ One has to estimate only the sensible and latent heat losses from the building

walls, roof, ground, windows, doors, due to infiltration and ventilation.

⚫ Equations similar to those used for cooling load calculations are used with the

63
difference that the CLTD values are simply replaced by the design
temperature difference between the conditioned space and outdoors.

64
I. Conduction through glass door
only (Q2)

Q2= U*A*CLTD, CLTD=5.2

U=5w/m2K (ASHRAE table 4)
Q2=5.2*20 =520kw
II. Conduction through wall only

Zone-1

Q3= U*A* ΔT A=5*4=20m2

ΔT = -5.2 K

U =1.056 w/m2K

Q3 =1.056*20*5.2

=-109.824

III. Conduction through roof

Zone-1

Q4= U*A*ΔT where

A=15*5=75m2
U=0.304w^2/K

(ASHERAE 17) ΔT=-4.8

Q4= U*A* ΔT

=0.304*75*5.2
65
=-118.08W

66
IV. Conduction through floor

Zone-1

Q4= U*A*ΔT where

A=15*5=75m2 U=0.304
w/m2K (ASHERAE 17)
ΔT=-5.2K
Q4= U*A* ΔT

=0.304*75*4.8

=-118.08w

V: heat transfer through the window by conduction

Zone-1

Q=U.A.CLTD where (CLTD= ΔT=-5.2k)

67
 U=5 w/m2 K (ASHRAE table 4)

A=(15*5)

=75m2

Q=(U.A.CLTD) for both sides

=5*75*5.2

=-1950w

V. Heating Load Due to Infiltration

The load source due to ventilation and infiltration is

given by: Q sensible =𝑄 * cpm*(𝑡𝑜-𝑡𝑖)
Q Latent = Qs=𝑄 * hfg*(𝑡𝑜-𝑡𝑖)
Where, 𝑄m – outside air flow rate in
m3/s
𝑡𝑜-𝑡𝑖 - outside and inside temperature difference,

Average humidity %Ф0- Ф𝑖, outside and inside dry bulb temperatures
differences Hfg= latent heat of vaporization of water
ρ=density of air

Cpm = specific heat of moist, Cpm=1.005+1.82*H

Where H is specific humidity Kg of water vapor per Kg of dry air in the mixture =0.013

68
 Cpm=1.0287kJ/kgoc

=1.225kg/m3

𝑡0 =29.8oc and 𝑡𝑖 =250c

Average humidity Ф0= 60 %, Ф𝑖 =50 %,

hfg=2256kJ/kg Walls infiltration = G=factor G=3
(internet)
H=4, L= 15m and W=5m

Walls infiltration = (5*15*4*3)/60=15m3/s

𝑄 = (wall infiltration)*rate factor= 15 m3 /s*0.45

= 6.75 m3/s

Q sensible =𝑄 * Cpm*(𝑡𝑜-𝑡𝑖) =6.75*1.0287*(29.8-25) =33.33w

QL= Q Latent = Qs=𝑄 * ρ* h fg*(Ф0-Ф𝑖) =6.75*1.225*2225*(60-50) = -

274.74kw Total heating load = -
(24+202.75*2+140.08*4+5760*2+274740)
= -189.23KW this negative sign implies that there is heat loss from
server room to the surrounding.

In air conditioning systems that use air as the fluid in the thermal distribution system,
it is essential to design the Air Handling Unit (AHU) properly. The primary function
of an AHU is to transmit processed air from the air conditioning plant to the
conditioned space and distribute it properly within the conditioned space.

69
A typical AHU consists of:

A duct system that includes a supply air duct, return air duct, cooling and/or heating
coils, humidifiers/dehumidifiers, air filters and dampers.
An air distribution system comprising various types of outlets for supply air
and inlets for return air
Supply and return air fans which provide the necessary energy to move the
air throughout the system.

70
 Figure 8: Air handling unit

For safe operation, maintainability and backup system four air handling units with
cooling capacity of
211.94TOR (741.789 KW) is selected.

The purpose of air conditioning ductwork is to deliver air from the fan to the
diffusers which distribute the air to the building.
Air Moves through the ductwork in response to pressure difference created by
the Fan .The necessary pressure difference will be a function of the way the
ductwork is laid out and sized.
The objective of duct design is to size the duct so as to minimize the pressure drop
through the duct, while keeping the size (and cost) of the ductwork to a minimum.
Proper duct design requires knowledge of the factors that affect pressure drop and
velocity in the duct.

3.4.1 Duct Components

71
The central air handling unit (AHU) is connected to the air plenum at the starting
point. AHU fans draw in air through grilles called returns and force air through the
plenum and into the conditioned space through supply registers.

72
 Figure9: Duct components

Trunk Duct: A duct that is split into more than one duct is called a ―trunk‖,
just like a tree. Ducts that are on the end of a trunk and terminate in a register
are called branches.
Take Off: Branch ducts are fastened to the main trunk by a takeoff-fitting.
The takeoff encourages the air moving the duct to enter the takeoff to the
branch duct.
Air Terminals Devices: Air terminals are the supply air outlets and return or
exhaust air inlets. For supply, diffusers are most common, but grilles and
registers are also used widely. A diffuser is an outlet device discharging
supply air in a direction radially to the axis of entry. A register is a grille
equipped with a volume control damper. A grille is without a damper.
The chief requirements of an air conditioning duct system are:

✓ It should convey specified rates of air flow to prescribed locations

✓ It should be economical in combined initial cost, fan operating cost and cost

73
 of building space
✓ It should not transmit or generate objectionable noise

Generally at the time of designing an air conditioning duct system, the required
airflow rates are known from load calculations. The location of fans and air outlets
are fixed initially. The duct layout is then made taking into account the space
available and ease of construction.

74
In principle, required amount of air can be conveyed through the air conditioning
ducts by a number of combinations. However, for a given system, only one set results
in the optimum design. Hence, it is essential to identify the relevant design
parameters and then optimize the design.
General Rules for Duct Design

1. Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to save space, power and material

2. Sudden changes in directions should be avoided. When not possible to

avoid sudden changes, turning vanes should be used to reduce pressure loss
3. Diverging sections should be gradual. Angle of divergence ≤ 200

4. Aspect ratio should be as close to 1.0 as possible. Normally, it should not exceed

5. Air velocities should be within permissible limits to reduce noise and vibration

6. Duct material should be as smooth as possible to reduce frictional losses

3.4.2 Classification of Duct Systems

Ducts are classified based on the load on duct due to air pressure and turbulence. The
classification varies from application to application, such as for residences,
commercial systems, industrial systems etc. For example, one such classification is
given below:
Low pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 5 cm H O (g) 2 Medium
pressure systems: Velocity ≤ 10 m/s, static pressure ≤ 15 cm H O (g) 2
High pressure systems: Velocity > 10 m/s, static pressure 15<p ≤ 25
cm H O (g) s High velocities in the ducts results in:
➢ Smaller ducts and hence, lower initial cost and lower space requirement

➢ Higher pressure drop and hence larger fan power consumption

➢ Increased noise and hence a need for noise attenuation

75
N.B. Duct should be designed within prescribed limits of, Velocity, Space
available, Flow rate Operating cost, duct leakage, Duct heat gains and losses and
Noise intensity etc.
3.4.3 Duct lay out

Selection criteria for duct layout

Should convey specified rates of air flow to prescribed locations

Economical in combined initial, fan operating &cost of

building space It should not transmit or generate
objectionable noise
Low pressure drop

76
 Indoor air quality transporting to the conditioned space.

Based on the above criteria’s for the library there are two options their main
difference is on their main duct layout as shown in the figures below.

77
78
Figure 10: One unspilited supply duct layout system

3.4.4 Duct sizing

The most widely used method to size ducting is the equal friction method. The
other methods are velocity reduction and static regain.
Equal friction method

Procedure in equal friction method

79
 Equal friction method uses a duct slide rule, duct calculator, or friction rate
chart to determine the relationship between duct size and air flow, i.e. how
much air will come out of a given size duct. The methodology is as follows:
➢ Select appropriate pressure drop per meter in the ducts.

➢ Read the diameter and velocity of duct from friction chart knowing the

volume flow rate of the supply duct from AHU and pressure drop per
meter in the ducts.
➢ From the friction rate obtained in the previous step, use the same

method to determine diameters and velocities for all other sections of

the ductwork.
➢ Calculate the total pressure drop for each run. Use dampers when

necessary. The pressure drop for the ducts per unit length is:
❖ Quiet - Pressure drop 0.4 Pa/m.

❖ Commercial - Pressure drop 0.6 Pa/m.

❖ 3. Industrial - Pressure drop 0.8 Pa/m.

Hence the library is quiet building, so use a pressure drop of 0.4 Pa/m for duct sizing.
The flow rate for each room is calculated by dividing the room load to total load of
the SERVER ROOM and multiplying by the AHU volume flow rates. i.e
Ѵroom= (Qroom/Qtotal)* ѴAHU

3.4.5 Design of supply duct

Section -1(supply air)

The main duct has flow rate of 13.33 m3/s (48,000 m3/h) supply air and pressure
drop of 0.6Pa/m, so at those flow rate &pressure drops the supply duct has the
following parameters are obtained from friction chart;
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 Diameter =D=1.3m

Velocity =V=Q/A or from friction chart

V=12 m/s Velocity pressure=PV=
(ρair*V2air)/2
For air at standard condition density is ρ air= 1.2 kg/m3

So Velocity pressure= Pv = (0.602*V2air=86.68 Pa.

3.4.6 Design of return duct

The return duct is required in every HVAC system maintains both the indoor
pressure and the air quality. We located the return duct only at the auditorium and
not in the other locations. Because

81
The main requirement of the air is only for the library and to maintain a good quality
of the air wasted, the air must be constantly ejected from the indoor environment.
According to the ASHRAE handbook, the required fresh air flow is 7.15 m3/s and
we supplied total air flow of
13.33 m3/s. Total of (13.33) 5.43 m3/s has to be removed by the return duct. In the
same process as the supply duct, we fixed the velocity of the main return duct at 8
m/s. using the Friction chart we determined the main return duct diameter and
calculated associated divided branches.
At pressure drop/m=0.6pa/m and flow rate of 5.43m/s from friction chart, D=0.95.

3.4.7 Duct Materials

Ducting is generally formed by folding sheet metal into the desired shape.
Traditionally, air conditioning ductwork is made of galvanized steel, next in
popularity is aluminum. Other metals used under special circumstances are copper
and stainless steel. Metals that are used extensively depend on the application of the
duct and are listed below:
Galvanized Steel: It is a standard, most common material used in fabricating
ductwork for most comfort air conditioning systems. The specifications for
galvanized steel sheet are ASTM A653, coating G90.
Aluminum: It is widely used in clean room applications.

Stainless Steel: It is used in duct systems for kitchen exhaust, moisture

laden air, and fume exhaust.
4.Carbon Steel (Black Iron): It is widely used in applications involving
flues, stacks, hoods, other high temperature and special coating
requirements for industrial use.
Copper: It is mainly used for certain chemical exhaust and ornamental ductwork.

SERVER ROOM needs comfort AC system, so galvanized steel duct material is

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selected (preferred) for air distribution.

83
Table5: Friction chart

84
3.4.8 Duct Shapes

Ducts commonly used for carrying air are of round, square, or rectangular
shape. All have advantages and disadvantages, and find applications where one is
definitely superior to the other.
1. Round duct:

➢ The duct shape that is the most efficient (offers the least resistance) in
conveying moving air is a round duct. Round shape results in lower pressure
drops, requires less fan horsepower to move the air and, consequently, smaller
equipment, less surface area and requires less insulation when externally
wrapped, available in longer lengths than rectangular ducts, thereby
eliminating costly field joints. Round ducts can help promote healthier indoor
environments.
2. Rectangular Ducts

➢ Square or rectangular ducts fit better to building construction. They fit above

ceilings and into walls, and they are much easier to install between joists and
studs.
Disadvantages of rectangular ducts are:

➢ create higher pressure drop, use more pounds of metal for the same air-flow

rate as round ducts, their joint length is limited to the sheet widths stocked by
the contractor, their joints are more difficult to seal;
3. Oval Ducts

➢ Flat oval ducts have smaller height requirements than round ducts and retain

most of the advantages of the round ducts. Disadvantages include, fittings for
flat oval ducts are difficult to fabricate or modify in the field, difficulty of
handling and shipping larger sizes, tendency of these ducts to become more
round under pressure; and, in large aspect ratios, difficulties of assembling
85
 oval slip joints.
Based on the above advantages and disadvantages round duct are selected
(preferred) for the library.

Figure 11: Duct shapes

86
 Rectangular diffusers fit better to building construction. They fit above ceilings
and into walls, and they are much easier to install between joists and studs.

Figure 12: diffuser

 Listed size= duct size=120mm

 Nick size=L-5=115mm

 Slanted fixed vans=35mm

 Vertical fixed vans=25mm

 Outer shell=50mm

 Rounded ceiling up to 14o

Fan is an air pump that creates a pressure difference and causes airflow. It is an
essential and one of the most important components of almost all air conditioning
systems. Thus a basic understanding of fan performance characteristics is essential
87
in the design of air conditioning systems. The centrifugal fan is most commonly used
in air conditioning systems as it can efficiently move large quantities of air over a
large range of pressures. The centrifugal fan with forward-curved blades is widely
used in low-pressure air conditioning systems.
A damper is an adjustable obstruction in a duct used to control or balance airflow.¬
Fan types: Based on their flow there are two types of fans

88
1. Centrifugal fans (CF fans): this is used to allow air to flow at 90 degrees. The
centrifugal Fan is the most widely used because it can effectively move large or
small quantities of air over a wide range of pressure. Characteristics of CF fans
Quiet, Efficient, Ease of connection

2. Axial flow fans: this used to allow air in order to flow on a straight direction.
There are different type blade curve that can use in the fan. Like forward, backward,
and radial curve blade.
❖ Fans all perform the basic function of moving air from one space to another.

But the great diversity of fan applications creates the need for manufacturers
to develop many different models. Centrifugal fans produce airflow by
rotation of an impeller with curved vanes or blades which guide and drive the
airflow to the periphery of the impeller or fan, as it rotates, in such a manner
that, when it emerges it has velocity and direction which is close to tangential
to the impeller. As the air passes across the fan it creates a lower pressure at
the inlet that ―sucks‖ in more air to continue the flow. In simple terms the
height of the fan blades is proportional to the amount of air flow and the
diameter which is in turn proportional to the amount of suction; it is shown in
the sketch below. So for this case centrifugal fans are selected because they
have quitter operation than the other kinds of fans.

89
Figure 13: centrifugal fan

90
3.6.1 Fan design analysis

Determining CFM

CFM stands for cubic feet per minute (it is also referred to as air flow). Put simply,
CFM is how much air a fan moves. The measurement is taken when the fan is on its
highest speed and uses both the volume of air and the rate at which it moves. But,
for our case we will use some mathematical relations to calculate the amount of air
that the fan should be capable of moving to be used in the vacuum cleaner. The
number depends on few things, the fans motor, the blade pitch and the length/or
shape of the fan blades. But the important part is as the fan have higher CFM then it
will be capable of moving more air during air conditioning process. It is one of the
parameters which are used to select the preferred type of fan from the manufacturers
curve.

Where, room volume is the volume of the room in which the fan is to be used.

Minutes per change; is a parameter which indicates how many times the air is
changed in a minute
𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑙 ∗ 𝑤 ∗ ℎ /volume at the library room in which the air
conditioner is going to be used is considered for our case
➢ Length=12m

➢ Width=8m

➢ Height=5m

Room volume= (12*8*5) m^3=480m^3

And from a standard table minutes per change for a laboratory with considering the
geographic location and average duty level of the laboratory and hot climate and

91
heavier than normal area usage the appropriate minutes per change is between 2 to
5. And, we have assumed it to be 3.
Suggested air changes for proper ventilation

Area Min/change Area Min/change Area Min/change

Assembly 3-10 Dance hall 3-7 Machine 3-6

hall shop
Attic 2-4 Dining room 4-8 Mill 3-8

Auditorium 3-10 Dry cleaner 2-5 Office 2-8

Bakery 2-3 Engine room 1-3 Packing 2-5

house
Bar 2-4 Factory 2-7 Projection 1-2
room
Barn 12-18 Foundry 1-5 Recreation 2-8
room
Bowling 1-3 Garage 2-10 Residence 2-6
alley
Boiler room 3-7 Generator 2-5 Restaurant 5-10
room
Church 3-5 Gymnasium 3-8 Restroom 5-7

Cafeteria 4-10 Kitchen 1-5 Store 3-7

Classroom 4-6 Laboratory 2-5 Transfer 1-5

room
Club room 3-7 Laundry 2-4 warehouse 3-10

Table 7: Suggested change minutes per value. (Ashrae hand book,5th edition)

92
Therefore the required CFM of the fan to be selected is going to be obtained
by the above formula
CFM=480 m3/3 min =
160m3/min The corresponding value will be:
CFM=160m3/min=
Q Determining static pressure
The pressure generated by fans in ductwork is very small. Yet, accurately estimating
the static pressure is critical to a proper fan selection. Fan static pressure is measured
in inches of water gauge. One pound per square inch is equivalent to 27.7 in. of water
gauge. Static pressures in fan systems are typically less than 2 in. of water gauge.
The amount of static pressure that the fan must overcome depends on the air velocity
in the duct work, the number of duct turns and other resistive elements. For properly
designed systems with sufficient make up air, the guidelines in the following table
below can be used for estimating static pressure.

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 Static pressure guidelines

Non ducted 0.05 in. to 0.20 in

Ducted 0.2 in. to 0.40 in. per 100 feet of

duct(assuming duct velocity within 1000-
1800 feet/minute
Fittings 0.08 in. per fitting (elbow, register,
grill, damper etc.)
Kitchen hood exhaust 0.625 in. to 1.50 in.

Table 8: static pressure guidelines (ashrae hand book 5th edition)

By considering the geometry and components of our air conditioning system we

can estimate the static pressure as follows.
➢ It is ducted so we take a static pressure of 0.25 in. for the duct work.

➢ Fittings; we will have three fittings and it will be

0.08*3=0.24 in. Now the total static pressure of the system will
be the summation of the two. Total static pressure=0.25 in. +0.24
in. =0.49 in.
Note: for convenience in using selection charts we round this value up to 0.5
in. of static pressure.
Now it is possible to select the fan for the vacuum cleaner using the calculated
flow rate and static pressure by using the software called sodeca quick fan
selector.
✓ CFM=160m3/min

✓ Ps=0.5 in. =124.5445 pa

✓ Air density=1.2kg/m3

✓ Operating temperature=29.80C
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Considering Noise

The type of fan used, its blade geometry and its drive arrangement are the main
parameters that are responsible for the noise generated during operation. Centrifugal
fans with backward blade impellers are generally considered to have smooth and
quitter operations than the other kinds of fans, therefore we have select a centrifugal
fan with backward blade impeller and direct drive arrangement for our air
conditioning system.
Result

95
The following data shows the result obtained from the fan selector software (sodeca
quick fan selector) which includes the fan characteristic curve and all other
information’s about the motor power and efficiency.

96
97
 Figure 14: results on design of fan

3.6.2 Principle of operation

All fans produce pressure by altering the velocity vector of the flow. A fan produces
pressure flow because the rotating blades of the impeller impart kinetic energy to the
air by changing its velocity. Velocity change is in the tangential and radial velocity
components for centrifugal fans.
Centrifugal fan impellers produce pressure from

(1) The centrifugal force created by rotating the air column contained between the blades and

(2) The kinetic energy imparted to the air by virtue of its velocity leaving the

impeller. This velocity is a combination of relative velocity of the impeller and

airspeed relative to the impeller. A centrifugal fan creates pressure and air movement
by a combination of centrifugal (radial) velocity and rotating (tangential) velocity.
From all this kind of fan centrifugal fan is proper machine that is to be installed on
the wall of the library. We select this because of whole good characters described
under above topic and the amount of air that is needed for the room.

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The finding (results) of the design analysis shows that the air conditioning
parameters for quiet buildings can be specified by considering different cases. These
parameters are different for different geographical locations, orientation, and
building material, and insulation, internal and external conditions. It is shown the
results for different locations and different room applications as well as for rooms at
different floor levels of the buildings. And also the design is done at different
building orientations to see its effect on cooling load hence the orientation with lower
cooling load will be recommended.

From the results shown so far the air conditioning loads are affected by many
factors. These are Building orientation, room area, number of occupants, material
to which the room is made up of, the floor to which the room is located, the outside
color of the wall and the roof, the internal load and the presence of partitions inside
the room.
Orientation

❖ Orientation is the position of the building in relation to its exposure to the sun

light. As it is explained so far the building can be north, north east, east, south
east, south, south west, west Or North West oriented. But from the results it
is observed that orientation have a vital effect for the room air conditioning
99
 load. Especially for rooms with small area the effect is more. It is dependent
on the geographical location of the room. Generally when the room is west
oriented (or when most Doors, windows, glass walls parts of the building are
in the direction of west) there will be high AC load relative to North oriented
building.
Internal Loads

The internal loads to the room are varied for according to the function of the room
and application.
Number of People

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 ❖ While the number of occupants inside the room is increasing it is clear that
the heat gain inside the room will also increase. And to compensate that the
cooling load is also increases.

Lighting

❖ Rooms with more electrical lights have higher heat gains so the room’s
needs increased cooling load.

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The Right-sizing of the AC system begins with an accurate understanding of cooling
loads on a space. The values determined by the cooling load calculation process
dictate the equipment (AHU) selection. To get the information which required for
equipment selection, system sizing and system design the detail cooling load
estimation has been made. The load estimation considered all factors which affect
the indoor condition. Internal heat gain from occupants, electrical equipment,
lighting and the external heat gain from radiation, conduction and convection are
considered during the analysis. Based on the results of the sensible heat load and the
latent heat load for the rooms capacity of the AC unit was determined to meet the
desired indoor thermal comfort air condition. In the selection of the AC unit it was
anticipated to have AC equipment available in the country market which may not
require special order and can be obtained directly on the market hence can be fixed
without any time delay.

Since the server room is under work so it is feasible to use or design the duct system,
it is workable design to use a central type AC unit and to distribute the conditioned
air from the central unit to the rooms through the duct system. Therefore central AC
system is recommended which satisfy the thermal comfort AC. The server room

102
needs AHU with cooling capacity of 211.94TOR (741.789kw) , so it is
recommended that to use four (4) AHU with cooling capacity of 300 Kw the fourth
AHU is used for back up, maintenance time. During installation of the duct system
it was considered the comfort of the occupants, the architectural views, loads shared
by the units and the space availability of the rooms.

103
1. ASHRAE 2009 handbook—fundamentals

2. HVAC design sourcebook by W .Larsen Angel

3. Load calculation procedures for any building (internet)

4. ASHRAE –HVAC 2001 fundamental hand book.

5. ethiopian standard es-ebcs 11 mechanical ventilation and air conditioning in

buildings

6. the international journal of engineering & science (ijes) www.theijes.com

7. Cooling load estimation and air conditioning unit selection for hibir boat by
yonas mitiku Degu School of mechanical and industrial engineering, bahir dar
institute of technology bahir Dar University, bahir dar, Ethiopia.
8. duct design using equal friction method & cfd by raviraj gurav 1 sanjay
gaikwad 2 pritee purohit.1, 2,3 assistant professor ,army institute of
technology, pune-15
9. Handbook of ac.

10.HVAC hand book of air conditioning and refrigeration.

11. pacific science review a: natural science and engineering

12.journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/pacific-sciencereview

13.king Abdul-Aziz university college of engineering mechanical engineering

14.Mep 451 refrigeration & air conditioning duct design.

15. http://hpp.smud.org/or emailjimmillsat:[email protected]

16. ―Specifying air conditioning requirements for commercial buildings of

ethiopia‖ addis ababa university addis ababa institute of technology school of
mechanical and industrial engineering thermal engineering stream by: Jamal
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 worku.
17. designs of energy efficient buildings for hot areas of ethiopia with respect to
air conditioning addis ababa university school of graduate studies by teklay
w/abezgi.
18. http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/weather/maps/ct.

19.teklay, w. (2004), design of energy efficient building for hot areas of ethiopia:
addis ababa university.

105
Appendix -A

The findings (results) of heat gains (loads) for different rooms

106