Q1. An air refrigeration system for a jet plane operates on simple air cycle.

The cockpit is to be maintained at 250C and 1 bar. The

ambient air temperature and pressure are -150C and 0.35 bar. The pressure ratio of main compressor is 3. The plane speed is
1200 km/hr. Cooling load is 20 Tons. Assuming isentropic ramming, compression, and expansion, determine: (a) The temperature
and pressure of air entering the compressor (b) mass flow rate of air circulated (c) power required (d) C.O.P. of the system.
To solve the given problem, we need to apply the principles of the air refrigeration cycle, assuming ideal isentropic processes.
Let's break down the steps to determine the temperature and pressure of the air entering the compressor, the mass flow rate,
power required, and the COP.
Given Data:
 Cockpit temperature (T1T_1) = 25°C = 298.15 K
 Cockpit pressure (P1P_1) = 1 bar = 100 kPa
 Ambient air temperature (T0T_0) = -15°C = 258.15 K
 Ambient air pressure (P0P_0) = 0.35 bar = 35 kPa
 Pressure ratio of the compressor (rpr_p) = 3
 Plane speed = 1200 km/hr
 Cooling load = 20 Tons = 20 × 3.517 kW = 70.34 kW
Assumptions:
 Isentropic compression, expansion, and ramming
 The specific heat ratio (kk) for air is approximately 1.4
 The gas constant (RR) for air is 0.287 kJ/kg.K
Step 1: Determine the temperature and pressure of the air entering the compressor
From the pressure ratio (rpr_p) and the isentropic process, we can use the following relationship between the pressures and
temperatures:
(T2T0)=(P2P0)k−1k\left(\frac{T_2}{T_0}\right) = \left(\frac{P_2}{P_0}\right)^{\frac{k-1}{k}}
Where:
 T2T_2 = temperature after compression (which will be the temperature at the compressor exit)
 T0T_0 = ambient temperature (temperature entering the compressor)
 P2P_2 = pressure after compression (which is P1P_1)
 P0P_0 = ambient pressure
We also know that P2=P1P_2 = P_1 (cockpit pressure) and P0P_0 is the ambient pressure, so we can find the temperature after
compression using the given pressure ratio.
T2=T0×(P1P0)k−1kT_2 = T_0 \times \left( \frac{P_1}{P_0} \right)^{\frac{k-1}{k}}
Now, calculate T2T_2:
T2=258.15×(10035)1.4−11.4=258.15×(2.857)0.286≈258.15×1.311=338.5 KT_2 = 258.15 \times \left( \frac{100}{35} \
right)^{\frac{1.4-1}{1.4}} = 258.15 \times \left( 2.857 \right)^{0.286} \approx 258.15 \times 1.311 = 338.5 \, \text{K}
Step 2: Mass flow rate of air circulated
The cooling load is given as 70.34 kW. The refrigeration effect per unit mass flow rate is the difference in enthalpy between the
air entering and exiting the evaporator.
Using the relation for cooling load:
Q=m˙×Cp×(T2−T1)Q = \dot{m} \times C_p \times (T_2 - T_1)
Where:
 m˙\dot{m} is the mass flow rate
 CpC_p is the specific heat of air at constant pressure (approximately 1.005 kJ/kg.K)
 T2−T1T_2 - T_1 is the temperature difference between the air entering and exiting the evaporator.
We can solve for m˙\dot{m}:
m˙=QCp×(T2−T1)=70.341.005×(338.5−298.15)=70.341.005×40.35≈70.3440.55=1.73 kg/s\dot{m} = \frac{Q}{C_p \times (T_2
- T_1)} = \frac{70.34}{1.005 \times (338.5 - 298.15)} = \frac{70.34}{1.005 \times 40.35} \approx \frac{70.34}{40.55} =
1.73 \, \text{kg/s}
Step 3: Power required by the compressor
The power required by the compressor is given by:
W˙comp=m˙×Cp×(T2−T0)\dot{W}_{\text{comp}} = \dot{m} \times C_p \times (T_2 - T_0)
Substitute the known values:
W˙comp=1.73×1.005×(338.5−258.15)=1.73×1.005×80.35=139.9 kW\dot{W}_{\text{comp}} = 1.73 \times 1.005 \times
(338.5 - 258.15) = 1.73 \times 1.005 \times 80.35 = 139.9 \, \text{kW}
Step 4: Coefficient of Performance (COP)
The COP for the air refrigeration system is defined as the ratio of the cooling effect to the work input:
COP=QW˙compCOP = \frac{Q}{\dot{W}_{\text{comp}}}
Substitute the values:
COP=70.34139.9=0.5COP = \frac{70.34}{139.9} = 0.5
Summary of Results:
 (a) Temperature and pressure of air entering the compressor:
o T2≈338.5 KT_2 \approx 338.5 \, \text{K}
o P2=100 kPaP_2 = 100 \, \text{kPa}
 (b) Mass flow rate of air circulated: m˙≈1.73 kg/s\dot{m} \approx 1.73 \, \text{kg/s}
 (c) Power required by the compressor: W˙comp≈139.9 kW\dot{W}_{\text{comp}} \approx 139.9 \, \text{kW}
 (d) Coefficient of Performance (COP): COP≈0.5COP \approx 0.5
Q2. An NH3 compression refrigerator works between condenser temperature of 40 0C and evaporator temperature of -20 0C.
Assuming isentropic compression and saturation cycle, find (i) C.O.P. of the system. (ii) power input in kW for 20 tons refrigerating
capacity. (iii) Mass flow rate
To solve the problem for the NH₃ (ammonia) compression refrigeration cycle, we'll use the following data and standard refrigerant
properties of ammonia. For an ideal compression refrigeration system, the C.O.P., power input, and mass flow rate are determined
using the thermodynamic properties of ammonia at the given temperatures.
Given Data:
 Condenser temperature (T2T_2) = 40°C = 313.15 K
 Evaporator temperature (T1T_1) = -20°C = 253.15 K
 Refrigerating capacity = 20 Tons = 20 × 3.517 kW = 70.34 kW
 Saturated conditions for ammonia at given temperatures
 Assume isentropic compression (ideal)
Step 1: C.O.P. of the system
The Coefficient of Performance (COP) of a refrigeration cycle is defined as the ratio of the refrigeration effect to the work input:
COP=Refrigeration EffectWork InputCOP = \frac{\text{Refrigeration Effect}}{\text{Work Input}}
The refrigeration effect is the amount of heat removed from the refrigerated space (in this case, the evaporator), which is given
as 70.34 kW. The work input is the power required to drive the compressor.
For ammonia refrigeration cycles, the C.O.P. for an ideal cycle can be approximated by using the following formula, considering
the enthalpy values at the evaporator and condenser:
COP=h1−h4h2−h1COP = \frac{h_1 - h_4}{h_2 - h_1}
Where:
 h1h_1 = enthalpy of ammonia at evaporator exit (saturated vapor at -20°C)
 h2h_2 = enthalpy of ammonia at condenser exit (saturated liquid at 40°C)
 h4h_4 = enthalpy of ammonia at evaporator entrance (saturated liquid at -20°C)
To calculate these values, we will need to refer to the saturated ammonia tables for the enthalpies at the given temperatures.
From the ammonia refrigerant tables:
 At -20°C (Evaporator temperature):
o h1≈146.4 kJ/kgh_1 \approx 146.4 \, \text{kJ/kg} (saturated vapor)
o h4≈88.7 kJ/kgh_4 \approx 88.7 \, \text{kJ/kg} (saturated liquid)
 At 40°C (Condenser temperature):
o h2≈169.7 kJ/kgh_2 \approx 169.7 \, \text{kJ/kg} (saturated liquid)
Now, calculate the COP:
COP=146.4−88.7169.7−146.4=57.723.3≈2.48COP = \frac{146.4 - 88.7}{169.7 - 146.4} = \frac{57.7}{23.3} \approx 2.48
Step 2: Power input for 20 tons refrigerating capacity
The power required by the compressor is given by the work input, which can be calculated from the refrigeration capacity and the
C.O.P. as:
Work Input=Refrigeration EffectCOP=70.34 kW2.48≈28.3 kW\text{Work Input} = \frac{\text{Refrigeration Effect}}{COP} = \
frac{70.34 \, \text{kW}}{2.48} \approx 28.3 \, \text{kW}
Thus, the power input required for the system is approximately 28.3 kW.
Step 3: Mass flow rate of ammonia
The mass flow rate of the refrigerant can be calculated from the refrigeration capacity and the refrigeration effect per unit mass
flow rate. The refrigeration effect per unit mass flow rate is the difference in enthalpy between the evaporator and condenser
exit:
Refrigeration Effect per unit mass flow rate=h1−h4=146.4−88.7=57.7 kJ/kg\text{Refrigeration Effect per unit mass flow rate} =
h_1 - h_4 = 146.4 - 88.7 = 57.7 \, \text{kJ/kg}
Now, calculate the mass flow rate using the following formula:
m˙=Refrigeration EffectRefrigeration Effect per unit mass flow rate=70.3457.7≈1.22 kg/s\dot{m} = \frac{\text{Refrigeration
Effect}}{\text{Refrigeration Effect per unit mass flow rate}} = \frac{70.34}{57.7} \approx 1.22 \, \text{kg/s}
Thus, the mass flow rate of ammonia is approximately 1.22 kg/s.
Summary of Results:
(i) C.O.P. of the system: ≈2.48\approx 2.48
(ii) Power input: ≈28.3 kW\approx 28.3 \, \text{kW}
(iii) Mass flow rate: ≈1.22 kg/s\approx 1.22 \, \text{kg/s}
Q2(a) Explain the effect of (i) Flash chamber, and (ii) accumulator on power required and COP of a saturation cycle
VC system with the help of P-h diagram and circuit diagram.
Q2(b) What are the desirable properties of a good refrigerant?
Q2(a) Effect of (i) Flash Chamber and (ii) Accumulator on Power Required and COP of a Saturation Cycle in a
Vapour Compression (VC) System
(i) Flash Chamber
A flash chamber is a device used in some refrigeration systems to separate the refrigerant into two phases (liquid and vapor) by
controlling pressure. It is typically installed between the condenser and the expansion valve in a refrigeration system.
Effect on Power Required:
 The flash chamber lowers the amount of work required by the compressor.
 When the refrigerant enters the flash chamber as a saturated liquid, the pressure is reduced slightly, causing part of the
liquid to evaporate (vaporization).
 The vaporized refrigerant (flash gas) has a higher energy content compared to the liquid, and by separating the two
phases, the system ensures that only the liquid enters the expansion valve, reducing the load on the compressor.
Effect on COP:
 The use of a flash chamber improves the COP by utilizing the lower-energy vapor in the system, which reduces the work
the compressor has to do.
 As a result, the system can achieve the same refrigeration effect with less power input, increasing the overall COP.
P-h Diagram:
  Without a flash chamber, the refrigerant enters the expansion valve as a saturated liquid. After expansion, it will follow a
nearly vertical line in the P-h diagram, decreasing in pressure while experiencing significant superheating.
 With a flash chamber, the refrigerant is first separated into saturated liquid and vapor. The vapor (flash gas) bypasses
the expansion valve, reducing the work required from the compressor.
Circuit Diagram:
1. Without Flash Chamber: The refrigerant enters the expansion valve from the condenser as a saturated liquid,
expands to a lower pressure, then evaporates in the evaporator.
2. With Flash Chamber: The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid, enters the flash chamber, and is split
into liquid and vapor phases. The liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve, while the vapor phase is used
directly for cooling.
(ii) Accumulator
An accumulator is a device that stores excess refrigerant vapor from the evaporator, preventing liquid refrigerant from entering
the compressor and causing damage (liquid slugging).
Effect on Power Required:
 The accumulator helps in controlling the amount of refrigerant vapor entering the compressor, which in turn ensures
that the compressor operates at its optimum conditions.
 The presence of an accumulator can slightly reduce the power required by the compressor since it prevents the
compressor from overloading due to excess liquid refrigerant.
Effect on COP:
 While an accumulator may reduce the chance of liquid slugging and improve compressor efficiency, it does not directly
improve the COP of the system. However, by maintaining stable conditions and preventing damage, it can help maintain
system performance over time, which could lead to more consistent COP operation.
P-h Diagram:
 Without an accumulator, the evaporator may produce excessive amounts of refrigerant vapor that could cause
fluctuations in the compressor's performance.
 With an accumulator, excess vapor is collected, ensuring only the correct amount of refrigerant vapor enters the
compressor for compression.
Circuit Diagram:
1. Without Accumulator: The refrigerant enters the compressor directly from the evaporator, which can include both
vapor and liquid.
2. With Accumulator: The refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is collected in the accumulator, and only the vapor (not
liquid) is allowed to enter the compressor.
Q2(b) Desirable Properties of a Good Refrigerant
A good refrigerant should possess several properties to ensure efficiency, safety, and reliability in a refrigeration system. The
following are the key desirable properties:
1. Low Boiling Point:
o The refrigerant should have a low boiling point to allow it to evaporate at a low temperature in the evaporator,
ensuring efficient heat absorption.
2. High Latent Heat of Vaporization:
o A refrigerant should have a high latent heat of vaporization, meaning it can absorb a large amount of heat
without undergoing a large change in temperature. This improves the efficiency of the refrigeration system.
3. Thermal Stability:
o The refrigerant must be thermally stable and not decompose or break down at the operating temperature and
pressure range of the system.
4. Non-Toxic and Non-Flammable:
o A good refrigerant should be non-toxic and non-flammable to ensure safety during operation, handling, and in
the event of leaks.
5. Low Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP):
o The refrigerant should have minimal environmental impact, particularly regarding ozone depletion. It should not
contribute to the destruction of the ozone layer.
6. Low Global Warming Potential (GWP):
o In addition to being ozone-friendly, a good refrigerant should have a low GWP to minimize its impact on global
warming if released into the atmosphere.
7. Good Heat Transfer Properties:
o The refrigerant should have good thermal conductivity to ensure effective heat exchange between the
evaporator and condenser, optimizing the cooling cycle.
8. Non-Corrosive:
o The refrigerant should not cause corrosion to the system components like compressors, evaporators, and
condensers, ensuring longevity and durability.
9. Good Miscibility with Oil:
o The refrigerant should be miscible with the lubricating oil used in the compressor to avoid oil separation, which
can cause lubrication issues.
10. Suitable Operating Pressures:
o The refrigerant should operate within a reasonable pressure range, allowing the system to work efficiently
without requiring excessively high or low pressures.
11. Low Cost and Availability:
o Ideally, a refrigerant should be inexpensive and readily available to minimize operational and maintenance
costs.
Q3. A compound compression saturation cycle system is used to take a single load as shown in the figure. F-12 is used as
refrigerant in the system. Find: (a) Power required to run the system. (b) How does the C.O.P. of this system compare to simple
cycle between the same temperature limits?
To solve the problem of determining the power required and comparing the C.O.P. of a compound compression saturation
cycle system using F-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane) refrigerant, we need to understand how the compound compression system
operates and apply relevant thermodynamic principles.
A compound compression cycle involves using two or more compressors in series, with an intermediate pressure stage. This
system is designed to improve the performance of a refrigeration cycle by reducing the work input required from the
compressors, especially when dealing with higher temperature differences.
Key Concepts for Solving:
1. Compound Compression System:
o The refrigerant is compressed in two stages, with an inter-cooler or heat exchanger between the stages to
reduce the temperature of the refrigerant before the second compression.
o This system helps reduce the work required for compression, improving efficiency.
2. C.O.P. (Coefficient of Performance):
o C.O.P. is the ratio of the heat removed from the refrigerated space to the work input required for the
compression process.
Given Data (Assumed or typical values for F-12 refrigerant):
 Saturation temperatures (Evaporator and Condenser):
o Evaporator temperature TevapT_{\text{evap}} = -10°C (263.15 K)
o Condenser temperature TcondT_{\text{cond}} = 40°C (313.15 K)
 Refrigerant used: F-12 (R-12), which has the following properties at these temperatures (approximate values from
refrigerant tables):
o At -10°C (Evaporator):
 Saturation pressure Pevap≈2.78 barP_{\text{evap}} \approx 2.78 \, \text{bar}
 Enthalpy of saturated liquid hf≈118.3 kJ/kgh_f \approx 118.3 \, \text{kJ/kg}
 Enthalpy of saturated vapor hfg≈259.1 kJ/kgh_{fg} \approx 259.1 \, \text{kJ/kg}
o At 40°C (Condenser):
 Saturation pressure Pcond≈7.04 barP_{\text{cond}} \approx 7.04 \, \text{bar}
 Enthalpy of saturated liquid hf≈215.8 kJ/kgh_f \approx 215.8 \, \text{kJ/kg}
 Enthalpy of saturated vapor hfg≈243.1 kJ/kgh_{fg} \approx 243.1 \, \text{kJ/kg}
Step-by-Step Solution:
(a) Power Required to Run the System
To determine the power required to run the compound compression system, we must calculate the work done by both
compressors. The work input for each stage of the compression cycle can be calculated using the enthalpy values at the inlet and
outlet of the compressors.
Let:
 m˙\dot{m} = mass flow rate of refrigerant (in kg/s)
 h1h_1 = enthalpy of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator (saturated vapor at -10°C)
 h2h_2 = enthalpy of the refrigerant after the first compression stage
 h3h_3 = enthalpy after the second compression stage
 h4h_4 = enthalpy of the refrigerant exiting the condenser (saturated liquid at 40°C)
The total power required is the sum of the work done in both compression stages.
1. Work Input for Stage 1 (Compressor 1):
W1=m˙⋅(h2−h1)W_1 = \dot{m} \cdot (h_2 - h_1)
2. Work Input for Stage 2 (Compressor 2):
W2=m˙⋅(h3−h2)W_2 = \dot{m} \cdot (h_3 - h_2)
The total power required by the system is:
Wtotal=W1+W2=m˙⋅((h2−h1)+(h3−h2))=m˙⋅(h3−h1)W_{\text{total}} = W_1 + W_2 = \dot{m} \cdot \left( (h_2 - h_1) + (h_3 -
h_2) \right) = \dot{m} \cdot (h_3 - h_1)
To compute h2h_2 and h3h_3, we need to use the isentropic process assumption between the stages. This means that we assume
entropy remains constant between each compression stage.
 For Compressor 1:
o The refrigerant enters as saturated vapor at h1h_1 (at -10°C), and after compression, it exits at pressure
PmidP_{\text{mid}} (the intermediate pressure, which is roughly the geometric mean of PevapP_{\text{evap}}
and PcondP_{\text{cond}}).
o Find h2h_2 using the saturation tables for PmidP_{\text{mid}}.
 For Compressor 2:
o The refrigerant enters at the intermediate pressure and exits at the condenser pressure PcondP_{\text{cond}},
and the enthalpy can be found similarly for the second stage.
(b) Comparison of C.O.P.
To compare the C.O.P. of the compound compression system with a simple cycle system (one-stage compression), we will
calculate the C.O.P. for both cycles.
1. C.O.P. for the Simple Cycle: For a simple vapor compression cycle, the C.O.P. is given by:
COPsimple=h1−h4h2−h1COP_{\text{simple}} = \frac{h_1 - h_4}{h_2 - h_1}
2. C.O.P. for the Compound Cycle: The C.O.P. for the compound cycle can be calculated as:
COPcompound=h1−h4(h2−h1)+(h3−h2)COP_{\text{compound}} = \frac{h_1 - h_4}{(h_2 - h_1) + (h_3 - h_2)}
In general, the compound cycle improves efficiency by reducing the total work input required compared to the simple cycle.
This is because the refrigerant is compressed in stages, which allows for lower temperature differences between the compressor
stages, reducing the overall work required.
Conclusion:
 The power required for the compound compression system will be calculated using the enthalpy values at each stage
of compression.
 The C.O.P. of the compound cycle is generally higher than that of the simple cycle because the work input is spread
across two stages of compression, reducing the work per stage and improving the overall efficiency.
Q3. What do you understand by three fluid refrigeration system? Explain the working principle of such systems with a neat
sketch. What are its advantages over other types of absorption systems?
Three-Fluid Refrigeration System
A three-fluid refrigeration system is a type of absorption refrigeration system that uses three distinct fluids in a
combined cycle to perform refrigeration. These systems are designed to use a refrigerant, an absorbent, and a third fluid
(usually a heat exchanger fluid) to transfer heat in an efficient manner. The third fluid is often used to provide the necessary heat
for the system's operation or to increase the system's efficiency.
Working Principle of the Three-Fluid Refrigeration System
The basic principle of a three-fluid refrigeration system involves a combination of absorption and heat transfer processes.
It consists of the following major components:
1. Evaporator (Cooling Unit):
o The refrigerant absorbs heat from the refrigerated space (or the load) and evaporates. This typically occurs at
low pressure and temperature.
2. Absorber:
o The vaporized refrigerant is absorbed by the absorbent fluid (often water, in systems like ammonia-water or
lithium bromide-water).
o The absorbent absorbs the refrigerant vapor, forming a solution. This is a key part of the absorption process.
3. Generator (Heat Source):
o A third fluid (often a high-temperature fluid, such as steam or hot water) is used to supply heat to the system.
This heat drives the desorption process, where the refrigerant is separated from the absorbent in the generator.
o The refrigerant vapor is released and sent to the condenser.
4. Condenser:
o The refrigerant vapor, now separated from the absorbent, is condensed by releasing heat to the surrounding
environment or to the third fluid (such as water or air).
5. Expansion Valve:
o The liquid refrigerant expands through an expansion valve, reducing its pressure and temperature, and then
enters the evaporator again to repeat the cycle.
Detailed Working Cycle:
1. Evaporator: In the evaporator, the refrigerant absorbs heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant evaporates at
low pressure and temperature and flows into the absorber.
2. Absorber: The refrigerant vapor is absorbed by the absorbent fluid in the absorber. The absorption process occurs at a
relatively low temperature and pressure. The absorbent fluid becomes diluted with the refrigerant.
3. Generator: The diluted absorbent-refrigerant solution is then heated using the third fluid (which is typically steam or
hot water) in the generator. This heat causes the refrigerant to separate from the absorbent (desorption), and the
refrigerant is returned to the condenser.
4. Condenser: The refrigerant vapor is cooled in the condenser and converted back into a liquid by releasing its heat,
which can be absorbed by the third fluid (usually cooling water or air).
5. Expansion Valve: The liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion valve, where its pressure and temperature drop,
and it enters the evaporator to repeat the cycle.
Advantages of a Three-Fluid Refrigeration System Over Other Absorption Systems
1. Improved Efficiency:
o The use of a third fluid for heat transfer or heat supply to the generator helps in maintaining better temperature
control and more efficient heat exchange. This enhances the overall performance of the system, compared to
two-fluid systems that rely solely on the absorbent and refrigerant.
2. Higher Coefficient of Performance (COP):
o The COP of a three-fluid absorption system is typically higher than that of traditional two-fluid absorption
systems. This is because the third fluid helps improve the heat transfer and thermal efficiency of the system.
3. Better Temperature Control:
o The third fluid acts as an intermediary that can control the temperatures more effectively in different parts of
the system, leading to more precise temperature regulation in the evaporator and condenser.
4. Flexibility:
o The use of a third fluid provides more operational flexibility. For example, the system can use different heat
sources (such as steam, hot water, or even solar heat) depending on the availability of energy, making the
system adaptable to various environmental conditions.
5. Reduced Wear and Tear:
o Since the system uses a separate third fluid for heat transfer and generation, it can reduce the operational
strain on the refrigerant and absorbent fluids, leading to potentially longer system life and reduced
maintenance requirements.
6. Enhanced Heat Recovery:
 o The third fluid allows for more effective heat recovery and reuse, which can lower the overall energy
consumption of the system. This is especially beneficial in industrial applications where energy efficiency is
critical.
7. Reduced Environmental Impact:
o As with other absorption refrigeration systems, the use of a three-fluid system can be more environmentally
friendly compared to traditional vapor compression systems because it often relies on waste heat or renewable
heat sources.
Conclusion:
A three-fluid refrigeration system offers several advantages over simpler two-fluid absorption systems, particularly in terms of
improved efficiency, better temperature control, and flexibility. By using a third fluid for heat transfer, these systems can optimize
energy use and provide effective cooling in a wide range of applications, from industrial refrigeration to air conditioning.
Q4(a). Draw a neat sketch of psychrometric chart and clearly show various lines on it. Q4(b). Define human comfort and explain
the factors which affect human comfort.
Q4(a) Psychrometric Chart
A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic properties of air, primarily used in the field of HVAC
(heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) to analyze air conditions in terms of temperature, humidity, and other properties. It
helps to visualize the relationships between different air properties and determine the state of air in various processes such as
cooling, heating, and humidifying.
Key Lines on a Psychrometric Chart:
1. Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT):
o These are the horizontal lines on the chart and represent the temperature of air measured by a normal
thermometer. It is the temperature at which air is sensed without taking into account moisture content.
o The dry bulb temperature is usually measured in °C or °F.
2. Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT):
o These are diagonal lines that represent the temperature a thermometer reads when its bulb is wrapped in a
wet cloth and exposed to air. This temperature is affected by both the temperature and the moisture content of
the air.
3. Dew Point Temperature:
o These are the curved lines that represent the temperature at which air reaches saturation (100% relative
humidity) and condensation begins. When air cools down to this temperature, it will begin to condense.
4. Relative Humidity (RH):
o These are the curved lines that represent constant relative humidity levels. The relative humidity is the ratio
of the amount of moisture in the air to the maximum moisture air can hold at a given temperature, expressed
as a percentage (e.g., 30%, 60%, 90%).
5. Specific Volume (v):
o These are the diagonal lines on the chart representing the volume of air per unit of mass (typically m³/kg). As
temperature and humidity change, specific volume also changes.
6. Enthalpy (h):
o These are the diagonal lines that represent the total energy content of the air, including both sensible heat
(dry bulb temperature) and latent heat (moisture content).
7. Humidity Ratio (W):
o These are horizontal lines that represent the mass of water vapor per unit mass of dry air. The humidity ratio
increases as the moisture content in the air increases.
Q4(b) Human Comfort and Factors Affecting Human Comfort
Human Comfort:
Human comfort refers to the state where a person feels physically comfortable and is not subjected to thermal stress. It involves
maintaining an environment that feels neither too hot nor too cold and avoids extreme levels of humidity or dryness. Comfort is
highly subjective, but the ideal environmental conditions are typically defined based on certain physical and psychological
factors.
Factors Affecting Human Comfort:
1. Air Temperature:
o The most direct factor affecting comfort is the air temperature. If the temperature is too high or too low, it can
lead to discomfort. The optimal temperature for most people falls between 20°C to 25°C (68°F to 77°F). When
the temperature rises above this range, people start feeling warm, and when it falls below, they feel cold.
2. Humidity:
o Humidity refers to the amount of moisture in the air. High humidity makes the air feel warmer and can cause
discomfort by hindering the body’s ability to sweat and cool itself down. Low humidity can cause dryness in the
skin, eyes, and mucous membranes.
o Relative humidity of around 40% to 60% is generally considered comfortable.
3. Air Movement (Wind Speed):
o Air movement is crucial because it helps with the dissipation of heat from the body. A breeze or airflow helps
the body cool down by increasing the rate of evaporation of sweat. Stagnant air, on the other hand, can lead to
discomfort, particularly in hot and humid conditions.
4. Clothing:
o The type, amount, and material of clothing worn affect thermal comfort. Heavy clothing will retain heat, making
people feel warmer, while lighter clothing allows for better heat dissipation, leading to greater comfort.
5. Radiant Temperature (Heat Radiation):
 o The temperature of surrounding surfaces, such as walls, floors, and windows, affects comfort. Radiant heat from
surfaces like the sun, heaters, or hot machinery can increase the perceived temperature and cause discomfort,
even if the air temperature is comfortable.
6. Metabolic Rate:
o The amount of physical activity performed by an individual affects the body’s heat generation. Higher metabolic
rates, such as during physical exercise or strenuous work, produce more body heat, which can lead to
discomfort in warmer conditions unless appropriate cooling measures are taken.
7. Air Quality:
o Good air quality, which includes proper ventilation and the absence of pollutants or allergens, is critical for
comfort. Stale air or polluted environments can cause discomfort, respiratory problems, and other health
issues.
8. Psychological Factors:
o Mental well-being and expectations can also influence the perception of comfort. If a person is stressed or
uncomfortable mentally, they are more likely to perceive environmental conditions as less comfortable.
9. Local Temperature Variations:
o Local temperature variations, such as drafts, hot spots, or cold spots, can cause discomfort. Even if the overall
temperature is comfortable, localized discomfort from non-uniform temperatures can affect a person’s overall
comfort.
Conclusion:
Human comfort is a combination of multiple factors, including air temperature, humidity, air movement, and clothing, along with
psychological aspects. Maintaining optimal conditions in a space, using tools like the psychrometric chart, helps ensure that these
factors are balanced for maximum comfort.
Q5(a) List out the reasons of food spoilage. What are various methods of food preservation? Q5(b) Explain in brief some industrial
applications of air conditioning
Q5(a) Reasons for Food Spoilage & Methods of Food Preservation
Reasons for Food Spoilage:
1. Microbial Growth: Bacteria, fungi, and molds can grow on food and lead to spoilage by breaking down the food’s
nutrients.
2. Enzyme Activity: Natural enzymes in food can cause oxidation and degradation of nutrients, leading to changes in
flavor, texture, and color.
3. Temperature: Improper temperature storage (too high or too low) can accelerate spoilage, as it may promote microbial
growth or enzyme action.
4. Moisture: High moisture content in food can promote the growth of spoilage microorganisms.
5. Oxygen Exposure: Oxidation occurs when food is exposed to air, leading to spoilage like rancidity in fats and
discoloration in fruits and vegetables.
6. Light: Light exposure, especially ultraviolet light, can cause chemical reactions that degrade food quality, like vitamin
degradation or color changes.
7. Physical Damage: Bruising or cutting can damage food surfaces, creating entry points for bacteria or molds.
Methods of Food Preservation:
1. Refrigeration and Freezing: Low temperatures slow down microbial growth and enzyme activity.
2. Canning: Sealing food in jars or cans and heating it to kill microorganisms, thus preventing spoilage.
3. Drying: Removing moisture from food through air drying, sun drying, or using dehydrators to inhibit microbial growth.
4. Salting: Using salt to draw moisture out of food, making it inhospitable for microorganisms.
5. Pickling: Using acid (usually vinegar) or brine (saltwater) to preserve food, preventing microbial growth.
6. Smoking: Exposing food to smoke from burning wood, which helps to preserve it by drying it out and adding chemicals
that inhibit spoilage.
7. Fermentation: Using beneficial bacteria or yeast to produce acids or alcohol that preserve the food.
8. Vacuum Packaging: Removing air from food packaging to limit oxygen exposure, thereby reducing spoilage.
9. Pasteurization: Heat treatment to kill pathogens in liquids like milk, juices, and sauces.
10. Chemical Preservatives: Adding chemicals like sulfites or benzoates to extend the shelf life of food.

Q5(b) Industrial Applications of Air Conditioning

1. Manufacturing and Production Facilities: Air conditioning helps maintain a stable temperature and humidity level in
factories, which is crucial for the production of sensitive goods like pharmaceuticals, food products, and electronics. It
ensures that machines operate efficiently and materials don't degrade.
2. Data Centers: Air conditioning is essential to prevent overheating of servers and IT infrastructure. Maintaining an
optimal environment helps keep systems running smoothly and reduces the risk of hardware failure.
3. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries: These industries require strict control over temperature and humidity to
prevent the degradation of raw materials or products. Air conditioning maintains these parameters for consistency in
production.
4. Textile Industry: In textile manufacturing, air conditioning is used to control humidity and temperature, which affects
the quality of fabric. It helps in maintaining the desired level of moisture content in fibers and yarns, improving the
spinning, weaving, and dyeing processes.
5. Clean Rooms: In industries like biotechnology, semiconductors, and aerospace, air conditioning systems are used to
maintain clean environments free from airborne contaminants, as well as control temperature and humidity to prevent
product contamination.
6. Food Storage and Processing: In food preservation, especially in industries like meat and dairy, air conditioning
systems are used for refrigerating and maintaining temperature control to extend shelf life and ensure food safety.
7. Retail: In supermarkets, malls, and department stores, air conditioning enhances the shopping experience by
maintaining comfortable temperatures, which indirectly boosts consumer behavior and sales. Additionally, temperature
control helps preserve perishable goods.
8. Hospitals and Healthcare: In hospitals, air conditioning is vital for maintaining a sterile and comfortable environment.
It helps to control the indoor air quality, crucial for both patient recovery and the prevention of infections.