Communication

- Takes place within systems. A system consists of interrelated parts that affect one
another.
- A process of sharing and conveying messages or information from one person to
another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures.

Field of experience
- Governs the system within a group that is transmitted through communication.
- Shared beliefs, ideas, and principles among a group of people

Nature of communication
- Communication is a process
- Communication occurs between two or more people.
- Communication can be verbal or non-verbal

Principles of communication
- Communication is dynamic
- Communication is unrepeatable and irreversible
- Communication is culturally linked.
- Communication is influenced by ethics.
- Communication is competence-based.
- Communication is being transformed by media and technology.

The sender
- Person who conveys the message through various means.

The influences in a message from the sender

1. Purpose
2. Attitude
3. Knowledge
4. Past experience

The message
- The content or the information that is sent by the communicator
- Could be verbal or non-verbal

The Channel
- The medium or means through which the message is transmitted

The interference
- Factor that keeps a message from being understood or accurately interpreted.
1. Semantic interference
2. Physical interference/Noise
3. Physiological interference
4. Psychological interference
5. Organizational interference

The Situation
- The time and place in which the communication occurs.
- Communication adapts to the setting.

The Feedback
- Receiver’s message the individual sends back to the source as a response
1. Positive feedback
2. Negative feedback
3. Intentional feedback
4. Unintentional feedback

Models of communication
1. Aristotelian Model
 o A unique communication tool proposed before 300 B.C. By the Greek
philosopher Aristotle.
o Primarily focuses on the sender (speaker) who passes their message to the
receiver (Audience).
o The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the
audience is passive.
EG.
o public speaking, seminars, and lectures.
Elements of the Aristotelian model
1. Ethos
o Defines the credibility of the speaker.
 Person’s background
 Expertise
 Self-projection
 Position/s Occupied
2. Pathos
o Connects the speaker with the audience through emotional appeal
 Petitio principii
 Ad misericordiam (Appeal to pity)
 Ad Hominem
 Red Herring
 Slippery Slope
3. Logos
o Signifies logic
 Statistics
 Facts

2. The Shannon-Weaver Model

o Maybe the most popular model of communication
o A mathematical communication concept that proposes that communication
is a linear, one-way process that can be broken down into 5 key concepts.
 Shannon was an American mathematician and an electronic engineers.
 Weaver was an American scientist.
 Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role
of noise in the communication process.
 NOISE - Anything that is added to the signal between its
transmission and reception that is not intended by the source.
Elements of Shannon-Weaver Model
1. Sender
o Information source,
2. Encoder
o Transmitter, process by which the source takes an idea or thought and
selects verbal and nonverbal symbols from his or her environment to send
which he/she feels accurately represents that idea or thought.
3. Channel
o The medium
4. Decoder
o Reception, ability to translate the message code into symbols that the
receiver can understand. The object is for the receiver to interpret the
message as the sender encoded it.
5. Receiver
o Destination
6. Feedback
o transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender.

3. Berlo’s SMCR model

- First defined by David Berlo in his 1960 book The Process of Communication.
- Suggests communication is the transfer of information between 4 basic steps or
key elements.
Main elements of Berlo’s SMCR Model
1. Source or Sender
a. Communication Skills
 the source needs good communication skills to ensure the
communication will be effective

b. Attitude
  Attitudes towards the audience, subject and towards oneself. The
source needs to make a lasting impression on the receiver.
c. Knowledge
 the clarity of the information that the source wants to transfer to the
receiver.
d. Social System
 The source should be familiar with the social system in which the
communication process takes place
e. Culture
 The source needs to be acquainted with the culture in which the
communication encounter is taking place.
2. Message
a. Content
 the script of the conversation. The body of a message, from the
beginning to the end.
b. Element
 gestures, body language, facial expressions
c. Treatment
 It refers to the packing of the message and the way in which the
message is conveyed or the way in which it is passed on or delivered.
d. Structure
 refers to how it is arranged
e. Code
 Refers to the means through which it is sent and in what form.
3. Channel
Five senses
a. Hearing
b. Sight
c. Touch
d. Smell
e. Taste
4. Receiver
 To understand the message, the receiver should involve the same
elements as the source.

4. Lasswell’s Model
o views communication as the transmission of a message with the effect as
the result.
o The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver
of the message that is caused by the elements of communication.
 If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.
Main elements of Lasswell’s model
o aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:
1. Who created the message?
o Communicator
2. What did they say?
o Message
3. What channel did they use ?
o Medium
4. To whom did they say it?
o Audience/Receiver
5. What effects did it have on the receiver?
o Effect

5. Osgood-Schramm’s Model
o a circular model of communication, in which messages go in two directions
between encoding and decoding.
o this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal communication
o there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are
equally encoding and decoding the messages.
 The interpreter is the person trying to understand the message at that
moment.

Main principles and steps in Osgood-Schramm’d Model

1. Communication is circular.
 o Individuals involved in the communication process are changing their roles
as encoders and decoders.
2. Communication is equal and reciprocal.
o Both parties are equally engaged as encoders and decoders.
3. The message requires interpretation.
o The information needs to be properly interpreted to be understood.
4. model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:
a. Encoding,
b. Decoding,
c. Interpreting.

Intercultural Communication
- happens when individuals interact, negotiate, and create meanings while bringing
in their varied cultural backgrounds (Ting-Toomey, 1999)
- pertains to communication among people from different nationalities (Gudykunst,
2003). Still, others look at intercultural communication as communication that is
influenced by different ethnicities, religions, and sexual orientations.
The Iceberg Model
- serves as a powerful tool for understanding the complexities of human interactions
and intercultural dynamics
- Only 10% is explicit and 90% is implicit
Tip of the iceberg (Surface culture)
o the observable and explicit aspects of a society that are readily apparent to
external observers.
o Aspects of culture that are explicit, taught, and visible
 Perceived by the five senses
 Emotional level is low
Waterline (shallow culture)
o Aspects of culture that are unspoken rules, most easily seen, emotional level
is high
 Conversation patterns
 Personal space
 Concept of time
Underwater (deep culture)
o these elements are implicit, shaping the core values and dynamics of a
society
o Aspects of culture that are hidden culture that includes assumptions,
understandings, values, judgements and feelings
 Emotional level is high
The Lewis model
1. Linear-active
o Those who plan, schedule, organize pursue action chains, do one thing at a
time.
2. Multi-active
o Those lively, loquacious culture that do many things at once, planning their
priorities not according to a time schedule, but according to the relative thrill
or importance that each appointment brings with it.
3. Reactive
o Those culture that prioritizes courtesy and respect, listening quietly and
calmly and react carefully to the others side’s proposals.

Development of intercultural sensitivity, (Bennett and Bennett, 2004)

Stage 1: Denial
 - The individual does not recognize cultural differences.
o “All cities are the same; they all have tall buildings, fast food chains, and
coffee shops”
Stage 2: Defense
- The individual starts to recognize cultural differences and is intimidated by them,
resulting in either a superior view on own culture or an unjustified high regard for
the new one.
o “This culture does not view life the way we do; our culture is certainly
better.”
o “Their ways are better than my own; I wish I were one of them.”
Stage 3: Minimization
- Although individuals see cultural differences, they bank more on the universality of
ideas rather than on cultural differences.
o “Once we see through the cultural differences, we really are just the same”
Stage 4: Acceptance
- The individual begins to appreciate important cultural differences in behaviors and
eventually in values.
o “These people and I have different values and experiences, and I think we
can learn from one another”
Stage 5: Adaptation
- The individual is very open to world views when accepting new perspectives.
o “To address our issue, I have to adjust my approach to consider both my own
and my counterpart’s background”

Process behind public speaking

Audience
- The end and object of the speech
Rhetorical Question
- A state where the speaker, audience, and the occasions overlap
Exigence
- The term referred to as the reason why a speech needs to be delivered
Uncertainty reduction theory
1. Audience analysis
o Study of intended audience
2. Audience adaptation
o Tailoring the speech to address the unique interest, needs and expectations

Identify potential topic

Subject
- Broad idea of knowledge
Topic
- A narrower aspect of a subject
Brainstorming
- Uncritical and non-evaluative process of generating associated ideas. When you
do this, you list as many subjects as you can.
Concept mapping
- Visual means of exploring connections between a subject and related ideas.

Analyze the audience

Demographic data
- Age, sex, education, income, occupation, socio-economic status, race, ethnicity,
religion, geographic uniqueness, and language
Subject related data
- Audience-Disposition data: level of knowledge, interest, and attitude
Marginalizing
- Practice of ignoring the values, needs, and interests of an audience leaving them
to feel excluded.
Stereotyping
- Assuming all members of the audience have similar knowledge or belief simply
because they belong to a specific demographic.

Examine the occasion

Occasion
- made up of the expected purpose and setting of the speech.

Write your speech goals

General
- those that identify the intent of the speech
Specific
- those that identify the desired response of the audience
Time order
- called sequential order or chronological order, Time order arranges main points
into sequence or steps in a process.
Narrative order
- One way people connect is through storytelling. This order conveys ideas in a story
format or a series of stories.
Topical order
- This order arranges main points using logical relationship among the ideas. This
means ideas are arranged in general vis-à-vis specific or important to less
important.
Logical reasons order
- This order arranges the main points according to the relational context of the ideas
(cause and effect, comparison and contrast, definition, by example, illustration or
description among others).

Interpersonal communication
- exchanging information, meaning, feelings, and opinions between two or more
people via verbal and non-verbal means.
Types of interpersonal communication
1. oral
o Other words speaking.
2. Listening
o Covers the ability to listen attentively
3. The written word
o How to get your point across in writing
4. Non verbal
o Covers body language, facial expression, tone of voice, and gestures

How to build interpersonal communication skills

1. Practice active listening
2. Use clear and concise language
3. Be aware of nonverbal
4. Show empathy
5. Build rapport
6. Be open to feedback

Four principles
1. It is unavoidable
2. It is irreversible
3. It is complicated
4. It is contextual

Purpose of interpersonal communication

1. Impart and gather information
2. Influence attitudes and behaviors of others
3. Create contacts, make friends and maintain relationships
4. Make sense of our world and better understand our experiences in it
5. Express our personal needs and understand the needs of others
6. Make decisions and solve problems
7. Set social boundaries
8. Provide and receive needed emotional support
9. Anticipate and predicts people’s behavior
10. Regulate the balance of power in a workplace or social circle.

Importance of interpersonal communication

1. A vital part of being a team player or a group leader
2. A valuable soft skill
3. Can make us clearly express our intentions and thoughts
4. Can help reduce the likelihood of misunderstandings

Public communication
 - happens when a person or a group of people gather and start sharing information
to an audience or give a presentation on certain topics to deliver a message.

Public communication requires

1. Public speaker
2. Audience
3. The channel
4. The message

Purpose of public communication

1. is to deliver a message, news, a piece of information that people/audience could
learn from.
2. used to inform & persuade, built relationships, form connections, and create a
network.
3. helps us stay in touch with everything that happens around us.

Types of public communication

1. To inform
2. To motivate, or to take action
3. To entertain

Common challenges of public speaking

1. Anxiety and fear of speaking in front of a crowd
2. Little to no structure in the presentation
3. Having no credibility with your audience
4. Displaying poor body language
5. Delivering speech without a clear message

Tips for learning how to speak in public

1. Establish trust with your audience
2. Work on your confidence
3. Get organized in advance
4. Nail down the reason behind your speech
5. Learn from the best

Communication and leadership

Types of groups
1. Families
o Group of intimates who generate a sense of home
2. Social group
o composed of people who genuinely care about each other and enjoy
spending time together
3. Support group
o composed of people who come together to provide encouragement, honest
feedback, and a safe environment
4. Interest group
o composed of individuals who come together because they share a common
interest, hobby or activity
5. Service groups
o composed of individuals who come together to perform hands-on charitable
works or to help organizations to perform such functions.
6. Work groups
o a collection of three or more people formed to work together to complete a
specific task.

Member’s roles
Tasked based role
- require specific patterns of behavior that directly help the group accomplish its
goals
Initiator – your comment gets the discussion started or moves it in a new direction
Information / Opinion Giver – you provide content for the discussion
Information / Opinion Seeker – you ask questions that probe others for their ideas
and opinions
Analyzer – you probe the content, reasoning, and evidence of members during
discussion
 Orienter – indicates to the group that it is off track, and summarizes points of
agreement and disagreement among members

Maintenance role
- requires specific patterns of behavior that help the group develop and maintain
good member relationships, group cohesiveness, and effective levels of conflict.
Gatekeeper – you ensure that everyone has an opportunity to speak and be heard
Encourager – your messages provide support for the contributions of other team
members
Harmonizer – you help the group relieve tension and manage conflict

Self-Centered Role
- requires specific patterns of behavior that focus attention on individuals’ needs
and goals at the expense of the group
Aggressors – seek to enhance their own status by criticizing almost everything or
blaming others when things get rough and by deflating the ego or status of others
Jokers – attempt to draw attention to themselves by clowning, mimicking, or
generally making a joke of everything
Withdrawers – seek to meet their own goals at the expense of group goals by not
participating in the discussion or the work of the group
Blockers – routinely reject others’ views and stubbornly disagree with emerging
group decisions

Types of conflicts in group communication

- Cultural conflict
o is a type of conflict that occurs when different cultural values and beliefs
clash.
- personality conflict
o occurs when two or more colleagues have incompatible personalities,
backgrounds, or outlooks. Personality clashes can impact productivity and
cause absenteeism and presenteeism. The clash can cause disagreements
and mistrust among each other. c.
- Pseudo-Conflict
o happens when two people agree but wind up conflicting because they think
they don't. It's a result of poor communication and derives from hasty
assumptions. The consequences of this type of conflict can turn into real
conflict.
- Issue-related conflict
o refers to the arbitrator's apparent or actual bias resulting from previously
expressed opinions, views on a matter that directly affects the outcome of
the case that needs to be resolved.

Methods in decision making

1. The expert opinion
o the group ask the member with the most expertise to select the final choice.
2. The Average Group Opinion Method
o each member of the group ranks the alternatives that meet all the criteria.
3. The Majority Rule Method
o The group votes on each alternative, and the one that receives most votes is
selected
4. The Unanimous Decision Method
o the group must continue deliberation until every member of the group
believes the same solution is the best.
5. The Consensus Method
o group continues deliberation until all members of the group find an
acceptable variation

Member responsibilities in group meetings

1. Listen actively
2. Stay focused
3. Ask questions
4. Take notes
5. Play devil’s advocacy
6. Monitor your contributions