BIOTECHNOLOGY

WITH
GENETIC ENGINEERING

Section
BFD

Group 3 Members
BASAÑEZ, Louise Marianne
DE GUZMAN, Jericho
DOMIONG, Joshua
GAO-AY Jasper
JUNIO, Jenelyn Gene
MABIAS, Sean Hanzel
SALIBIO, Eli
SANTOS, Christopher
VISAYA, Indeera

Submitted to
Sir. Julius A. Simon
SCITES1 Instructor

Date of Submission
November 22, 2024
 INTRODUCTION TO BIOTECHNOLOGY AND GENETIC ENGINEERING

Biotechnology is the process of using living systems to solve problems of human life

and make useful products. A primary approach in biotechnology is genetic engineering,

where researchers can alter an organism's DNA as they see fit.

Genetic engineering is a manipulation involving introducing, eliminating, or rearranging

specific genes within an organism using advancements in modern molecular biology,

especially through the use of recombinant DNA techniques.

Genetic engineering and biotechnology overlap in several ways, even though

they may seem quite distinct. For instance, animals such as horses, camels, and certain

crops were domesticated by people between 8,000 - 1,000 BCE. When people

domesticated these animals, they proceeded to crossbreed them to enhance their

yields. For example, they combined high milk-producing cows with strong cows to

produce higher-yielding cows. Similarly, by crossbreeding high-yielding wheat with

drought-resistant wheat, they obtained more productive crops that could handle drought

conditions. Even the ancient Romans and the Indians also engaged in similar

experiments. As a consequence of these experiments, genetics was first conceptualized

in the first century CE. In the 19th century, Gregor Mendel made major contributions,

firmly solidifying the concepts of genes and genetics. Ever since the 19th century, a

multitude of studies have been conducted to advance genetic engineering and

biotechnology, transforming them into the fields they are today. Genetic engineering and
biotechnology have dramatically changed several aspects of scientific research,

agriculture, medical advancements, and industrial processes.

APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE AND MEDICINE

Applications in Agriculture

● Crop Improvement: Genetic engineering enhances crop resilience, yield, and

nutritional content by introducing traits like pest resistance and drought tolerance.

● Nutritional Enhancement: Biofortified crops, such as "Golden Rice," are

engineered to combat malnutrition by providing essential nutrients.

● Disease Control: Crops can be modified for natural resistance to diseases,

reducing the need for chemical fungicides.

● Environmental Sustainability: Genetically modified crops require fewer inputs,

thus lowering environmental impact and improving sustainability practices.

Applications in Medicine

● Gene Therapy: Genetic engineering is used to treat genetic disorders by

correcting defective genes or introducing new ones.

● Vaccine Development: Biotechnology facilitates the production of vaccines,

enhancing disease prevention strategies.

● Pharmaceutical Production: Genetically modified organisms produce therapeutic

proteins and hormones, improving drug availability and efficacy.

 ETHICAL AND SOCIAL ISSUES

Human Genetic Engineering

One of the most debated areas within genetic engineering is its application to

human beings, particularly the editing of the human germline. This practice raises

profound ethical questions regarding the boundaries of scientific intervention and the

potential long-term impacts on humanity. Concerns include the potential for eugenics,

where genetic editing could be used to create so-called "designer babies," selecting for

desirable traits, which could lead to new forms of inequality and discrimination

(Sugarman, 2015; Cyranoski, 2019). Moreover, the issue of consent is pivotal,

especially for future generations who would inherit these genetic alterations without their

direct approval (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017).

Environmental and Ecological Concerns

In the aspect of agriculture and environmental conservation, genetic engineering

presents both opportunities and risks. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can

potentially improve crop yields, reduce pesticide use, and contribute to food security.

However, they also raise concerns about biodiversity loss, the alteration of ecosystems,

and unintended ecological impacts (Doudna & Sternberg, 2017). Ethical frameworks are

needed to evaluate the environmental risks and ensure that such technologies do not

harm natural habitats or the organisms that inhabit them.

Social and Economic Dimensions

The commercialization of biotechnological innovations brings up ethical

considerations related to the privatization of biological resources and the accessibility of

genetic technologies. The control of genetic technologies by a handful of corporations

can lead to monopolies and make these life-altering technologies inaccessible to the

underprivileged, further exacerbating social and economic disparities (Murray, 2021).

Cultural and Social Implications

The cultural and social implications of genetic engineering are profound and

complex. Different cultures have varying perceptions of what is considered natural or

acceptable in the manipulation of life forms, which can influence public acceptance and

policy-making in this field. For instance, in some societies, there is significant resistance

to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) due to concerns over cultural food purity and

traditional farming practices (Liang et al., 2015). Socially, issues of access and equity

also arise, as advanced biotechnologies might only be available to the wealthy,

potentially leading to a widening of the health disparities gap (Sugarman, 2015).

Political and Legal Challenges

Politically, genetic engineering is a contentious issue that crosses national

boundaries and requires international cooperation and regulation. Countries vary widely

in their regulatory frameworks, which can lead to conflicts in trade and international

relations. Legally, there is the challenge of patenting genetic material, which raises
questions about the commodification of life and the ethical implications of owning

biological material (Coller, 2019).

Religious and Ethical Perspectives

Religious perspectives often impact the ethical debates surrounding genetic

engineering. Many religions raise concerns about the moral status of genetically

engineered organisms, questioning whether humans have the right to alter life for

purposes such as enhanced agricultural productivity or disease resistance. For

example, some religious groups oppose genetic modifications because they believe it

involves playing God or altering the natural order established by a higher power (De

Lecuona et al., 2017). Ethical discussions also extend to the implications of gene editing

in humans, with debates centered around the sanctity of human life, the potential for

genetic discrimination, and the morality of altering genetic makeup (National Academies

of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2017).

Regulatory and Ethical Frameworks

Addressing these concerns requires efficient ethical frameworks and regulatory

bodies that can adapt to the rapid pace of scientific advancement while respecting

cultural, social, and religious values. International collaboration will be essential in

creating guidelines that prevent misuse of genetic technologies and ensure ethical

standards are maintained across borders. The development of global, ciulturally

sensitive policies that consider the diverse perspectives on genetic engineering is

critical for the responsible advancement of biotechnologies (UNESCO International

Bioethics Committee, 2015).

CURRENT BREAKTHROUGHS AND FUTURE POTENTIAL

CRISPR

With the continuous innovation of modern technology, we have already arrived

where genes could be edited, enhanced, and overall change in structure. Clustered

Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, also widely known as the CRISPR, is

a DNA-cutting component of bacterial immune systems that has been adapted for use

as a gene editing tool. It functions as an accurate set of molecular scissors that, when

guided by a configurable guide, may cut a target DNA sequence. The terms "CRISPR"

and "CRISPR-Cas9" are frequently used interchangeably in the context of genetic

engineering refers to the different CRISPR-Cas9 and -CPF1 (and other) systems that

can be engineered to target particular regions of genetic code and modify DNA at

specific locations, among other uses, like developing new diagnostic tools.

CRISPR has been discovered by Dr. Jennifer Doudna and Dr. Emmanuelle Charpentier,

their groundbreaking paper, revealing that the CRISPR-Cas9 bacterial immune system

could be repurposed as a gene editing tool, was published in the journal science in

2012. Their groundbreaking breakthrough has opened the doors to new cell and gene

therapies, diagnostic methods and procedures, enhanced agriculture, and new ways to

enhance bioenergies.
In the sense of cell and gene therapy, CRISPR is aiming at curing and finding new ways

to prevent genetic diseases that include neurodegenerative disease, blood disorders,

cancer, and ocular disorders. While the use of CRISPR is at the earliest stages of

clinical trials with this purpose, this technology could be used to treat thousands of

genetic conditions in the future, including breast and ovarian cancer linked to BRCA

mutations, Huntington’s disease, Tay-Sachs, beta-thalassemia, cystic fibrosis, and

early-onset Alzheimer’s.

As a diagnostic tool, CRISPR has been integrated by Dr. Kiana Aran who published a

study where it would be in the form of a chip that would be inserted inside our bodies to

detect pathogenic single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). This is a major

breakthrough in medical diagnostics because SNPs account for 50% of human

mutations that cause disease.

In terms of agriculture, CRISPR could lead the new advancements of crops and food

with genetically modified ingredients where we can experience disease-resistant,

drought resistant, and long shell life crops that could exert a healthier eating and could

also possibly reduce food waste.

In the area of bioenergy, CRISPR is still in the advancement of enhancing and creating

a new source of biofuels. Bioenergy has long been a hot topic as one of the most

promising substitutes for fossil fuels. Nevertheless, there are a number of obstacles to

large-scale biofuel production. Scientists have lately made some important progress in
this field by employing CRISPR. For instance, a significant increase in lipid production

for the generation of biodiesel has resulted from the knockdown of several transcription

factors that regulate the production of lipids in algae. In a comparable way, gene editing

can increase yeast's resistance to challenging circumstances during the biofuels

production process. Additionally, it has improved editing efficiency in ethanol-producing

bacterial species.

Synthetic Biology

Synthetic biology is a subsection of biotechnology that employs genetic

modifying techniques to create or modify organisms for tackling issues in medicine,

agriculture, manufacturing, and the environment. It merges engineering principles with

biotechnology to innovate and design new biological systems. Synthetic biology is

similar to genetic engineering in terms of tools and techniques used, but it specifically

concentrates on developing artificial biological systems. For example, synthetic

biologists may:

● Standardize biological parts

Identify and catalog genomic parts that can be used to build new biological

systems.

● Design proteins

Redesign existing biological parts and expand the set of natural protein

functions.
 ● Engineer microbes

Engineer microbes to produce enzymes and biological functions to

perform complex production of natural products.

Some examples of synthetic biology applications include:

● Microorganisms that clean pollutants from water, soil, and air

● Rice that produces beta-carotene to prevent vitamin A deficiency

● Yeast that produces rose oil as a substitute for real roses

REGULATIONS AND PUBLIC POLICY

Genetic engineering has been extensively utilized by agriculturalists for

numerous centuries. Additionally, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA),

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Food and Drug Administration

(FDA), along with other regulatory bodies, work vigorously to ensure that agricultural

crops that have been genetically engineered and are intended for commercial use have

undergone thorough testing and research to ascertain their safety and potential risks.

The Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology divides the regulation of

biotechnology products among the FDA, USDA, and EPA, based on the product's

intended use and chemical composition. Biotechnology is regulated under existing laws,

similar to non-biotechnology products, and no single agency has exclusive authority.

Products may fall under the jurisdiction of multiple agencies due to their unique traits.
Agency Roles:

FDA: Oversees food, feed, human and animal drugs, and certain products derived from

transgenic organisms.

USDA: Regulates meat, poultry, and egg products; plant pests; noxious weeds; and

animal biologics.

EPA: Regulates pesticides, toxic substances, and certain microorganisms.

Examples of Oversight:

Transgenic plants:

USDA: Regulates as potential plant pests.

EPA: Regulates if they produce pesticides or toxic chemicals.

Transgenic animals:

FDA: Regulates genetic manipulation as an animal drug.

USDA: Regulates meat, poultry, or egg products.

EPA: Regulates if toxic chemicals are produced.

Cultured Meat and Poultry:

Joint oversight by FDA and USDA:

FDA: Handles preharvest processes, including cell collection and growth in bioreactors.

USDA: Handles harvest, postharvest processing, and labeling.

This regulatory framework allows agencies to oversee biotechnology and its derived

products based on their function and risk profiles

A government in the Netherlands is charged with formulating policies and setting

regulations so that biotechnology can be used in a safe and effective manner. Several

organizations are involved in the process to ensure the safe application of genetically

modified organisms (GMOs):

● The Bureau for Genetically Modified Organisms (Bureau GGO) of the National

Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) is responsible for

providing authorizations and is the point of contact for anyone working with

genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

● The Netherlands Commission on Genetic Modification (COGEM) advises the

Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management on the potential risks to human

health and the environment related to the production and use of genetically

modified organisms (GMOs). COGEM also informs the government on the ethical

and social issues associated with genetic modification.

● The Human Environment and Transport Inspectorate (ILT) monitors the safe use

of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in laboratories, during field trials, and

in gene therapy research. Additionally, it conducts inspections for imported

GMOs.

● Wageningen Food Safety Research (WFSR) is dedicated to researching safe

and authentic food and animal feed. It advises the government on the safety of

genetically modified food and feed, determining if the products can be approved
for the European market. WFSR also examines methods for detecting genetically

modified organisms (GMOs) and keeps track of new scientific advancements

regarding GMOs.
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