CY8151 Engineering Chemistry Lecture Notes 1

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CY8151-ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
UNIT I – WATER TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Water is the most important compound essential for the survival of all living organisms.
About 80% of the earth‟s surface is covered by water. Besides being a supporter of life, water plays
a unique role in industries. Water is used in the power generation industry for the production of the
electric current through steam generation. It is also used as a coolant in nuclear power plants and
chemicals plants. Water is widely used in other fields such as production of steel, atomic energy,
textiles, irrigation, etc.
The process of removing of all types of impurities from water and making it fit for
domestic or industrial purposes is called water technology or water treatment.
SOURCES OF WATER
The main sources of water are
 Surface water
 Underground water
 Sea water
HARDNESS OF WATER
• Hardness is the characteristic property of water which “prevents the lathering of soap”.
• This is due to the presence of certain salts of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals
dissolved in water.
How to detect hardness?
When a sample of water is treated with soap solution, if it does not produce lather, but forms a
white scum or precipitate, the water contains hardness.
This is due to the formation of insoluble soaps of calcium and magnesium.
C17H35COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO)2Cat + 2 NaCl
Sodium stearate Hardness causing Calcium stearate
(Soap) substance (insoluble soap)
TYPES OF WATER
On the basis of hardness, water can be classified into two types:
 Hard Water and Soft Water
HARD WATER
Water which does not produce lather easily with soap solution, but forms a white
precipitate, is called hard water.
SOFT WATER
Water which lathers easily with soap solution, is called soft water.
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It does not contain dissolved calcium and magnesium salts.

TYPES OF HARDNESS
 Hardness is classified into two types based on dissolved salts present in water. They are:
Temporary Hardness (or) Carbonate Hardness (CH)
 Permanent Hardness (or) Non-Carbonate Hardness (NCH)
TEMPORARY HARDNESS
Temporary Hardness is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium. Thus the salts responsible for temporary hardness are Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2.
Temporary hardness is otherwise known as Carbonate Hardness (or) Alkaline Hardness.
Temporary Hardness can be removed by following two processes:
 Boiling of water
 Adding lime to the water
Boiling of water
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3t + H2O + CO2r
Mg(HCO3)2 Mg(OH)2t + 2 CO2 r
Adding lime to the water
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2 Ca (OH)2 Mg(OH)2t + 2 CaCO3t + 2H2O
Lime
The above two processes convert the bicarbonates into insoluble carbonates and hydroxides, these
are removed by filtering.
PERMANENT HARDNESS
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of dissolved chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium. The salts responsible for permanent hardness are CaCl2, MgCl2, CaSO4 and MgSO4.
Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling.
It can be removed by the following two processes:
 Lime – soda process
 Zeolite process
Lime-soda process:
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3t + 2NaCl
(Soda)
Zeolite process:
CaSO4 + Na2Ze Ca-Ze + Na2SO4
Sodium Zeolite
Permanent Hardness is otherwise known as Non-Carbonate Hardness (NCH) (or) Non – alkaline
Hardness.

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TOTAL HARDNESS
Total hardness = Temporary Hardness + Permanent Hardness
EXPRESSION OF HARDNESS INTERMS OF EQUIVALENTS OF CaCO3
The concentrations of hardness producing salts are usually expressed in terms of an
equivalent amount of CaCO3. CaCO3 is chosen as a standard because,
(i) Its molecular weight (100) and equivalent weight (50) is a whole number, so the
calculations in water analysis can be simplified.
(ii) It is the most insoluble salt that can be precipitated in water treatment.
If the concentration of hardness producing salt is x mgs/lit, then

Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = x × 100/Molecular weight of hardness producing salt
(or) i.e.,
Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = Amount of hardness producing salt × Molecular weight of
CaCO3/ Molecular weight of hardness producing salt
(or)
Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = Amount of hardness producing salt × Equivalent weight of CaCO3/
Equivalent weight of hardness producing salt
UNITS OF HARDNESS
i. PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
It is defined as the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 106 parts of water.
ii. MILLIGRAMS PER LITRE (MG/LIT)
It is defined as the number of milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 1 litre of water.
iii. CLARKE‟S DEGREE (°Cl)
It is defined as the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70,000 parts of water.
iv. FRENCH DEGREE (°FR)
It is defined as the number of parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water.
Relationship between various units 1 ppm = 1 mg/lit = 0.1° Fr = 0.07° Cl
PROBLEMS BASED ON HARDNESS
Problem 1
A sample of water contains 120 mgs of MgSO4 per litre. Calculate the hardness interms of CaCO3
equivalents.
Solution
Given:
The amount of MgSO4 = 120 mgs/lit

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Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = The amount of hardness producing salt x100/Molecular weight
of hardness producing salt
We know that, the molecular weight of MgSO4 = 120
∴ Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = 120 × 100/120
= 100 mgs/lit.
Problem 2
If a sample of water contains 50 mgs of Ca2+ ions per litre, calculate its hardness interms of
CaCO3 equivalent?
Solution
Given:
The amount of Ca2+ ions = 50 mgs/lit
We know that,
The molecular weight of calcium = 40
∴ Amount equivalent to CaCO3 = 50 × 100/40
= 125 mgs/lit
Problem 3
A water sample contains 204 mgs of CaSO4 and 73 mgs of Mg (HCO3)2 per litre. What is
the total hardness interms of CaCO3 equivalent?
Solution
Name of the Amount in mgs/lit Molecular weight Amounts equivalent
hardness producing to CaCO3
salt
CaSO4 204 136 204 × 100/136 = 150
mgs/lit
Mg (HCO3)2 73 146 73 × 100/146 = 50
mgs/lit
Temporary hardness = Mg (HCO3)2 = 50 mgs/lit
Permanent hardness = CaSO4 = 150 mgs/lit
Total hardness = Mg (HCO3)2 + CaSO4 = 50 + 150 = 200 mgs/lit
Problem 4
Calculate the carbonate and non-carbonate hardness of a sample of water containing the dissolved
salts as given below in mgs/lit. Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.3 ; Ca(HCO3)2 = 40.5; CaSO4 = 13.6 ; MgCl2 =
21.75 and NaCl = 50.

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Solution
salt
Mg(HCO3)2 7.3 146 7.3x100/146=5
mgs/lit
Ca(HCO3)2 40.5 162 40.5X100/162=25
mgs/lit
CaSO4 13.6 136 13.6X100/136=10
mgs/lit
MgCl2 21.75 95 21.75X100/95=22.9
mgs/lit
NaCl 50 NaCl does not contribute any hardness to
water hence it is ignored
Carbonate hardness = Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2

= 5 + 25 = 30 mgs/lit
Non-carbonate hardness = CaSO4 + MgCl2
= 10 + 22.9 = 32.9 mgs/lit
Total hardness = Carbonate hardness + Non−carbonate hardness
= 30 + 32.9 = 62.9 mgs/lit
Problem 5
A sample of water contains the following dissolved salts in mgs/lit Mg(HCO3)2
=73;CaCl2=111;Ca(HCO3)2=81 and MgSO4=40.Calculate the temporary and permanent hardness of
the water(At. Wts of Ca, Mg, O, C, Cl, S, H are 40,24,16,12,35.5,32,1)
Solution
salt
Mg(HCO3)2 73 146 73x100/146=50
mgs/lit
CaCl2 111 111 111X100/111=100
mgs/lit

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Ca(HCO3)2 81 162 81X100/162=50

mgs/lit
MgSO4 40 120 40X100/120=33.33
mgs/lit
Temporary hardness = Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2

= 50+50 = 100 mgs/lit
Permanent hardness = CaCl2 +MgSO4
= 100 + 33.33 = 133.33mgs/lit
ESTIMATION OF HARDNESS BY EDTA METHOD
EDTA is Ethylene Di-amine Tetra Acetic acid. The structure of EDTA is
Since, EDTA is insoluble in water; its disodium salt is used as a complexing agent.
Principle
The amount of hardness causing ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) can be estimated by titrating the
water sample against EDTA using Eriochrome-Black-T indicator (EBT) at a pH of 8-10. In order to
maintain the pH, buffer solution (NH4Cl − NH4OH mixture) is added. Only at this pH such a
complexation is possible.
When the EBT indicator is added to the water sample, it forms wine red coloured weak
complex with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
pH = 8 − 10
2+ 2+
[Ca Mg ] + EBT [Ca Mg EBT] complex
Wine red colored weak complex
When this solution is titrated against EDTA, it replaces the indicator from the weak
complex form stable EDTA complex. When all the hardness causing ions are complexed by EDTA,
the indicator is set free. The color of the free indicator is steel blue. Thus the end point is the change
of color from wine red to steel blue.
pH = 8 − 10
[Ca Mg EBT] complex + EDTA [CaMgEDTA] + EBT
Wine red colored weak complex Stable complex Steel blue
Preparation of solutions
EDTA Solution
It is prepared by dissolving 4 gms of EDTA in 1000 ml of distilled water.

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Standard hard water

1 gm of pure CaCO3 is dissolved in minimum quantity of HCl and then made upto 1000 ml
using distilled water.
∴ 1 ml of standard hard water ≡ 1 mg of CaCOγ equivalent hardness.
EBT indicator
0.5 gms of EBT is dissolved in 100 ml of alcohol.
Buffer solution
67.5 gms of NH4Cl and 570 ml of NH3 are dissolved and the solution is made upto 1000 ml
using distilled water.
Experimental procedure
Standardisation of EDTA
Pipette out 50 ml of standard hard water into a clean conical flask. Add 10 ml of buffer
solution and 4-5 drops of EBT indicator and titrate it against EDTA solution taken in the burette.
The end point is the change of colour from wine red to steel blue.
□ Let the volume of EDTA consumed be ↑1 ml
Estimation of total hardness of water sample

Pipette out 50 ml of the given hard water sample into a clean conical flask and titrate it
against EDTA as before.
□ Let the volume of EDTA consumed be ↑β ml
Estimation of permanent hardness of water sample

Take 100 ml of the same hard water sample in a 250 ml beaker. Boil it for 15 minutes.
During boiling temporary hardness gets removed. Cool and filter the solution and make upto 100
ml in a standard flask by adding distilled water.
Pipette out 50 ml of the made up solution into a clean conical flask and titrate it against
EDTA as before.
□ Let the volume of EDTA consumed be ↑γ ml.
Calculations
Standardisation of EDTA
1 ml of Std. hard water = 1 mg of CaCO3
50 ml of Std. hard water = 50 mgs of CaCO3
50 ml of Std. hard water consumes = V1 ml of EDTA
∴ ↑1 ml of EDTA ≡ 50 mgs of CaCOγ equivalent hardness
(or)
1 ml of EDTA ≡ 50 ↑1 mgs of CaCOγ equivalent hardness
Estimation of total hardness of water sample

50 ml of the given hard water sample consumes = V2 ml of EDTA
= V2 × 50/V1 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
[∴ 1 ml of EDTA = 50 V1 mgs of CaCO3]
∴ 1000 ml of the given hard water sample = V2 × 50 /V1× 1000 /50
= 1000 × V2 /V1mgs of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
∴ Total hardness = 1000 × V2 /V1 ppm
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Estimation of permanent hardness of water sample

50 ml of the same hard water sample after boiling, filtering, etc., consumes = V3 ml of EDTA
= V3 × 50/V1 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
∴ 1000 ml of the given hard water sample = V3 × 50/V1 × 1000/50
= 1000 × V3/V1 mgs of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness
∴ Permanent hardness = 1000 × V3/V1 ppm
Temporary hardness
Temporary hardness = Total hardness − Permanent hardness
= [1000 × ↑β /↑1]− [1000 × ↑γ/↑1]
∴ Temporary hardness = 1000/↑1(↑β − ↑γ) ppm
1.4.1 Problems based on EDTA method
Problem 1
100 ml of a water sample requires 20 ml of EDTA solution for titration. 1 ml of EDTA
solution is equivalent to 1.1 mgs of CaCO3. Calculate hardness in ppm.
Solution
Given 1 ml of EDTA solution = 1.1 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 20 ml of EDTA solution = 20 × 1.1 mgs of CaCO3
= 22 mgs of CaCO3
100 ml of water sample requires = 20 ml of EDTA
= 22 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of water sample = 22 × 1000 100 mgs of CaCO3
Hardness = 220 mgs/lit or ppm.
Problem 2
100 ml of a sample of water requires 18 ml of an EDTA solution for titration. 22 ml of the
same EDTA solution was required for the titration of 100 ml of standard
hard water containing 1 gm CaCO3 per litre. Calculate hardness of water sample in ppm.
Solution
Given 1 litre of std. hard water contains 1 gm of CaCO3
i.e 1000 ml of std. hard water contains 1000 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1 ml of std. hard water = 1 mg of CaCO 3

22 ml of EDTA = 100 ml of std. hard water
= 100 × 1 mg of CaCO3
∴ 1 ml of EDTA = 100/22mgs of CaCO 3
100 ml of sample of water = 18 ml of EDTA
= 18 × 100 22 mgs of CaCO3
∴for 1000 ml of sample of water = 18 × 100 22 × 1000 100
Hardness = 818.18 mgs/lit or ppm.
Problem 3
0.28 gm of CaCO3 was dissolved in HCl and the solution was made upto one litre with distilled
water. 100 ml of the above solution required 28 ml of EDTA solution on titration. 100 ml of hard
water sample required 33 ml of same EDTA solution on titration. 100 ml of this water, after boiling
cooling and filtering required 10 ml of EDTA solution on titration. Calculate the temporary and
permanent harness of water.
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Solution
Given 1000 ml of std. hard water contains = 0.28 gm of CaCO3
ie., 1000 ml of std. hard water contains = 0.28 × 1000 mgs of CaCO3
= 280 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1 ml of std. hard water = 0.28 mg of CaCO3
28 ml of EDTA = 100 ml of the std. hard water
= 100 × 0.28 mgs of CaCO3
= 100 × 0.28 28
1 ml of EDTA = 1 mgs of CaCO3.
Total hardness
100 ml of hard water = 33 ml of EDTA
= 33 × 1 mgs of CaCO3
= 33 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of hard water = 33 × 1000/100

Total hardness = 330 mgs/lit (or) ppm.
Permanent hardness (NCH)
100 ml of the same water, after boiling, cooling and filtering required = 10 ml of EDTA
= 10 × 1 mgs of CaCO3
= 10 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of the water = 10 × 1000 100 mgs of CaCO3
Permanent hardness = 100 mgs/lit (or) ppm.
Temporary hardness (CH)
Temporary hardness = Total hardness − permanent hardness
= γγ0 − 100
Temporary hardness = 230 mgs/lit (or) ppm.
Problem 4
100 ml of a sample of water required 25.0 ml of 0.01 M EDTA for the titration using Eriochrome-
Black-T indicator. Calculate the total hardness.
Solution
We know that,
1 ml of 0.01 M EDTA = 1 mg of CaCO3
25 ml of 0.01 M EDTA = 25 mgs of CaCO3
100 ml of sample of water required = 25.0 ml of 0.01 M EDTA
= 25.0 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent
∴ 1000 ml of water is equal to = 25.0 × 1000 100 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent
Total hardness = 250 mgs/lit or ppm.
Problem 5
Calculate permanent hardness from the following. 500 ml of a water sample is boiled for 1 hr. It is
then cooled and filtered. The filtrate is made upto 500 ml again with
distilled water. 50 ml of this solution requires 10 ml of N/50 EDTA with EBT-indicator and NH4Cl
− NH4OH buffer.
Solution

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Given50 ml of water sample after boiling, filtering requires 10 ml of N 50 EDTA
→e know that1 ml of N 50 EDTA ≡ 1 mg of CaCOγ equivalent hardness

∴ 10 ml of N 50 EDTA ≡ 10 mgs of CaCOγ
50 ml of the boiled water sample requires = 10 ml of N 50 EDTA
= 10 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of the water sample = 10 × 1000 50
Permanent hardness = 200 mgs/lit or ppm.
Problem 6
100 ml of a sample of water required 15.0 ml of 0.01 M EDTA for titration using Erio-chrome
Black-T indicator. In another experiment, 100 ml of the same sample was boiled to remove the CH,
the precipitate was removed and the cold solution required 8.0 ml of 0.01 M EDTA using Erio-
chrome Black-T indicator. Calculate (i) the total hardness, (ii) permanent hardness or NCH, (iii)
carbonate hardness CH, in terms of mg/lit of CaCO3.
Solution
→e know that 1 ml of 1 M EDTA ≡ 100 mgs of CaCOγ
1 ml of 0.01 M EDTA ≡ 1 mg of CaCOγ
Total Hardness
100 ml of a sample of water required = 15 ml of 0.01 M EDTA
= 15 × 1 mgs
= 15 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of sample of water is equivalent to = 15 × 1000/100 mgs of CaCO3
= 150 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent
Permanent Hardness (NCH)

100 ml of the same water sample after boiling, filtering consumes = 8.0 ml of 0.01 M EDTA
= 8.0 × 1 mgs
= 8.0 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of sample of water is equal to = 8.0 × 1000/100 mgs
Permanent hardness of the water sample = 80 ppm.
Temporary Hardness (CH)

Temporary hardness = Total hardness − Permanent hardness
= 150 − 80 = 70 ppm
Temporary hardness = 70 ppm.
Problem 7
100 ml of a water sample required 20 ml of 0.01 M EDTA for the titration with Eriochrome Black-
T indicator 100 ml of the same water sample after boiling and filtering required 10 ml of 0.01 M
EDTA. Calculate the total, carbonate and non carbonate harness of the sample.
Solution
→e know that 1 ml of 1 M EDTA ≡ 100 mgs of CaCOγ
Total Hardness 100 ml of a sample of water required = 20 ml of 0.01 M EDTA
= 20 × 1 mgs
= 20 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of sample of water is equivalent to = 20 × 1000/100 mgs of CaCO3
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Non-carbonate Hardness (NCH)
100 ml of the same water sample after boiling, filtering consumes = 10 ml of 0.01 M EDTA
= 10 × 1 mgs
= 10 mgs of CaCO3
∴ 1000 ml of sample of water is equal to = 10 × 1000 100 mgs
Permanent hardness of the water sample = 100 ppm.
Carbonate Hardness (CH)
Carbonate hardness = Total hardness − Non−carbonate hardness
= β00 − 100
= 100 ppm
Carbonate hardness = 100 ppm.
Problem 8
In an estimation of hardness of water by EDTA titration, 250 ml of a sample of water required 15
ml of 0.025 M EDTA solution to get the end point. Calculate the hardness of water.
Solution
We know that 1 ml of 1 M EDTA ≡ 100 mgs of CaCOγ
∴ 1 ml of 0.0β5 M EDTA ≡ β.5 mgs of CaCOγ equivalent
Total Hardness
250 ml of a sample of water required = 15 ml of 0.025 M EDTA
= 15 × 2.5 mgs
= 37.5 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent
∴ 1000 ml of a sample of water required = 37.5 × 1000 250 mgs
Total hardness = 150 ppm.
BOILER FEED WATER

• The water fed into the boiler for the production of steam is called boiler feed water.
• Boiler feed water should be free from dissolved salts, suspended impurities, silica, turbidity,
oil, alkali and hardness producing substances.
BOILER TROUBLES (OR) BOILER PROBLEMS (OR) DISADVANTAGES OFUSING
HARD WATER IN BOILERS
Presence of impurities in boiler feed water may lead to the following problems:
 Sludge and scale formation
 Priming and foaming (carry over)
 Caustic embrittlement
 Boiler corrosion
SLUDGE AND SCALE FORMATION IN BOILERS:
• When water is evaporated in boilers to produce steam continuously, concentration of the
dissolved salts present in water increases progressively.

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• When the concentration of the salts reaches their saturation point, they are thrown out of
water in the form of precipitates on the inner walls of the boilers.
• The least soluble one gets precipitated first.
SLUDGE:
• If the precipitate formed inside the boiler is soft, loose and slimy it is known as sludge.
• Sludges are formed by substances like MgCO3, MgCl2, MgSO4 and CaCl2.
• They have greater solubility in hot water than cold water.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Sludges are poor conductors of heat which results in wastage of fuel.
• Excess of sludge formation decreases the efficiency of boiler (i.e.) it disturbs the
functioning of boiler.
PREVENTION:
• Sludge formation can be prevented by using softened water.
• It can be removed by “blow down operation”. It is a process of removing a portion of
concentrated water frequently from the boiler during steam production.
SCALE:
• Scales are hard deposits formed by the evaporation of hard water in boilers.
• If the precipitate forms a hard and adherent coating on the inner walls of the boiler, it is
known as scale.
• Scales are formed by substances like Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4 and Mg(OH)2.
S.No. Sludge Scale
1 Sludge is a loose, slimy and non- Scale is a hard, adherent coating
adherent precipitate
2 The main sludge forming substances are The main scale forming substances are
MgCO3, MgCl2 , MgSO4 and CaCl2 etc Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4, Mg(OH)2

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3 Disadvantages: Sludges are poor Disadvantages: Scales act as thermal

conductors of heat. Excess of sludge insulators. It decreases the efficiency of
formation decreases the efficiency of boiler. Any crack developed on the scale,
boiler. leads to explosion.
3 Prevention Prevention
(i) Sludge formation can be (i) Scale formation can be prevented
prevented by using softened by dissolving using acids like HCl,
water. H2SO4
(ii) Sludges can also be removed by (ii) Scale formation can be removed
さblow-down operationざ. by (a) External treatment. (b)

Internal treatment.
(iii) Blow-down operation is a process of (iii) They can also be removed by applying
removing a portion of concentrated thermal shocks, scrapers, wire brush, etc
water by fresh water frequently from the
boiler during steam production.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Scales decrease the efficiency of the boiler.
• Scales are poor conductor of heat. Therefore, it causes decrease in evaporative capacity of
the boiler and increase in the fuel consumption.
• When the scale cracks, water suddenly comes in contact with the overhead boiler metal.
This causes the formation of a large amount of steam suddenly. So, sudden high pressure is
developed, which may even cause the explosion of the boiler. (Any crack developed on the
scale leads to explosion.)
PREVENTION:
• Scale formation can be prevented by treating water in two ways:
 External treatment
 Internal treatment
• Scale formation can be prevented by dissolving it using acids like HCl and H2SO4.
• They can also be removed by applying thermal shocks, scrapers, wire brush, etc.
DISADVANTAGES OF SCALE FORMATION

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1. WASTEGE OF FUELS
Scale havelow thermal conductivity, so the heat transfer from boiler to inside water is not
efficient. In order to provide steady supply of heat to watt, overheating is done and this
causes wastage fuel. The wastage of fuel depends on the thicknessand nature of the scale,
which is shown in the table.
Thickness of scale(mm) 0.325 0.625 1.25 2.5 12
Wastage of fuel 10% 15% 50% 80% 150%
2. DECREASE IN EFFICIENCY
Scales sometimes deposit in the valves and condensers of the boiler and choke. This results
in decrease efficiency of the boiler.
3. BOILER EXPLOSION
Sometimes due to overheating the thick scales may crack and causes sudden contact of high
heated boiler material with water. This causes formation of a large amount of stem and high
pressure is developed which may lead to explosion.
PREVENTION OF SCALE FORMATION
1. At the initial stage, scales can be removed using scraper, wire brush etc.
2. If scales are brittle, they can be removed by thermal shocks.
3. By using suitable chemicals like dil.acids, EDTA with which form suitable complexes.
4. If the scales are loosely adhering, they can be removed by frequent blow down operation.
REQUIREMENTS OF BOILER FEED WATER
Any natural source of water does not supply a perfectly suitable boiler feed water. The boiler feed
water must have the following requirements.
TYPES AMOUNT
Hardness < 0.2 ppm.
Soda alkalinity 0.15-1.0 ppm
Caustic alkalinity 0.15-0.45 ppm
Excess soda ash 0.3-0.55 ppm
Dissolved gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide 0 ppm
S. NO SPECIFICATIONS DISADVANTAGES
1. Boilerfeed water should have zero Scale and Sludge‟s will be produced, which
harness. prevents efficient heat transfer.
2. It must be free from dissolved It leads to boiler corrosion.

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gases like O2, CO2.

3. It should be free from dissolved Produces caustic embrittlement, which causes
salts and alkalinity. brittlement of boiler parts.
4. It should be free from oil and Produces priming and foaming.
turbidity.
5. It should be free from suspended Produces wet steam.
impurities.
6. It should be free from total Produces priming, foaming and caustic
dissolved solids. embrittlement.
SOFTENING (OR) CONDITIONING METHODS

Water used for industrial purposes (for steam generation) should be free from dissolved gases
and salts, hardness producing substances, suspended impurities, etc. The methods of removing
hardness producing salts from water are known as water softening or conditioning.
Water Softening can be done by the following two methods:
 Internal conditioning (or) treatment
 External conditioning (or) treatment
EXTERNAL CONDITIONING
External conditioning method involves the removal of hardness causing salts from the water before
feeding into the boiler.
External treatment can be done by:
 Demineralization or ion-exchange process
 Zeolite or Permutit process
 Lime soda process
DEMINERALISATION (OR) ION-EXCHANGE PROCESS
This process removes both cations and anions present in the water. The soft water produced by
lime-soda and zeolite process, does not contain hardness causing ions Ca2+ and Mg2+, but it may
contain other ions like Na+, K+, SO42-, Cl-, etc. On the other hand, demineralized water (D.M.
water) does not contain both cations and anions. Thus, a soft water is not demineralized water
whereas a demineralized water is soft water.
This process involves the use of ion-exchange resins for softening water.
Ion-exchange resins are insoluble, cross-linked, long chain organic polymers with micro-porous
structure. The functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the ion-exchanging
properties.

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There are two types of ion-exchange resins namely:

 Cation exchange resins and
 Anion exchange resins.
 Cation Exchange Resins:
 Resins capable of exchanging the cations from hard water are called cation
exchange resins.
 It contains acidic functional groups like – COOH,-SO3H or H+ , which can replace
their H+ ions with the cations of hard water.
 It can be represented as RH+ (or) RH2.
Examples:
 Sulphonated coals
 Sulphonated polystyrene
 Phenol formaldehyde resin
 Commercial cation exchangers such as Amberlite and Dowex-50
 Anion Exchange Resins:
 Resins capable of exchanging the anions from hard water are called anion exchange
resins.
 It contains basic functional groups like -NH2,-NR3 or OH- , which can replace
their OH- ions with the cations of hard water.
 It can be represented as R‟OH- (or) R‟ (OH)2.
Examples:
 Methyl ammonium hydroxy styrene
 Cross-linked quaternary ammonium salts.
 Urea formaldehyde resin
 Commercial cation exchangers such as Amberlite - 400 and Dowex-3
PROCESS OF DEMINERALISATION:
The hard water is passed first through cation exchange column (containing cation exchange
resins, RH+). All the cations such Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, etc. present in hard water are exchanged
with H+ ions of the cation exchange resin. That is, it removes all the cations from hard water and
equivalent amount of H+ ions are released from this column to water.

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2RH+ + Ca2+ R2Ca2+ + 2H+

2RH+ + Mg2+ R2Mg2+ + 2H+
RH+ + Na+ RNa+ + H+
RH+ + K+ RK+ + H+
The water leaving the cation exchange column is now passed through anion exchange column
(containing anion exchange resins, R‟OH -). All the anions such as Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-, etc. present in
the water are exchanged with OH - ions of anion exchange resins. So that all the anions are removed
from water and equivalent amount of OH- ions are released from this column to water.
R‟OH + Cl- R‟Cl + OH-
βR‟OH + CO32- R‟2CO32- + 2 OH-
βR‟OH- + SO42- R2‟SO42- + 2 OH-
H+ and OH- ions released from cation and anion exchange columns, combine to produce H 2O.
H+ + OH- H2O
Thus, the water coming out of the anion exchange column is completely free from hardness causing
cations and anions. This ion free water is known as demineralized water ordeionized water.
REGENERATION:
When all the H+ and OH- ions of the ion exchange columns are exhausted, the ion exchange resins
have to be regenerated.
The exhausted cation exchange column is regenerated by passing dilute HCl or dilutes H 2SO4
through the column. The washing containing Ca2+, Mg2+, etc. is passed to sink.
R2Ca2+ + 2 H+ 2 RH+ + Ca2+
Similarly the anion exchange column is regenerated by passing dilute NaOH through the column.
Then washing containing SO42-, Cl- , etc. is passed to sink.
R2‟SO42-+ 2 OH- βR‟OH- + SO42-

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The regenerated ion exchange resins are then used again.

ADVANTAGES OF ION-EXCHANGE PROCESS:
 This method produces soft water of very low residual hardness
 Highly acidic and alkaline water can be treated by this process.
 Regeneration of ion-exchange resin is possible.
 Maintenance cost is less.
 No sludge disposal problem arises.
DISADVANTAGES OF ION-EXCHANGE PROCESS:
 Cost of the equipment is high.
 Highly turbid waters cannot be treated. Turbidity should be less than 10 ppm.
 Expensive chemicals are required.
 Water containing turbidity, Fe and Mn cannot be treated, because turbidity reduces the
output as it blocks the pores and Fe and Mn form stable compound with the resin which
cannot be regenerated.
1.6.1 ZEOLITE (OR) PERMUTIT PROCESS
 Zeolites are naturally occurring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate. It general formula is
Na2.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O (x=2-10, y=2-6).
 Natural zeolite are green sand and non-porous. The synthetic form of zeolite is known as permitut,
which is porous and possess gel like structure, hence it is generally used for water softening.
 Synthetic zeolite is represented by Na2Ze are replaced by Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in the water.
PROCESS
When hard water is passed through a bed of sodium zeolite (Na2Ze), kept in a cylinder (Fig. 1.1), it
exchanges its sodium ion with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in the hard water to form Ca2+ and Mg2+
zeolites. The various reactions taking place during softening process are
Cal2 + Na2Ze CaZe + NaCl
MgCl2 + Na2Ze MgZe + NaCl
Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2Ze CaZe + 2NaHCO3
Mg(HCO3)2 +Na2Ze MgZe + 2NaHCO3
CaSO4 +Na2Ze CaZe + NaSO4
MgSO4 + Na2Ze MgZe + Na2SO4

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Fig.1.1 Zeolite process

The softened water is enriched with large amount of sodium salts, which do not cause any hardness,
but cannot be used in boilers.
REGENERATION
After some time zeolite gets exhaust. The exhausted zeolite is again regenerated by treated with
10% solution of NaCl.
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl2
ADVANTAGES OF ZEOLITE PROCESS
Water obtained by this process will have only hardness of 1-2 ppm.
This method is cheap, because the regenerated zeolite can be used again.
No sludge is formed during this process.
The equipment used is compact and occupies a small space.
It operation is easy.
DISADVANTAGES OF ZEOLITE PROCESS
Turbidity water can‟t treated, because it blocked the porous of zeolite bed.
Acidic water can‟t treated, because it decomposes the structure of zeolite.
The softened water contains more dissolved sodium salts like NaHCO3, Na2CO3, etc.
When such water is boiled in boiler, CO2 and NaOH is produced resulting in boiler
corrosion and caustic embrittlement.
→ater containing Fe, Mn can‟t be treated, because regeneration is very difficult.
This process can‟t be used for softening brackish water, because brackish water contains
Na+ ions.
The ion exchange reaction will not occur.

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Table 1.1 Differences between Zeolite and Demineralisation process

S.No. ZEOLITE DEMINERALISATION
1. It exchanges only cations. I exchange cations as well as anions
2. Acidic water cannot be treated because Acidic water can be treated.
acid decomposes the zeolite.
3. The treated water contains relatively large The treated water does not contain any
amount of dissolved salts, which leads to dissolved salts. Hence there is no
priming, foaming and caustic priming and foaming.
embrittlement in boilers.
4. Water containing turbidity, Fe, Mn cannot Here also water containing turbidity,
be treated Fe, Mn cannot be treated.
INTERNAL CONDITIONING OR INTERNAL TREARMENT OR BOILER

COMPOUNDS
This method involves the removal of scale forming substances and corrosive chemicals in water,
which were not completely removed in the external treatment, by adding suitable chemicals directly
inside the boiler. These chemicals are called boiler compounds.
i. PHOSPHATE CONDITIONING
Scale formation in high pressure boilers can be avoided by adding sodium phosphate. The added
phosphate reacts with calcium and magnesium salts to produce soft sludges of calcium and
magnesium phosphates.
3 CaSO4 + 2 Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 Na2SO4
3 CaCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 6 NaCl
3 MgCl2 + 2 Na3PO4 Mg3(PO4)2 + 6 NaCl
3 MgSO4 + 2 Na3PO4 Mg3(PO4)2 + 3 Na2SO4
Three types of phosphates are employed in phosphate conditioning. They are:
 Trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4)
 Disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4)
 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4)
The optimum pH for the precipitation of Ca3(PO4)2 is 9.5 to 10.5. The exact choice of the phosphate
salt depends upon the alkalinity of boiler feed water.
 Trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4)
When the alkalinity of boiler feed water is low, it has to be raised to 9.5-10.5 for this highly
alkaline phosphate is preferred. Na3PO4 is highly alkaline, used for strong acidic water.

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 Disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4)

When the alkalinity of boiler feed water is already sufficient for precipitation, Na2HPO4 is
preferred. Na2HPO4 is weakly alkaline, used for weakly acidic water.
 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4)
When the alkalinity of boiler feed water is too high, acidic phosphate is preferred. It reduces the pH
to the optimum range. NaH2PO4 is acidic, used for alkaline water.
ii. CALGON CONDITIONING
When calgon (Sodium hexa meta phosphate Na2[Na4(PO3)6] ) is added to boiler water, it interacts
with calcium ions forming a highly soluble complex and thus prevents the precipitation of sludge
and scale forming salts.
2 CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2 Na2SO4
The complexNa2 [Ca2(PO3)6] is soluble in water and there is no problem of sludge disposal.
iii. COLLOIDAL CONDITIONING
Scale formation can be avoided by adding colloidal containing agents like kerosene, agar – agar,
gelatin, etc., It is used in low pressure boilers. These colloidal substances get coated over the sale
forming particles and converted them into non-adherent, loose precipitate called sludge, which can
be removed by blow down operation.
iv. SODIUM ALUMINATE CONDITIONING
Sodium Aluminate (NaAl2O3) undergoes hydrolysis in boiler water to give gelatinous white
precipitate of aluminium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.
NaAl2O3 + 2H2O Al(OH)3t +NaOH
DESALINATION OF BRACKISH WATER
Water containing high concentration of dissolved salts or solids of peculiar salty or brackish
taste is called brackish water. The sea water contains about 3.5% of dissolved salts. Before the
removal of these salts, it is unfit for most of the domestic and industrial applications.
The process of removing common salt (sodium chloride) from the brackish or saline water is
known as Desalination or Desalting.
Salinity of water is expressed in ppm or mg/L.
Based on the quantity of dissolved salts present, water is graded as:
 FRESH WATER
It contains less than 1000 ppm of dissolved salts.
 BRACKISH WATER
It contains above 1000 and below 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts.
 SEA WATER
It contains above 35,000 ppm of dissolved salts.

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 Different methods of desalination are:

 Distillation – it involves separation of water from salts by evaporation followed by
condensation.
 Freezing – it is based on the separation of pure water in the form of ice leaving the salt
in the mother liquor when the saline water is cooled.
 Electrodialysis – It is the method of separation of ions from the salt water by passing
electric current using a pair of electrodes and a pair of thin rigid plastic semipermeable
membranes.
 Reverse Osmosis
The commonly used methods of desalination are Electro dialysis and Reverse Osmosis.
1.8.1 REVERSE OSMOSIS
When two solutions of different concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable membrane,
solvent molecules flow from a region of lower concentration (dilute) to higher concentration side.
This process is called Osmosis. The driving force in this phenomenon is called Osmotic pressure.
If a pressure higher than that of osmotic pressure is applied on the concentrated side, solvent
flow reverses. That is the solvent molecules pass from concentrated side to dilute side through the
membrane. This phenomenon is called Reverse Osmosis.
Using reverse osmosis, pure solvent (water) is separated from salt water. This membrane
filtration is also called Super Filtration or Hyper Filtration.
The membranes consist of very thin film of cellulose acetate and cellulose butyrate. Polymers
like polymethacrylate and polyamide of superior quality are also being used.
METHOD:
In this process, pressure of about 15 to 40 kgcm-2 higher than that of osmotic pressure is applied
to sea water so that pure water is forced to move through semi permeable membrane to pure water
side. The membrane consists of very thin films of cellulose acetate.

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ADVANTAGES:
 It removes ionic as well as non-ionic and colloidal impurities.
 Life time of the membrane is high (2 - 3 years) and it can be replaced within few minutes.
 Maintenance cost is less.
 Capital cost is low and operation is simple.
UNIT II – SURFACE CHEMISTRY AND CATALYSIS
IMPORTANT TERMS:
ADSORPTION :
It is a surface phenomenon. It is defined as „the accumulation of a substance at the surface of
a solid”.
Fig 2.1 Illustration of adsorption

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Examples:
• Activated charcoal adsorbs gases like CO2, SO2, Cl2etc.
• Pt or Ni metal kept in contact with a gas adsorbs the gas - Hydrogenation of oils.
• Animal charcoal, when added to acetic acid solution and shaken vigorously, adsorbs acetic
acid.
• Molasses is decolourised by activated charcoal.
ABSORPTION:
It is a bulk phenomenon. It is defined as “process in which a substance is uniformly distributed

throughout the body of the solid or liquid”.
Fig 2.2 Illustration of absorption

Examples:
• If a chalk piece is dipped into a solution of coloured ink and kept for some time, the chalk
piece absorbs the coloured substance.
• A sponge placed in water absorbs water into it.
• H2 gas kept in contact with finely divided palladium metal is absorbed by Pd metal. This
absorption of H2 gas by Pd is known as occlusion.
ADSORBATE: The substance held on the surface of the solid is called adsorbate.
Example: Various gases (NH3, water vapour, CO2, etc)

Substances in solution (NaCl, dye, etc.)
ADSORBENT:
The substance on which adsorption occurs. (OR) The solid that takes up a gas or a solute from
the solution is called adsorbent.
Example: Silica gel, charcoal, Pd, Pt, Ni, alumina gel, etc.

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OCCLUSION: The adsorption of gas on a solid surface is called occlusion.
SORPTION: It is a process in which both adsorption and absorption takes place
simultaneously.
EXAMPLES:
• In the adsorption of acetic acid by charcoal, “acetic acid is Adsorbate and the charcoal is
Adsorbent ”
• In the adsorption of H2 gas on platinum or nickel , “H2 gas is adsorbate and Pt or Ni is

adsorbent”.
DESORPTION:
The removal of adsorbed substance from the surface is called desorption.
Fig 2.3 Illustration of adsorption, absorption and sorption
Examples of Adsorption and Absorption:

 When a sponge is put into water, the water enters into the whole body of sponge – it is an
example of absorption.
 When a solution of methylene blue (dye-coloured substances) in water is stirred with solid
carbon, the dye gets adsorbed by charcoal and thus decolourises the water – it is an example
of adsorption.
 Ammonia is adsorbed on charcoal while it is absorbed by water.
 Water vapours are adsorbed on silica gel while they are adsorbed by anhydrous CaCl2 .
 NH3 can undergo adsorption and absorption. When ammonia is passed through water in
contact with charcoal. Water dissolves NH3 (absorption) which is then adsorbed by charcoal
crystals.

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Exothermic nature of adsorption:
The amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of any gas is adsorbed on a solid adsorbent surface is
called enthalpy or molar heat of adsorption”.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ADSORPTION AND ABSORPTION
S.No. Adsorption Absorption
1. It is a surface phenomenon i.e. higher It is a bulk phenomenon i.e. accumulation of

concentration of a liquid or gas substrate on the surface of the solid, in which
molecules over the surface of a solid. the substrate is uniformly distributed
throughout the body of the solid substance.
2. It is a fast process. It is a slow process.
3. Equilibrium is attained easily. Equilibrium is attained slowly.
4. It depends upon the surface area of No such effect is observed.

the adsorbent. Adsorption is more
rapid when the surface of adsorbent is
more.
5. Example: Ammonia is adsorbed on Example: When a sponge is put into water,
charcoal. the liquid enters into the whole body of the
sponge.
TYPES (OR)CLASSIFICATION OF ADSORPTION
Adsorption is classified into two types:
 Physical adsorption (or) Physisorption (or) ↑ander →aal‟s Adsorption
 Chemical adsorption (or) Chemisorption (or) Activated Adsorption
PHYSICAL ADSORPTION (OR) PHYSISORPTION
It is a process in which the adsorbed molecules are held to the surface of the adsorbent by weak
physical or ↑ander →aal‟s forces.
(e.g) Adsorption of H2 on charcoal
CHEMICAL ADSORPTION (OR) CHEMISORPTION
It is a process in which the adsorbed molecules are held to the surface of the adsorbent by strong
chemical bonds.
(e.g) Adsorption of H2 on Ni, adsorption of O2 on tungsten
Example: Adsorption of H2 on Ni
H2 molecule is first adsorbed by ↑ander →aal‟s forces and then undergoes dissociation to hydrogen
atoms. Then the H-atoms are chemisorbed on Ni.

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Fig 3.4 Adsorption of H2 on Ni

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSISORPTION AND CHEMISORPTION
S.No. Property Physical adsorption Chemical adsorption
1. Nature of adsorption Weak Strong
High.
2. Enthalpy of adsorption Low. (20-40 Kcal/mol)
( 40 – 400 Kcal/mole )
Reversibility of Irreversible and occurs
3. Reversible and occurs rapidly.
adsorption process slowly.
Temperature at which High temperatures (generally
Low temperatures (below the b.pt
4. adsorption is more above the b.pt. of the
of the adsorbate gas)
pronounced adosbate gas)
Effect of change in Decreases with rise in Increases with rise in
5.
temperature temperature. temperature.
Not specific. Generally takes Highly specific. Takes place
6. Specificity of adsorption
place on all surfaces. on specified surfaces only.
Nature of adsorbate
7. Multilayered Unilayered
layers formed
Increases with rise in pressure of
Effect of pressure on Pressure of the adsorbate has
8. adsorbate gas and finally attains a
adsorption a negligible effect.
limiting value.
Significant i.e. relatively
9. Energy of activation Insignificant i.e. very low.
high.
Dependence on the Depends on the adsorbate (gas) Depends on the adsorbate as
10. nature of the adsorbate & only. Easily liquefiable gases are well as adsorbent. No
adsorbent more readily adsorbed. correlation can be given.

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Easy since Vander Waals forces Not easy since chemical

11. Ease of desorption
are involved. forces are involved.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ADSORPTION
 Adsorption is a highly selective process.
 It is a physical phenomenon accompanied by a chemical change.
 It depends on the nature of the adsorbent and adsorbate.
 It is always spontaneous.
 It is always accompanied by evolution of heat.
 The rate of adsorption depends on temperature, pressure and concentration.
ADSORPTION OF GASES ON SOLIDS

Most of the surface reactions takes place by chemisorption and solids adsorb gases to some
measurable extent. The adsorption of gases on solid surfaces of finely divided metals like Fe, Ni,
Pt, Pd, etc. depends on the following factors:
• Nature of gases
• Nature and surface area of adsorbents
• Enthalpy of adsorption
• Reversible character of adsorbed gases
• Effect of pressure and temperature
• Thickness of adsorbed layer of gas
• Activation of adsorbent
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ADSORPTION OF GASES ON SOLIDS
 NATURE OF GASES:
Gas molecules with high polarity, which is soluble and easily liquefied, will be easily adsorbed.
Easily liquefiable gases (HCl, NH3, Cl2, SO2, etc.) are adsorbed more easily than the permanent
gases (H2, N2, O2, etc.).
Reasons:

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They are having high critical temperature (i.e. the minimum temperature above which a gas cannot
be liquefied) and greater ↑ander →aal‟s forces. The higher the critical temperature (Tc), the more
easily the gas is liquefied and more readily it is adsorbed.
Example: Adsorption of various gases on 1 g of activated charcoal
Gases SO NH CO CO N H
2 3 2 2 2
Critical
temperature (Tc) 403 406 304 134 126 33
(K)
Amount of gas 380 180 48 9.3 8.0 4.5
adsorbed (mL)
 NATURE OF THE ADSORBENT:
Since adsorption is a surface phenomenon, it is evident that

Highly porous substances undergo adsorption to a greater extent because pores permit the diffusion
of gases.
Example:
Activated charcoal at 24oC adsorbs 1.47gm of CCl4 per gram of charcoal whereas before activation
it would adsorb only 0.011gm of charcoal.
 SURFACE AREA OF THE ADSORBENT :
Adsorption involves concentration of a substance on the surface. Hence, the extent of adsorption
depends on the surface area of the adsorbents.
Larger the surface area of the adsorbent, the greater is its adsorption capacity under the given
conditions of temperature and pressure.
Example:
Finely divided metals like Ni, Pt, etc. and porous substances like charcoal, fuller‟s earth, silica gel,
etc. provide large surface area and are excellent solid adsorbents.
 EFFECT OF PRESSURE:
According to Le-Chatlier‟s Principle, since dynamic equilibrium exists between the adsorbed gas
and the gas in contact with the solid, the amount of gas adsorbed by a given solid is directly
proportional to pressure.
Gas + Solid Gas / Solid + Heat
( i.e.) increase of pressure increases the adsorption and decrease of pressure causes desorption
(decreases the adsorption).

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 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE:
Physical adsorption: It occurs rapidly at lower temperature and decreases with increase of
temperature.
Chemical adsorption: Initially it increases with increase of temperature to some extent and then
decreases with temperature because chemisorption like an ordinary chemical change requires some
activation energy.
Fig 2.5
Example:
At 60 mm pressure, 1 gm of charcoal adsorbs about 10 cc of N 2 at 0oC, about 20 cc of N2 at -30oC
and about 45 cc of N2 at -80oC.
 THICKNESS OF ADSORBED LAYER OF GAS:
In physisorption, the adsorbed gases form a unimolecular thick layer at low pressure. But, above a
certain pressure, multimolecular thick layer is formed.
In chemisorption, only a unimolecular thick layer is formed, since adsorbed gases combine directly
with the adsorbent surface.
 EFFECT OF ACTIVATION OF ADSORBENT:
In order to increase the rate of adsorption, activation (i.e increasing the adsorbing power of the
adsorbent) is necessary. Activation can be done by:
 Creation of rough surface:
• Mechanical rubbing of metallic or solid adsorbents.
• Subjecting to some chemical reactions on the solid adsorbent.
 Increasing effective area of the surface:
• By sub-dividing the solid adsorbents into finer particles.

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• Strong heating of solid adsorbent in superheated steam opens the pores and thereby
adsorption activity increases.
 ENTHALPY OF ADSORPTION:
Adsorption is always exothermic.

In physical adsorption, enthalpy of adsorption is about 5 kcal/mole due to weak ↑ander →aal‟s
forces. Hence, such gases are adsorbed to a smaller extent on solid adsorbent.
In chemical adsorption, enthalpy of adsorption is about 100 kcal/mole due to relative formation of
chemical bond between gas and the adsorbent. Hence, such gases are adsorbed to a larger extent on
solid adsorbent.
 REVERSIBLE CHARACTER OF ADSORPTION:
Physical adsorption: It is a reversible process. The gas adsorbed on a solid can be removed
(desorbed) under reverse conditions of temperature and pressure.
Gas + Solid Gas / Solid + Heat
Chemical adsorption: It is an irreversible process, because surface compound is formed and
desorption is quite difficult.
ADSORPTION OF SOLUTES FROM SOLUTIONS
A solution is made up of two basic components – solute and solvent.

When an adsorbent is dropped into a solution, either the solute or the solvent may become
adsorbed. Adsorption of solvent is very rare.Adsorption of solutes from the solution follows two
mechanisms.
 An adsorbent adsorbs dissolved substances (solutes) from solutions.
Example: Activated animal charcoal (i.e. charcoal from which pre-adsorbed gases have been
removed completely)
 It adsorbs colouring matter present in sugar solutions thereby making the latter colourless.
 It adsorbs certain acids like acetic acid and oxalic acid present in water, thereby acid
concentration in water decreases.
 It also adsorbs ammonia from the solution of ammonium hydroxide.
 It adsorbs Cl- ions from NaCl or AgCl solution.
 An adsorbent adsorbs certain substance from the solution in preference to other

substances.

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Examples:
 Charcoal: It adsorbs non-electrolytes more readily than electrolytes from a solution.
 Alumina: It adsorbs electrolytes in preference to non-electrolytes.
FACTORS INFLUENCING ADSORPTION OF SOLUTES FROM SOLUTION
The amount of solute adsorbed by a solid from the solution depends on the following factors:
 Surface area of the adsorbent: If the surface area of the adsorbent is greater, the rate of
adsorption is also greater.
 Nature of the adsorbent: Some adsorbents are specifically more effective in attracting
certain substances to their surface than the other.
 Nature of the solute adsorbed: If the molecular weight of the solute is high, the extent of
rate of adsorption is also high.
 Effect of temperature and concentration:
Adsorption of substances from the solution depends on temperature and concentration of the
solution. An increase in temperature decreases the extent of adsorption and vice versa.
Freundlich adsorption isotherm is suitable to explain the effect of concentration.
When an adsorbent is dropped into a solution, either the solute or solvent may be adsorbed.
 If the solute is adsorbed by the adsorbent, it is known as positive adsorption.
 If the solvent is taken up by the adsorbent, it is known as negative adsorption.
 NEGATIVE ADSORPTION: Adsorption from a solution decreases with rise of

temperature and decrease in concentration of the solution. This type of adsorption is known
as negative adsorption.
Fig 3.6 Negative Adsoption

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Example: From the dilute solution of KCl, charcoal adsorbs water thereby the salt concentration is
increased.
 POSITIVE ADSORPTION:
Adsorption from a solution increases with decrease of temperature and increases in concentration of
the solution. This type of adsorption is known as positive adsorption.
Fig 3.7 Positive Adsorption

Example: From the concentrated solution of KCl, charcoal adsorbs KCl rather than water thereby
the salt concentration gets decreased.
ADSORPTION CURVES
The amount of gas molecules adsorbed on the surface of the adsorbent depends on pressure and
temperature (i.e) the amount of gas adsorbed is a function of the T and P only.
If „x‟ is the amount of gas adsorbed on mass „m‟ of the adsorbent at pressure „P‟ and temperature
„T‟, then it can be represented as
x/m = f (P,T) .................. (1)
This mathematical equation is called adsorption curve.
This equation (1) gives three types of adsorption curves under different conditions of P, T and x/m.
ADSORPTION ISOTHERM
If T is kept constant, then equation (1) becomes
x/m = f (P) ................. (β)
Equation (2) explains the variation of adsorption with P at constant T.
ADSORPTION ISOBAR
If P is kept constant, then equation (1) becomes
x/m = f (T) ............... (γ)
Equation (3) explains the variation of adsorption with T at constant P.

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ADSORPTION ISOSTERE
If the amount of adsorbed gas is kept constant, then
P = f (T) ................. (4)
Equation (4) explains the variation of P with T when x/m is kept constant.
ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS
The extent of adsorption (x/m) [where ‟x‟ is the mass of the adsorbate and „m‟ is the mass of the
adsorbent] depends on pressure.
This can be understood by plotting a graph between x/m against P.
DEFINITION
The process of Adsorption is usually studied through graphs know as adsorption isotherm.
It is “the graph between the amounts of adsorbate (x) adsorbed on the surface of adsorbent (m) and
pressure at constant temperature”.
BASIC ADSORPTION ISOTHERM
In the process of adsorption, adsorbate gets adsorbed on adsorbent.
According to Le-Chatelier principle, the direction of equilibrium would shift in that direction where
the stress can be relieved.
In case of application of excess of pressure to the equilibrium system, the equilibrium will shift in
the direction where the number of molecules decreases.
Since number of molecules decreases in forward direction, with the increases in pressure, forward
direction of equilibrium will be favoured.
From the graph, it is clear that the extent of adsorption (x/m) increases with increasing pressure
(P) and becomes maximum at Ps, called the saturation pressure.
At Ps, the rate of adsorption becomes equal to the rate of desorption i.e. dynamic equilibrium is
reached and further increase of P does not alter this equilibrium.
Free gases Gases adsorbed on solid

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Fig 2.8 Basic Adsorption Isotherm

From the graph, we can predict that after saturation pressure Ps, adsorption does not occur
anymore. This can be explained by the fact that there are limited numbers of vacancies on the
surface of the adsorbent. At high pressure a stage is reached when all the sites are occupied and
further increase in pressure does not cause any difference in adsorption process.
At high pressure, Adsorption is independent of pressure.
TYPES OF ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS
Adsorption isotherms are divided into five different types. A large number of adsorption isotherms
of gases on a variety of adsorbents at different temperatures have been studied. In each type, the
saturation pressure, where the maximum adsorption occurs, is indicated by „Ps‟.
Fig 2.9 Different types of adsorption isotherms

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TYPE I:
2.10 Type I
• The above graph depicts Monolayer adsorption.
• This graph can be easily explained using Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm.
• The amount of gas adsorbed approaches a limiting value „Ps‟, which is just enough to
complete a monomolecular layer, even when the gas pressure is high. Further increase in
pressure will not increase the amount of adsorption.
Examples: Adsorption of Nitrogen (N2) or Hydrogen (H2) on charcoal at temperature near to -

180oC.
TYPE II:
Fig 3.11 Type II

• Type II Adsorption Isotherm shows large deviation from Langmuir adsorption model.
• The graph represents a case of multi-molecular layer physical adsorption on non-porous

materials.
• It has been suggested that, the gas molecules adsorbed in the first layer may hold a second
layer by weak ↑ander →aal‟s forces, which in turn, may hold a third layer and so on.
• The intermediate flat region in the isotherm corresponds to monolayer formation.

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• So, this represents the transition of monomolecular layer to multimolecular layer.
• Thus the curve shows that, there is a transition point „B‟ which represents the P at which the
formation of monolayer is complete and that of multilayer is being started.
Examples: Nitrogen [N2 (g)] adsorbed at -1950C on Iron (Fe) catalyst and Nitrogen [N2 (g)]
adsorbed at -1950C on silica gel.
TYPE III:
Fig 3.12 Type III

• Type III Adsorption Isotherm also shows large deviation from Langmuir model.
• This isotherm explains the formation of multilayer.
• Examples: Bromine (Br2) at 790C on silica gel or Iodine (I2) at 790C on silica gel.
• It represents a case of physical adsorption on porous materials.
• There is no flat portion in the curve which indicates that monolayer formation is missing.
• The curve represents that multilayer formation starts even before the completion of
monolayer formation.
TYPE IV:
Fig 3.13 Type IV

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• Adsorption isotherm represents a case of physical adsorption on porous materials

accompanied by capillary condensation.
• Examples: Adsorption of Benzene on Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) at 500C and adsorption of

Benzene on silica gel at 500C.
• At lower pressure region the graph is quite similar to Type II. This explains formation of
monolayer followed by multilayer.
• The saturation level reaches at a pressure below the saturation vapour pressure.
• This can be explained on the basis of a possibility of gases getting condensed in the tiny
capillary pores of adsorbent at the pressure even below the saturation pressure (Ps) of the
gas.
• This is only due to the formation of multimolecular adsorption layers of the gas molecules
but also due to condensation of some of the gas molecules within the capillary pores of the
adsorbent. This is known as capillary condensation of the gas.
TYPE V:
Fig 2.14 Type V

• It also represents a case of physical adsorption on porous materials.
• It indicates that the formation of multi molecular layer starts at the beginning of adsorption.
• Example: Adsorption of Water vapours at 1000C on charcoal.
• Explanation of Type V graph is similar to Type IV.
• Type IV and V shows phenomenon of capillary condensation of gas.

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FREUNDLICH‟S ADSORPTION ISOTHERM
The amount of gas adsorbed for a given quantity of adsorbent (substrate) increases rapidly as
pressure increases and the rate decreases as the surface covered is more and more.
The relationship between the magnitude of adsorption (x/m) and pressure (P) can be expressed
mathematically by an empirical equation known as Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
x
= KP1/n
M
DERI↑ATION OF FREUNDLICH‟S ADSORPTION ISOTHERM:
The equation for Freundlich‟s adsorption isotherm may be derived from the result obtained from
the graph.
Fig 2.15 Adsorption isotherm
(i) At low pressure: Adsorption increases with pressure. The adsorption isotherm is almost a
straight line indicating a direct relationship between the extent of adsorption and pressure.
x/mα P (OR) x/m = KP …… (1)
(ii) At high pressure: The adsorption is almost constant. The adsorption isotherm is parallel to the
X - axis indicating that the extent of adsorption is independent of the pressure.
x/m = constant (OR) x/m = K ….. (β)
(iii) At intermediate (normal) pressure : The extent of adsorption should be proportional to
fractional power of pressure.
x/m α P 1/n (OR) x/m = KP1/n ….. (γ)
where „n‟ is a whole number ,whose values lies between 0 and 1.
Equation (γ) is known as Freundlich‟s Adsorption isotherm.

Taking logrithm on both sides, equation (3) becomes
log x/m = log K + 1/n log P

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On plotting log x/m versus log P, a straight line is obtained with a slope of 1/n and intercept log K.
2.16reundlich adsorption isotherm

DISAD↑ANTAGES (OR) LIMITATIONS OF FREUNDLICH‟S ADSORPTION ISOTHERM
• Freundlich equation is purely empirical and has no theoretical basis.
• The equation is valid only upto a certain pressure and invalid at higher pressure.
• The constant K and n vary with T.
• It fails when the concentration of adsorbate is very high.
LANGMUIR‟S ADSORPTION ISOTHERM

Irving Langmuir (1916) has shown that there is an equilibrium established between adsorption
and desorption.He has derived an isotherm equation on the basis of the following assumptions.
• The adsorbed molecules forms only unimolecular layer on the solid adsorbent surface.
• The adsorbed molecules on the surface do not interact with each other.
• The molecules of a gas are adsorbed only on vacant sites of adsorbent surface. Each site can
hold only one molecular species of the adsorbate.
• The adsorption process consists of two opposing processes (i) condensation of the adsorbate
molecules on the adsorbent surface (ii) desorption of molecules from the adsorbent surface.
• The adsorbed gas molecule behaves ideally in the vapour phase.
3.9.1 DERIVATION OF LANGMUIR ADSORPTION ISTHERM
Consider an adsorbing surface of area 1 sq.cm on which the molecules of a gas are condensing and
evaporating.

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When the adsorption starts, the rate of adsorption or condensation is highest initially while the rate
of desorption is very small. As the adsorption proceeds, the two rates gradually approach each other
until a dynamic equilibrium is obtained when the rate of adsorption is equal to the rate of
desorption.
If „A‟ is gas molecule and „M‟ is solid surface, then
Fig 2.17
ka
A(g) + M (surface) AM
kd
ka = adsorption rate constant
kd= desorption rate constant
Let,
Fraction of the total surface area covered by the adsorbed gas molecule = θ
If the total area is 1 sq.cm., then fraction of the remaining surface available for adsorption i.e.
uncovered area = 1-θ
If P is the pressure of the gas, the rate of adsorption is proportional to the pressure and fraction of
uncovered area (1- θ)
The rate of adsorption , Ra = ka (1- θ) P
The rate at which gas molecules evaporate from the surface (desorption) will depend on the fraction
of the surface covered by gas molecules ( θ ). Hence,
The rate of desorption, Rd = kdθ
At equilibrium,
Ra = Rd
ka (1- θ) P = kdθ

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kaP – θkaP = kdθ

kaP = kdθ + θkaP
kaP = θ (kd + kaP)
kaP
θ = ................................................(1)
kd + kaP
On dividing equation (1) by kd, we get

( ka / kd ) P
θ=
( kd / kd ) + ( ka / kd )P
( ka / kd ) P KP
θ = = ..........................................(2)
1 + ( ka / kd )P 1 + KP
Where, ka / kd = K, is adsorption co-efficient

But, the amount of gas adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent, „x‟ is proportional to the fraction of
the surface covered, θ
xαθ (OR) x = K‟ θ ............ (γ)
From equation (2) and (3) we get,
K‟ K P
x = ...................................................................... (4)
1 + KP
→here, K‟ = new constant
Equation (4) gives the relation between the amounts of gas adsorbed to the pressure of the gas at
constant temperature which is called as Langmuir‟s Adsorption Isotherm.
Equation (4) can be re-written as
K‟KP
1 + KP =
x
Dividing both sides by K‟K
1 + KP K‟KP
=
K‟K K‟K x
1 KP P
+ = ……… (5)
K‟K K‟K x
Equation (5) is similar to an equation for a straight line y = mx + c
P K 1
+ P =
x K‟K K‟K

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Thus, if the graph is plotted between P/x versus P, we should get a straight line with slope K/
K‟K and intercept 1 / K‟K.
Fig 2.18 Plot of P / x Vs P
Case 1 : At low pressure, (K / K‟K ) P term is negligible. (i.e.) 1 / K‟K >>( K / K‟K ) P.
Hence equation (5) becomes
1 / K‟K = P / x (OR) x = P K‟K …… (6)
i.e. the amount of adsorption per unit mass of adsorbent is directly proportional to „P‟ at low
pressure.
Case 2 : At high pressure, 1 / K‟K term is negligible. (i.e.) ( K / K‟K ) P >> 1 / K‟K.
Hence equation (5) becomes
(K / K‟K) P = P / x (OR) x = K‟ (constant) (OR) x = K‟ P0 ……… (7)
i.e. at high pressure, the extent of adsorption at a given temperature is independent of pressure of
the gas, because the surface becomes completely covered.
Case 3 :At normal pressure, equation (7) becomes
x = K‟P n ……… (8)
where „n‟ lies between 0 and 1.
Equation (8) is Freundlich‟s adsorption isotherm.
2.9.2 Merit and Demerits:
Langmuir adsorption isotherm holds good at lower pressure but fails at high pressure.
3.10 APPLICATIONS OF ADSORPTION
(1) Activated charcoal is used in gas masks, which adsorbs poisonous gases (like CO) in coal mines
and it is employed in both military and industrial purposes.
(2) Activated charcoal is used for removing colouring matter from solutions.

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(3) Silica gel and alumina gel are used as adsorbent for removing moisture and for controlling
humidities of room.
(4) Silica gel is used for drying air used in blast furnace.
(5) Fullers‟s earth is used in large quantities for refining petroleum and vegetable oil by using Ni
catalyst, which adsorbs unwanted materials.
(6) Silica gel and alumina gel act as an adsorbent which is extensively used in cracking of heavy oil
vapours to yield high quality petrol.
(7) Arsenic poisoning from the body is removed by using colloidal ferric hydroxide, which adsorbs
arsenic poison and retains it and can be removed from the body by vomiting.
(8) Softening of hard water can be done based on the principle of adsorption using ion-exchange
resins.
(9) Sulphide ores (PbS, ZnS) are freed from silica and other earthy matter by forth flotation process.
(Oil adsorbs sulphide ores only)
(10) The phenomenon of adsorption is useful in heterogeneous catalysis, in which the molecules are
adsorbed on the surface of solid catalyst and formactivated complex. Then it decomposes to give
product.
Example: Manufacture of SO3 by contact process.
(11) Mordant's are used in dying industry, which adsorb the dye particles (colouring matter) without
attaching to the fabrics.
(12) Adsorption process is used in production of vaccum by using activated charcoal in Dewar‟s
flask.
(13) A layer of stearic acid is spread over water in lakes and reservoirs during summer as the
adsorbed stearic acid on the surface of water reduces the loss of water by evaporation.
ROLE OF ADSORBENTS
ROLE OF ADSORBENT IN CATALYSIS (OR) ADSORPTION (or) CONTACT

THEROY
(1) In heterogenous catalysis:

Adsorption or contact theory explains the mechanism of a reaction between two gases catalysed by
a solid, heteregenous catalyst. Here, the catalyst functions by adsorption of reactant molecules on

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its surface forming an activated complex. This complex decomposes giving rise to the products
which are readily desorbed.
Example: Hydrogenation of ethylene in the presence of finely divided nickel as catalyst.
STEP 1: Adsorption of hydrogen gas on nickel

The surface of the solid catalyst has certain isolated active centers, due to unsaturation of valencies.
The gaseous hydrogen molecules are adsorbed at the active centre of the nickel surface either by
physisorptionor by chemisorption. If the temperature is sufficiently high, the gases get chemisorbed
on the surface.
STEP 2: Formation of activated complex

The activated hydrogen molecule reacts with ethylene gas to form an activated complex. This
activated complex is unstable, which decomposes giving rise to the products that are readily
desorbed.
STEP3 : Decomposition of activated complex

The activated complex breaks to form the products. The separated particles of the products bound
to the catalyst surface by partial chemical bonds.

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STEP 4: Desorption of products

The Ni catalyst is desorbed from the surface and gives stable ethane gas.
(2) The catalyst is more efficient in finely divided state:

When the subdivision on fineness of the catalyst increases, the free surface area gets increased.
Thereby free valencies (or) active centers, which are responsible for the adsorption of reactant
molecules increases, consequently the activity of the catalyst are also increased.
Fig 2.19
(3) Enhanced activity of a rough surfaced catalyst:
Rough surface of a catalyst possesses cracks, peaks, corners, etc., consequently the surface have
larger number of active centre's, which increases the rate of adsorption.

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Fig 2.20
(4) Action of promoters:
Promoters are defined as, “the substances which increase the adsorption capacity or activity of a
catalyst”.The action of promoter is explained as follows:
(i) Change of lattice spacing:
Promoters increase the spaces between the catalyst particles, so the adsorbed molecules are further
weakened and cleaved. This makes the reaction to go fast.
Fig 2.21
(ii) Increase of peaks and cracks:
Promoters increase the peaks and cracks on the catalyst surface. This increases the concentration of
reactant molecules and hence the rate of the reaction.
(5) Action of catalytic poisons:
“A substance which destroys the activity of the catalyst to accelerate the reaction” is known as
catalytic poisoning.
(e.g) The Pt catalyst used in the oxidation of H2 is poisoned by CO.

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Fig 2.22
The number of free valancies (or) active centers of the catalyst is reduced by the preferential
adsorption of the poisonous substances. So, the rate of reaction decreases.
(6) Specific action of catalyst:
The adsorption depends on the nature of both the adsorbent (catalyst) and the adsorbate (reactants).
So, different catalyst cannot possess the same affinity for the same reactant. Hence, the action of
the catalyst is also specific.
(e.g) Ethanol gives ethylene in the presence of hot Al2O3, but with hot copper it gives acetaldehyde.
ACTIVATED CARBON IN POLLUTION ABATEMENT OF AIR AND
WASTE WATER
Among the various adsorbents, in pollution abatement of air and waste water, activated carbon is
the most commonly used adsorbent because it has a large surface area per unit weight (or) unit
volume of solid.
Treatment of Polluted Water and Air
Polluted water and air can be treated by using the following two types of activated carbons.
1) Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
2) Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)
1. Using Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
A fixed - bed activated-carbon contactors (column) is often used for contacting polluted water (or)
air with GAC. It can be operated singly, in series (or) in paralle1. Several types of fixed-bed
activated - carbon contactors are used in the treatment of polluted water (or) air, of which the
followings are important.
1. Down flow fixed-bed carbon contactors.
2. Upflow fixed-bed carbon contactors.
(a) Down flow fIxed-bed Carbon Contactors
Down flow fixed-bed carbon contactors usually consist of two (or) three columns operated in series
(or) in parallel as shown .

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Fig. 2.26 (a) Down flow in series (b) Down flow in parallel
The water (or) air is applied to the top of the column and withdrawn at the bottom. The activated
carbon is held in place with an under drain system at thebottom of the column. Provision for back
washing and surface washing is usually necessary to limit the headless build up due to the removal
of particulate material within the carbon column.
Advantages
Adsorption of organic materials and filtration of suspended solids are accompanied in a single step.
Disadvantages
 Down flow filters may require more washing because of the accumulation material on the
surface of the contactor.
 Plugging of carbon pores may require premature removal of the carbon for regeneration
thereby decreasing the useful life of the carbon.
(b) Up flow fixed-bed Carbon Contactors
In the upflow fixed-bed columns, the polluted water (or) air moves upward from the base of the
column as s,hown.
Fig 2.27 Upflow expanded in series

Advantages
As the carbon adsorbs organic materials, the apparent density of the carbon particles increases and
encourages rnigration of the heavier or spent carbon downward.

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Disadvantage
Upflowcolunms may have more carbon fines in the effluent than downflow columns, because
upflow tends to expand, not compress, the carbon. Bed expansion allows the fines to escape
through passage ways created by the expanded bed.
2. Using Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)
In this method powdered activated carbon (PAC) is added directly into the effluent coming out
from the various biological treatment processes.
Fig. 2.28 Flow diagram of activated-sludge process

The effluent, coming out from the biological treatment plant, is mixed with PAC and a coagulant
(polyelectrolyte) in a contact-aeration tank. After some time, the effluent is allowed to store in a
clarification tank, where the carbon particles get settled at the bottom of the tank Since the carbon
particles are very fine, a coagulant such as polyelectrolyte is added to aid the removal of the carbon
particles. The spent carbon is regenerated by passing it into the regenerating colunm and is used
again for the process. Finally the water (effluent) is filtered by passing it through the filtration
colunm.
General Applications of Adsorption
1. Inodour Control
Activated - carbon adsorbers are commonly used for odour control. Activated carbon has
different rates of adsorption for different substances. It is effective in removing hydrogen sulfide.
The removal of odours depends on the concentration of the hydrocarbons in the odorous gas.
Hydrocarbons are adsorbed preferentially before the compounds like H2S are removed.
2. As a Decolourant
Activated carbon, with its very great surface area and pore volume, removes colour from the
solution.

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3. InSolution Purification
Activated carbon is also used in cleaning sugar solution and for the removal of tastes from water
supplies, vegetable and animal fats and oils, alcoholic beverages, chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
4. InGas Masks
The vapour - adsorbent type of activated carbon is used in gas masks, because of its ability to
adsorb poisonous gases. It is now employed in both military and industrial gas masks.
5. Fuller‟searth
It is used in large quantities for refining petroleum and vegetable oils, which absorb unwanted
materials
6. Forth Flotation process
The sulphide ores are freed from silica and other earthy matter by forth flotation process.
7.Lake test for Al3+
It is based on the adsorption of litmus colour by Al(OH)3
8.Mordants
These are used in dying industry, which absorb the colouring matter without attaching the fabrics.
9. Measurement of surface area
Surface area of powders and rough surfaces can be measured using adsorption measurements.
10. Evaporation of water is minimized
Due to scarcity of water during summer a layer of stearic acid is spread over water lakes and
reservoirs. The adsorbed stearic acid on the surface of water minimizes evaporation of water.

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Salt concentration
If the salt concentration is very low, the charged amino acid chains of the enzyme molecules attract
each other results in denaturation of enzyme.
On the other hand, if the salt concentration is very high, interaction of the charged groups will be
blocked and the enzyme will precipitate.
Activators and Inhibitors
Many molecules may interact with an enzyme to increase the rate of reaction or to decrease
the rate of the reaction. These molecules can regulate the enzyme action. Thus the rate of enzyme
catalyzed reaction depends on the nature of activators and inhibitors.
UNIT III –ALLOYS AND PHASE RULE
INTRODUCTION
Generally metals are insoluble in ordinary solvents like water, alcohol. A metal can dissolve in
another metal in molten state forming a homogeneous liquid mixture. On cooling solidifies to a
solid mixture called an alloy. Most of the metals can mix up in all proportions, e.g. tin and lead
mix up in all proportions forming alloys. Alloys are formed not only by metals among themselves,
but also by metal and non-metal. So, it is clear that an alloy contains at least one metal.
DEFINITION:
“Homogeneous solid solution of two or more different elements, one of which at least is
essentially a metal”. Alloys containing Hg as a constituent element are called amalgams.
PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS
 Alloys are harder, less malleable and possess lower melting points than their component
metals.
 Alloys possess low electrical conductivity.
 Alloys resist corrosion and the action of acids.
IMPORTANCE (OR) NEED (OR) PURPOSE OF MAKING ALLOYS
Generally pure metals possess some useful properties such as high melting point, high densities,
malleability and ductility, good thermal and electrical conductivity. The properties of a given metal
can be improved by alloying it with some other metal or non-metal.

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(1) To increase the hardness of the metal

Generally pure metals are soft, but their alloys are hard.
Examples:
(i) Gold and silver are soft metals; they are alloyed with copper to make them hard.
(ii) Addition of 0.5% arsenic makes lead so hard and used for making bullets.
(iii) Addition of 0.15-2% carbon to iron for getting steel, hardness is improved to it.
(2) To lower the melting points of the metal

Alloying makes the metal easily fusible.
Example:
Wood’s metal (an alloy of lead, bismuth, tin and cadmium) melts at 60.5° C, which is far below the
melting points of any of these constituent metals.
(3) To resist the corrosion of the metal

Metals, in pure form, are quite reactive and easily corroded by surrounding, thereby their life is
reduced. If a metal is alloyed, it resist corrosion.
Example:
Pure iron gets rusted, but when it is alloyed with carbon or chromium (stainless steel), resists
corrosion.
(4) To modify chemical activity of the metal
Chemical activity of the metal can be increased or decreased by alloying.
Example:
Sodium amalgam is less active than sodium, but aluminium amalgam is more active than
aluminium.
(5) To modify the colour of the metal
The dull coloured metals are improved by alloying with metals.
Example:
Brass, an alloy of copper (red) and zinc (silver-white), is white in colour.
(6) To Get Good Casting of Metal
Some metals expand on solidification but are soft and brittle. The addition of other metals
produce alloys which are hard, fusible and expand on solidification and thus give good casting.
Example:
An alloy of lead with 5% tin and 2% antimony is used for casting printing type, due to its good
casting property.

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FUNCTIONS (OR) EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

Addition of small amounts of certain metals, such as Ni, Cr, Mo, Mn, Si, V and Al imparts some
special properties like hardness, tensile strength, resistance to corrosion and coefficient of
expansion on steel. Such products are known as special steels or alloy steels. Some important
alloying elements and their functions are given in Table below.

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HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOYS (STEEL)
Heat treatment is defined as, “the process of heating and cooling of solid steel article under
carefully controlled conditions”. During heat treatment certain physical properties are altered
without altering its chemical composition.
Objectives (or) Purpose of Heat treatment:
Heat treatment causes
(i) Improvement in magnetic and electrical properties.
(ii) Refinement of grain structure.
(iii) Removal of the imprisoned trapped gases.
(iv) Removal of internal stresses.
(v) Improves fatique and corrosion resistance.
TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT OF ALLOYS (STEEL)

1. Annealing 4. Normalizing
2. Hardening 5. Carburizing
3. Tempering 6. Nitriding
(1) ANNEALING
Annealing means softening. This is done by heating the metal to high temperature, followed by
slow cooling in a furnace
Purpose of annealing:

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(i) It increases the machinability.

(ii) It also removes the imprisoned gases.
Types of Annealing:
(i) Low temperature annealing (or) process annealing.
(ii) High temperature annealing (or) full annealing.
(i) Low temperature annealing (or) process annealing:
It involves in heating steel to a temperature below the lower critical temperature followed by slow
cooling.
Purpose:
(i) It improves machinability by relieving the internal stresses or internal strains.
(ii) It increases ductility and shock - resistance.
(iii) It reduces hardness.
(ii) High temperature annealing (or) full - annealing
It involves in heating steel to a temperature about 30 to 50° C above the higher critical
temperature and holding it at that temperature for sufficient time to allow the internal changes to
take place and then cooled to room temperature.
The approximate annealing temperatures of various grades of carbon steel are:
1. mild steel = 840 − 870° C
2. medium-carbon steel = 780 − 840° C
3. high-carbon steel = 760 − 780° C
Purpose:
(i) It increases the ductility and machinability.
(ii) It makes the steel softer, together with an appreciable increase in its toughness.
(2) HARDENING (OR) QUENCHING
It is the process of heating steel beyond the critical temperature and then suddenly cooling it either
in oil or brine-water or some other fluid. Hardening increases the hardness of steel. The faster the
rate of cooling harder will be the steel produced. Medium and high-carbon steels can be hardened,
but low-carbon steels cannot be hardened.
Purpose:
(i) It increases its resistance to wear, ability to cut other metals and strength, but steel becomes
extra brittle.
(ii) It increases abrasion-resistance, so that it can be used for making cutting tools.
(3) TEMPERING
It is the process of heating the already hardened steel to a temperature lower than its own
hardening temperature and then cooling it slowly. In tempering, the temperature to which

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hardened steel is re-heated is of great significance and controls the development of the final
properties. Thus,
 for retaining strength and hardness, reheating temperature should not exceed 400°C.
 for developing better ductility and toughness, reheating temperature should be within 400 −
600° C.
Purpose:
(i) It removes any stress and strains that might have developed during quenching.
(ii) It reduces the brittleness and also some hardness but toughness and ductility are
simultaneously increased.
(iii) Cutting-tools like blades, cutters, tool-bites always require tempering.
(4) NORMALISING
It is the process of heating steel to a definite temperature (above its higher critical temperature) and
allowing it to cool gradually in air. A normalised steel will not be as soft as an annealed job of the
same material. Also normalising takes much lesser time than annealing process.
Purpose:
(i) It recovers the homogeneity of the steel structure.
(ii) It refines grains. It removes the internal stresses.
(iii) It increases the toughness.
(iv) Normalised steel is suitable for the use in engineering works.
(5) CARBURIZING
The mild steel article is taken in a cast iron box containing small pieces of charcoal (carbon
material). It is then heated to about 900 to 950°C and allowed to keep it as such for sufficient time,
so that the carbon is absorbed to required depth. The article is then allowed to cool slowly within
the iron box itself. The outer skin of the article is onverted into high-carbon steel containing about
0.8 to 1.2% carbon.
Purpose: To produce hard-wearing surface on steel article.
(6) NITRIDING
Nitriding is the process of heating the metal alloy in presence of ammonia at a temperature to about
550°C. The nitrogen (obtained by the dissociation of ammonia) combines with the surface of the
alloy to form hard nitride.
Purpose: To get super-hard surface.

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CLASSIFICATION (OR) TYPES OF ALLOYS
Based on the type of base metals, alloys are classified into two types:
FERROUS ALLOYS
Ferrous alloys are the type of steels in which the elements like Al, B, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn are present
in sufficient quantities, in addition to carbon and iron, to improve the properties of steels.
PROPERTIES OF FERROUS ALLOYS
(i) It possesses high yield point and high strength.
(ii) It possesses sufficient formability, ductility and weld ability.
(iii) They are sufficiently corrosion and abrasion resistant.
(iv) Distortion and cracking are less.
(v) High temperature strength is greater.
IMPORTANT FERROUS ALLOYS
NICHROME
Nichrome is an alloy of nickel and chromium. Its composition is:
PROPERTIES:
(i) It shows good resistance to oxidation and heat.
(ii) Steels containing 16 to 20% chromium with low carbon content (0.06 to 0.15%)
possess oxidation resistance upto 900°C.
(iii) Steel containing 18% nickel, with small amounts of chromium can withstand
temperature above 900°C.
(iv) It possesses high melting point.
(v) It can withstand heat upto 1000 to 1100°C.
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(vi) It possesses high electrical resistance.

USES:
(i) It is widely used for making resistance coils, heating elements in stoves.
(ii) It is also used in electric irons and other household electrical appliances.
(iii) It is used in making parts of boilers, gas-turbines, aero-engine valves, retorts and
annealing boxes.
(iv) It is also used in making other machineries or equipments exposed to very high
temperatures.
STAINLESS STEELS (OR) CORROSION RESISTANT STEELS
These are alloy steels containing chromium together with other elements such as nickel,
molybdenum, etc. Chromium is effective if its content is 16% or more. The carbon content in
stainless steel ranges from 0.3 to 1.5%.
Stainless steel resists corrosion by atmospheric gases and also by other chemicals. Protection
against corrosion is mainly due to the formation of dense, non - porous, tough film of chromium
oxide at the surface of metal. If this film cracks, it gets automatically healed-up by atmospheric
oxygen.
TYPES OF STAINLESS STEEL:
(1) Heat treatable stainless steels.
(2) Non heat treatable stainless steels.
(a) HEAT TREATABLE STAINLESS STEEL:
COMPOSITION:
These steels mainly contain upto 1.2% of carbon and less than 12-16% of chromium.
PROPERTIES:
Heat - treatable stainless steels are magnetic, tough and can be worked in cold condition.
USES:
(i) They can be used upto 800°C.
(ii) They are very good resistant towards weather and water.
(iii) They are used in making surgical instruments, scissors, blades, etc.,
(b) NON - HEAT TREATABLE STAINLESS STEEL:
These steels possess less strength at high temperature. They are more resistant to corrosion.
TYPES OF NON-HEAT TREATABLE STAINLESS STEEL:
According to their composition, they are of two types
(i) Magnetic type
(ii) Non-Magnetic type

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(I) MAGNETIC TYPE

COMPOSITION:
It contains 12 - 22% of chromium and 0.35% of carbon.
PROPERTIES:
1. It can be rolled and machined by the use of specially designed tools.
2. It resists corrosion better than heat-treatable stainless steel.
USES:
It is used in making chemical equipment and automobile parts.
(II) NON-MAGNETIC TYPE
COMPOSITION:
It contains 18 - 26% of chromium, 8 - 21% of nickel and 0.15% of carbon. Total percentage of
Cr and Ni in such steel is more than 23%.
18/8 Stainless Steel
If it contains 18% Cr and 8% Ni, it is referred to as 18/8 stainless steel. It is the most widely used
stainless steel.
PROPERTIES:
1. It exhibits maximum resistance to corrosion
2. Corrosion resistance of which can be further increased by adding a little quantity of
molybdenum.
USES:
It is used in making household utensils, sinks, dental and surgical instruments.
INTRODUCTION
System is a part of the universe which is focused for chemical study.
Surroundings are the rest of the system.
Boundary is the real or imaginary surface that separates the system and surroundings.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
IRREVERSIBLE REACTION: These types of reactions are represented by a single forward
arrow.
Zn + H2SO4 s ZnSO4 + H2r
NaCl + AgNO3 s NaNO3 + AgCl t
REVERSIBLE REACTION: These types of reactions are represented by two arrows in opposite
direction.
(a) Homogeneous reversible reaction:
N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3 (g)

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2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

(b) Heterogeneous reversible reaction:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 In reversible reaction when the rate of forward reaction becomes equal to the rate of
backward reaction, the equilibrium state is reached.
 The equilibrium is said to be homogeneous when all the reactants and products are in the
same states.
 The equilibrium is said to be heterogeneous when all the reactants and products are in the
different states.
 The homogeneous reversible reactions can be studied using the law of mass action proposed
by Guldberg and Waage in 1864.
 The behavior of heterogeneous reversible reactions can be studied by phase rule given by
Willard Gibbs (1874).
INTRODUCTION TO PHASE RULE:

“Phase rule predicts quantitatively by means of a diagram the effect of pressure, temperature and
concentration on the equilibrium existing between different phases of heterogeneous or poly-phase
systems.”
GIBBS PHASE RULE
It states that “when the equilibrium between any number of phases is not influenced by gravity (or)
electricity (or) magnetic forces but is influenced by pressure, temperature and concentration, then
the number of degrees of freedom (F) of the system is related to the number of components (C) and
number of phases by the phase rule equation
F=C–P+2
Where,
P is the number of phases present in equilibrium
C is the number of components of the system
F is the number of degrees of freedom for the equilibrium and
2 represents the variables T & P.
EXPLANATION OF IMPORTANT TERMS INVOLVED IN PHASE RULE:
 PHASE(P)
Definition: “Any homogeneous physically distinct and mechanically separable part of a system
which is separated from other parts of the system by definite boundaries”.

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A phase is a form of matter that has same physical and chemical properties throughout.
 GASEOUS PHASE
A pure gas or a mixture of gases constitutes a single phase.
All gases are completely miscible and there is no boundary between one gas and the other i.e., all
the gases are freely mixed with each other to form a homogeneous mixture.
Examples:
 A mixture of N2, O2, CO2, and water vapour - single phase
 Pure O2 gas – single phase
 Mixture of CO and N2 – single phase
 LIQUID PHASE
The number of liquid phases depends on the number of liquids present and their miscibilities.
 If two or more liquids are completely miscible with each other, then they will form a one
liquid phase.
Example: A solution of ethanol & water.
 A mixture of two immiscible liquids on standing forms two separate layers.
Example: A mixture of benzene & water.
 AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
An aqueous solution of a solid substance in a solvent forms a single phase only.
Example: Sugar or NaCl solution
 SOLID PHASE
Each solid constitutes a separate phase.
Example 1:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Two solid phases, one gaseous phase- three phase system
Example 2:
Ice (s) Water (l) Vapour (g)
 MIXTURE OF SOLIDS:
A phase must have throughout the same physical and chemical properties.
Ordinary sulphur occurs in nature as a mixture of rhombic and monoclinic sulphur. These
allotropes of sulphurposses the same chemical species but differ in their physical properties.
Thus a mixture of two allotropes is a two phase system. If a substance exists in more than one
crystalline form, each form is considered as a distinct phase.

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 COMPONENT (C)
The number of components of a system at equilibrium is “the smallest number of independent
variable chemical constituents, by means of which the composition of each phase can be expressed
in the form of a chemical equation”.
To understand the above definition and to use it for finding the number of components of a system:
 The chemical formula representing the composition of a phase is written on LHS.
 The rest of the chemical constituents existing independently in the system are represented
by chemical formulas are placed on RHS.
 The quantities of constituents on RHS can be made minus or zero to get at the composition
of the phase on LHS.
 For expressing the chemical composition of each phase in the system, positive, negative and
zero values of the constituents may be used.
Example:
(1) Water system – three phases
Ice (s) Water (l) Vapour (g)
The chemical composition of all the three phases is expressed in terms of one chemical individual
H2O, but it is in different physical form. Hence it is a one component system.
(2) Sulphur system - four phases namely rhombic, monoclinic, liquid and vapour.
S (r) S (m) S (l) S (g)
The chemical composition of each phase can be expressed in terms of sulphur only.
Hence it is a one component system.
(3) Mixture of gases: A mixture of O2 & N2 constitutes a single phase but it is a two
component system.Its composition can be expressed by two chemical substances O2 and N2.
Phase Components
Gaseous mixture = x O2 + y N2
The number of components of a gaseous mixture is given by the number of individual gases
present.
(4) Aqueous Solution: A solution of NaCl in water is a single phase system. Its composition
can be expressed in terms of two chemical individuals NaCl& H2O.
Phase Components
Aq. soln. of NaCl = xNaCl + y H2O
An aqueous solution of any solute in a suitable solvent is a two component system.
(5) ThermalDecomposition of CaCO3:
CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

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The system consists of three phases. It is a two component system.

Reason: The chemical compositon of all the three phases can be expressed in terms of atleast any
two of the three independent variable constituents CaCO3 ,CaO and CO2 in equilibrium.
When CaCO3&CaO are chosen as the two components, then the composition of three different
phases can be represented as follows:
Phase Components
CaCO3 = CaCO3 + OCaO
CaO = OCaCO3 + CaO
CO2 = CaCO3 – CaO
(6) CuSO .5H O CuSO4.3H2O (s) + 2H2O(l)
4 2 (s)
P = 3 and C = 2
The chemical composition of each phase can be represented by CuSO4 and H2O. Hence it is a two
component system.
(7) Dissociation of ammonium chloride:
NH4Cl (s) NH3 (g) + HCl (g)
P = 2 and C = 1
The system has two phases. The composition of both the phases can be represented by the same
chemical compound, NH4Cl when NH3 & HCl are present in the same proportion as they are
present in the solid NH4Cl.
Since the phase rule does not distinguish between a chemical compound (NH4Cl) and its
constituents (NH3+HCl) present in the same proportion in homogeneous mixture, this system is
considered as one component system.
The composition of both the phases can be expressed in terms of the same chemical individual
NH4Cl.
Phase Components
Solid = NH4Cl
Gaseous = x NH3 + x HCl (or) x NH4Cl
If the vapour phase of the system does not have the same composition as they are present in the
solid, the system will be no longer one component. Suppose if we introduce excess of NH3 or HCl
it will become a two component system.
Phase Components
NH4Cl (s) = x NH4Cl + 0 HCl
Gaseous phase = x NH4Cl + y HCl
= x NH3 + x HCl + y HCl

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(8) Na2SO4 – water system:

It is a two component system because the composition of each phase can be expressed in terms of
Na2SO4 and H2O.
Phase Components
Na2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 0 H2O
Na2SO4.7H2O = Na2SO4 + 7 H2O
Na2SO4.10 H2O = Na2SO4 + 10 H2O
H2O (g) = 0 Na2SO4 + H2O
Na2SO4 (l) = Na2SO4 + x H2O
(9) PCl5 (s) PCl3(l) + Cl2(g)
P = 3 and C = 2
Though there are three molecular species the number of components will be only two. This is
because the number of moles or concentration of any two of the three species can be altered and the
concentration of the third species will be automatically fixed. It is noted that if the temperature
involved is very high all the constituents will be in the gaseous state and then there will be only one
component.
 DEGREE OF FREEDOM (F)
Definition: “The minimum number of independent variable factors such as temperature, pressure
and composition, which must be fixed in order to define the system completely”.
A system having 1, 2, 3 or 0 degrees of freedom is called univariant, bivariant, trivariant and non
variant respectively.
Examples:
(1) Ice (g) Water (l) Vapour (g)
These three phases will be in equilibrium only at a particular temperature and pressure.
C = 1, P = 3. Hence, F = C – P + 2 = 1 – 3 + 2 = 0 (Non-variant).
(2) Water (l) Vapour (g)
P = 2 and C = 1, F = C – P + 2 = 1 – 2 + 2 = 1 (Univariant (or) Monovariant).
(3) For a gaseous mixture of N2 and H2, we must state both the pressure and temperature.
P = 1 and C = 2, F = C – P + 2 = 2 – 1 + 2 = 3 (Trivariant).
(4) For pure gas, the degree of freedom is two.
P = 1 and C =1, F = C – P + 2 = 1 – 1 + 2 = 2 (Bivariant).
MERITS OF PHASE RULE
 It is applicable to both physical and chemical equilibria.
 It does not take into account the nature or amount of the substances.

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 It indicates that systems having the same number of degrees of freedom behave similarly.
 It helps in studying the behaviour of systems when subjected to changes in temperature,
pressure and concentration.
 It predicts whether the number of phases would remain in equilibrium or not if some of the
substances have been transformed to a new substance.
 It is applicable to macroscopic system, so it requires no information regarding
molecular/micro-structure.
 It is a convenient method of classifying the equilibrium states in terms of phases,
components and degrees of freedom.
LIMITATIONS OF PHASE RULE
 It is applicable only to heterogeneous systems in equilibrium.
 It concentrates mainly on the number of phases rather than their amounts.
 It takes into account only the P, T & C. The influence of other factors such as electrical,
magnetic, gravitational forces, etc. is ignored.
 Solid and liquid phases must not be in finely divided state, otherwise deviations occur.
 It assumes that all the phases of the system must be present simultaneously under the same
conditions of pressure and temperature.
PHASE DIAGRAM
Phase diagram is a graphical representation obtained by plotting one degree of freedom against
another. A diagram which illustrates the conditions of equilibrium between various phases of a
substance is called a phase diagram.
TYPES OF PHASE DIAGRAM P-T
DIAGRAM
If the pressure is plotted against temperature, the diagram is called P-T diagram.
P-T diagram is used to explain one component systems.
T- C DIAGRAM
If the temperature is plotted against composition, the diagram is called T-C diagram.
T-C diagram is used to explain two component systems.
USES OF PHASE DIAGRAM
 The phase diagrams are useful in understanding the properties of materials in the
heterogeneous equilibrium system.
 It helps in proper understanding of the relative stability of equilibrium between phases.
 From the knowledge of the number of phases and components of the system, phase rule
enables one to predict conditions under which a system can remain in equilibrium.

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 They help in studying and controlling the various processes such as phase separation,
solidification of metals and change of structure during heat treatment like annealing,
quenching, tempering, etc.
 It is possible to predict from the phase diagrams whether a eutectic alloy or a solid solution
is formed on cooling a homogeneous liquid containing mixture of two metals.
APPLICATION OF PHASE RULE TO ONE COMPONENT WATER SYSTEM
Water exists in three possible phases namely: solid, liquid and vapour. Hence, there can be three
forms of equilibria.
Solid Liquid
Liquid Vapour
Solid Vapour
Each of the above equilibrium involves two phases.
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PHASE DIAGRAM:

(a) Curves or lines OA, OB, OC and OA‟
(b) Areas AOB,BOC and AOC
(c) Triple point „O‟
(i) CURVE OA:
 The curve OA is called vapourisation curve.

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 It represents the equilibrium between water and water vapour. At any point on the curve the
following equilibrium will exist.
Water Water vapour
 The degree of freedom along the line OA is one, as predicted by the phase rule
F = C − P + 2; F = 1 − 2 + 2; F = 1 (univariant)
 This equilibrium (i.e. line OA) will extend upto the critical temperature (374°C). Beyond
the critical temperature the equilibrium will disappear and only water vapour will exist.
(ii)CURVE OB:
 The curve OB is called sublimation curve of ice.
 It represents the equilibrium between ice and water vapour. At any point on the curve the
following equilibrium will exist.
Ice Vapour
 The degree of freedom along the line OB is one, as predicted by the phase rule
 This equilibrium (line OB) will extend upto the absolute zero (− β7γ°C), where no vapour
can be present and only ice will exist.
(iii)CURVE OC:
 The curve OC is called melting point curve of ice.
 It represents the equilibrium between ice and water. At any point on the curve the following
equilibrium will exist.
Ice Water
 The curve OC is slightly inclined towards pressure axis. This shows that melting point of ice
decreases with increase of pressure.
 The degree of freedom along the line OC is one, as predicted by the phase rule
(iv)TRIPLE POINT „O‟:
 The three curves OA, OB and OC meet at a point „O‟, where three phases namely solid,
liquid and vapour are simultaneously at equilibrium.
 This point is called triple point, at this point the following equilibrium will exist:
Ice(s) Water(l) Vapour(g)
 The degree of freedom of the system is zero, as predicted by the phase rule
F = C − P + 2; F = 1 − 3 + 2; F = 0 (nonvariant)
 Temperature and pressure corresponding to the triple point „O‟ are 0.0075°C and
4.58 mm.

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(v) CUR↑E OA‟ (METASTABLE EQUILIBRIUM):

 The curve OA′ is called vapour pressure curve of the super-cool water or metastable
equilibrium where the following equilibrium will exist.
Super - cool water Vapour
 Sometimes water can be cooled below 0°C without the formation of ice, this water is called
super-cooled water. Super cooled water is unstable and it can be converted into solid by
“seeding” or by slight disturbance.
(vi) AREAS:
 Area AOC, BOC, AOB represents water, ice and vapour respectively. In order to define the
system at any point in the areas, it is essential to specify both temperature and pressure.
 The degree of freedom of the system is two, as predicted by the phase rule
F = C − P + 2; F = 1 − 1 + 2; F = 2 (Bivariant)
TWO COMPONENT ALLOY SYSTEM
Reduced Phase rule or Condensed phase rule
For a two component system,
F=C–P+2=2-P+2=4–P
Since the minimum number of phases in any system is one, the maximum number of degrees of
freedom in a two component system is three (F = 4 – P = 4 – 1 = 3).
This means that three variables must be specified in order to describe the system. Thus in such a
system, in addition to P & T, the composition of one of the components has also to be given. For
graphical representation of these variables, three coordinate axes at right angles to each other are
required. Therefore the phase diagram obtained would be a three dimensional figure or a solid
model, which cannot be represented on a paper.
For the sake of having simple plane diagrams we generally consider any two variables for the
graphic representation, assuming the third one being constant.
Based on this, the following three types of phase diagrams are possible.
• Pressure - Temperature diagram
• Pressure - Composition diagram

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• Temperature – Composition diagram
But in most of the cases it is usually convenient to keep pressure constant at the atmospheric value
and a T- C diagram is often used.
A diagram drawn for a constant value of temperature is called isothermal, while one obtained
by keeping composition constant is calledisoplethal diagram.
In case of systems consisting of only solid and liquid phases, small changes of pressures have
very little effect on the systems. Such systems are called condensed systems.
Example: A solid - liquid equilibrium of an alloy system has practically no gaseous phase and the
effect of pressure is negligible. Therefore, experiments are conducted under atmospheric pressure.
Thus, the system in which only the solid and liquid phases are considered and the gas phase is
ignored is called a condensed system. Since the pressure is kept constant, the degree of freedom
reduces by one. Thus, the phase rule becomes
F‟ = C – P + 1
This equation is known as reduced or condensed phase rule. This reduced phase rule is applicable
to solid-liquid two component condensed system. The phase diagram of such system consists of T-
C graph.
CLASSIFICATION OF TWO COMPONENT SYSTEM
Based on the solubility and reactive ability, the two component systems are classified into three
types.
 Simple eutectic formation
 (a) Formation of compound with congruent melting point
(b) Formation of compound with incongruent melting point
 Solid solution formation
TYPE 1: SIMPLE EUTECTIC FORMATION
 Two solid substances can form a simple eutectic under the following conditions:
 They must be completely miscible in the liquid state but immiscible in the solid state.
 They should not react chemically with each other.
 Therefore, the eutectic has the same composition both in liquid and solid states.

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 They do not form any compound and on solidification they give rise to an intimate mixture
known as eutectic.
 Eutectic has a sharp melting point as the pure metals. Hence eutectic composition is a
unique mixture of two solids, which has the lowest melting point.
 Examples: Lead-Silver system, Bismuth-Cadmium system
TYPE 2: The two components enter into the chemical combination giving rise to one or more
stable compounds.
CLASS I:Formation of compounds with congruent melting point:
 When two solid substances combine in a definite proportion, they react to form a
compound which is stable upto its melting point.
 At the melting point, it melts at constant temperature to give a liquid of the same
composition as that of thesolid compound.
 The compound formed which melts sharply at a constant temperature into a liquid, having
the same composition as that of solid, is said to have a congruent melting point.
 Examples: Zn-Mg system; Sn-Mg system (Intermetallic compounds formed by the
combination of metals). FeCl3-H2O (Formation of salt hydrates involving salt and water).
CLASS II:Formation of compounds with incongruent melting point:
 The compounds formed by the combination of two solid substances, does not remain stable
up to the melting point.
 When such a compound is heated, instead of melting sharply, its starts decomposing before
the melting point to give a new solid phase and a solution (liquid melt) with a composition
different from that of the solid phase.
 Such a compound is said to undergo a transition and is said to have incongruent melting
point.
S1(original solid)  S2(new solid) + Solution
 Examples: Na2SO4-H2O system, Sodium-Potassium system, Gold-Antimony system.
TYPE 3: Formation of Solid Solution:
 When two substances, especially metals are completely miscible in both the solid and liquid
states, they form solid solution.
 The condition for the formation of solid solution is the two metals should not differ in
atomic radius by more than 15%.
 Example: Copper-Nickel system
In all the types, measurements are made at constant pressure. Therefore one of the independent
variable gets fixed. This reduces the degree of freedom by one.
The reduced phase rule equation for two component system is written as:

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F = C – P +1 = 2 – P + 1 = 3 – P
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF A SIMPLE EUTECTIC PHASE
DIAGRAM BY THERMAL ANALYSIS (OR) COOLING CURVE METHOD
It involves the study of cooling curve of various compositions of two solids during
solidification. In this method a mixture of two components A & B of known composition is heated
to get a homogeneous liquid melt. The melt is then cooled at a slow rate with constant stirring. The
cooling temperature is recorded at regular intervals till it completely solidifies. The same method is
repeated for different compositions of alloy mixture ranging from 0 to 100%. The plots are known
as cooling curves for a particular composition.
Example 1: Consider a pure solid substance in the fused state. Allow it to cool slowly. The
temperature is noted at different time intervals. Then a graph is plotted between temperature and
time.
Cooling curve of a pure metal

a : Represents the pure metal is in molten state.
ab: Along „ab‟, the temperature of the melt decreases gradually with time.
b : The point „b‟ indicates the temperature at which the molten metal starts freezing at its
surface.
bc: Along „bc‟ the liquid melt and solid metal are in equilibrium. Further the temperature
remains constant until the liquid melt is completely solidified because the liquid melt and
solid metal have same composition.
c : Indicates the end of freezing.
cd: Along „cd‟, the temperature of the solid metal again decreases with time.
Example 2: Consider a mixture of two solids A & B

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Cooling curve of a mixture of two solids A & B

a : Represents a mixture of solid A and solid B in molten state.
ab : Along „ab‟, the temperature of the mixture A & B decreases gradually with time.
b : The point „b‟ indicates the temperature at which the freezing of base metal ( either A or
B depends upon their freezing point) starts from the liquid mixture.
bc : Along „bc‟ the liquid melt and solid metal A (or solid metal B) are in equilibrium.
Further, the line „bc‟ indicates the composition of molten mixture progressively changes
due to continuous separation of solid A (or B) with time.
c : The point at which the liquid mixture (containing both A&B) starts freezing into solid A
and solid B (eutectic mixture)
cd : Along „cd‟, the liquid mixture and solid A & B are in equilibrium.
d : Indicates the end of freezing of eutectic mixture.
de : Along „de‟, the temperature of the solid again decreases with time.
CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE EUTECTIC DIAGRAM
It is possible to construct a complete phase diagram for the two component system on the basis of
large number of cooling curves of various compositions. Each curve corresponds to a definite
composition of A and B. The first break or discontinuity in the graph (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i) denotes
phase transformation (freezing point of either A or B). The eutectic phase diagram is obtained by
plotting various compositions of two substances (in X-axis) against the first break point (in Y-axis),
which is nothing but characteristic temperature.

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COOLING CURVES OF VARIOUS COMPOSITIONS OF TWO SOLIDS

(1) Pure A (6) 30% A + 70 % B
(2) 80% A + 20 % B (7) 20% A + 80 % B
(3) 70% A + 30 % B (8) 10% A + 90 % B
(4) 60% A + 40 % B (9) Pure B
(5) 40% A + 60 % B
USES OF COOLING CURVES
• Melting point and Eutectic point can be noted from cooling curve.
• The behavior of the compound can be clearly understood from the cooling curve.
• Percentage purity of the compounds can be noted from the cooling curve.
• The composition corresponding to its freezing point yields the composition of the alloy.
• The procedure of thermal analysis can be used to derive the phase diagram of any two
component system.

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TWO COMPONENT PHASE DIAGRAM FOR A BINARY ALLOY SYSTEM
(OR) THE SIMPLE EUTECTIC
Salient Features of the phase diagram:

Curves: The eutectic phase diagram consists of two curves Ac and BC. Along the curve, two
phases (Solid Liquid melt) are in equilibrium and hence the system is univariant
(F = 2 – 2 + 1 = 1).
Point E (Eutectic point): The curve AC & BC intersect at C which is called Eutectic point. At the
eutectic point three phases are in equilibrium.
Solid A + Solid B Liquid melt
Hence the system is non-variant (F = 2 – 3 + 1 = 0).
Areas: The eutectic phase diagram consists of four distinct areas
(i) Above ACB has a single phase (molten A & B)
(ii) Below AC (solid A + liquid melt)
(iii) Below BC (solid B + liquid melt) and
(iv) Below the point DCE (solid A + solid B)
LEAD SILVER SYSTEM (SIMPLE EUTECTIC BINARY ALLOY SYSTEM)
This system has two components and four phases. The phases are (i) solid silver (ii) solid lead
(iii) solution of molten Ag &Pb and (iv) vapour. The boiling points of Ag &Pb being considerably
high, the vapour phase is practically absent. Thus Pb/Ag is condensed system with three phases. In
such a case, pressure can have no effect on the system. Therefore we need only two variables,
namely temperature (T) and composition (C).

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PHASE DIAGRAM OF LEAD-SILVER SYSTEM
SALIENT FEATURES OF THE PHASE DIAGRAM:

• Two lines (or) curves AC and BC
• Eutectic point „C‟
• Four areas : Area above ACB, below AC, below BC and below DCE
(i) Curve AC:
• „A‟ represents the melting point of pure Ag (961OC).
• The curve AC is the freezing point curve of Ag.
• Addition of Pb lowers the melting point of Ag along the curve AC.
• Along AC, solid Ag and liquid melt (solution of Ag &Pb) are in equilibrium.
• Applying reduced phase rule, F‟ = C - P + 1 = 2 – 2 + 1 = 1. Hence the system is univariant
along the curve AC.
(ii) Curve BC:
• „B‟ represents the melting point of pure lead (γβ7OC).
• The curve BC is the freezing point curve of Pb.
• Addition of Ag lowers the melting point of Pb along the curve BC.
• Along BC, the solid Pb and liquid melt (solution of Ag &Pb) are in equilibrium.
• Applying reduced phase rule, F‟ = C - P + 1 = 2 – 2 + 1 = 1. Hence the system is univariant
along the curve BC.
(iii) Eutectic Point „C‟:
 The curve AC and BC intersect at „C‟ which is called eutectic point.

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 Below the point „C‟ both Pb& Ag exist in the solid state.
 At this point three phases (solid Ag, solid Pb and their liquid melt) are in equilibrium.
Solid Pb + Solid Ag Liquid melt
• Applying reduced phase rule, F‟ = C – P + 1 = 2 – 3 + 1 = 0. Hence the system is nonvariant
at point „C‟.
• Eutectic point is the lowest possible temperature (303oC) in the system that corresponds to
fixed composition (97.4% Pb& 2.6 % Ag), below which a liquid phase cannot exist and
above which the solid phases disappear.
• The temperature and composition corresponding to the eutectic point „C‟ are called eutectic
temperature and eutectic composition.
• A liquid mixture of two components – Ag &Pb, which has the lowest freezing point
compared to all other liquid mixtures, is called eutectic mixture.
(iv) Areas:
• The area above ACB represents a single phase (solution of molten Pb& Ag).
• Applying reduced phase rule, F‟ = C – P + 1 = 2 – 1 + 1 = 2. The system is bivariant.
• Area below AC represent the phases solid Ag + liquid melt, area below BC represents the
phases solid Pb + liquid melt and area below „DCE‟ represents
solidPb + solid Ag.
• All the three areas have two phases and hence the system is univariant.
(F‟ = C – P + 1 = 2 – 2 + 1 = 1)
APPLICATION OF LEAD-SILVER SYSTEM
Pattinson‟s Process for the Desilverisation of Argentiferous Lead:

The process of recovery of silver from argentiferous lead is called as desilverisation.
Argentiferous lead contain very small amount of silver (less than 0.1%). Desilverisation of lead is
based on the formation of eutectic mixture.
Argentiferous lead is heated well above the melting point of pure lead (327 oC) so that the system
consists only of the liquid phase represented by the point „a‟ in the phase diagram. →hen the liquid
melt is allowed to cool gradually, the temperature of the melt falls along the dashed line „ab‟. As
soon as the temperature corresponding to „b‟ is reached, solid lead begins to separate and the
solution would contain relatively larger amount of silver. On further cooling, more and more of
lead is separated along BO. At „O‟, a eutectic mixture consisting of β.6% Ag and 97.4% Pb is
obtained. The eutectic alloy is then treated for the recovery of silver profitably. The process of
raising the relative proportion of Ag in the alloy is known as Pattinson‟s process.

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APPLICATIONS OF EUTECTIC SYSTEM

 Suitable alloy composition can be predicted with the use of eutectic system.
 Eutectic systems are applicable for the composition of a metal in quantitative manner. (e.g)
Desilverisation of argentiferous lead.
 Eutectic systems are used in preparing solders, used for joining two metal pieces together.
 Low melting alloys which are used in safety devices, fire-sprinklers and as „fail safe‟ device
in boilers can be prepared by suitable choice of metals.
• Right side consists of MgZn2 and Mg system.
UNIT IV – FUELS AND COMBUSTION
INTRODUCTION
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as the main constituent, which on proper
burning gives large amount of heat which can be used economically for domestic and industrial
purposes eg. Wood, charcoal, kerosene, diesel, petrol etc.
During combustion atoms present in the fuel such as carbon, hydrogen, etc. combine with
oxygen with the simultaneous liberation of heat at a rapid rate. The products formed will have less
energy or heat content than the reactants. It is this difference in energy or heat content that is
released as energy or heat.
Fuel + O2 products + heat
More heat energy content lesser heat energy content
C + O2 CO2 + 94Kcals.
Classification of Fuels
Fossil fuels have been classified according to
1)Occurrence
2) State of aggregation

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Classification based on occurrence

1) Natural or primary fuels which occur in nature as such eg. wood, peat, coal, petroleum, natural
gas etc.
2) Artificial or secondary fuels are those which are prepared from the primary fuels eg. charcoal,
coke, kerosene oil, diesel oil, petrol, coal gas, producer gas etc.
Fuel
Natural or Artificial or
Primary Fuels Secondary fuels
(ii) Accordin g to state (ii) Accordin g to state

of aggregation of aggreg ation
Solid Liquid Gaseous Solid Liquid Gaseous

eg. eg. eg. Natural eg. eg. eg.
Wood, Coal Crude oil gas Coke Kerosene Coal gas
The second classification is based on the state of aggregation like

a) Solid fuels
b) Liquid fuels
c) Gaseous fuels
Requirements of a good fuel
1) High calorific value
2) Moderate ignition temperature
3) Should not undergo combustion
4) Moderate velocity of combustion
5) Combustion should be easily controlled
6) Low moisture content
7) Low non-combustible matter content
8) Products of combustion should not burn
9) Should burn in air with efficiency without much smoke
10) Low cost
11) Easy to transport
12) Storage cost in bulk should be minimum

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CALORIFIC VALUE
Calorific value is a measure of the efficiency of a fuel.
The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the total amount of heat liberated by the
complete combustion of a unit mass of the fuel.
Unit of Heat Measurement
The quantity of heat can be measured by the following units:
1) Calorie:
Calorie is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of water
through 1oC (15 to 16oC)
2) Kilocalorie:
Kilocalorie is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a
kilogram of water through one degree centigrade.
1 kcal = 1000 cal.
3) British Thermal unit (B.Th.U)
British Thermal Unit is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water through one degree Fahrenheit (60-61oF)
1 B.Th.U = 252 Cal = 0.252 kcal
or 1 kcal = 3.968 B.Th.U.
4) Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U.)
Centigrade heat unit is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of
water through one degree centigrade.
Thus 1 kcal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U.
Units of Calorific Value
The calorific value is generally expressed in calorie / gram (cal/g) or kilocalorie/kg (kcal/kg)
or British thermal unit/lb (B.Th.U. / lb) in case of solid or liquid fuels.
B.Th.U. / Cubic feet (B.Th.U/ft3).
Classification of calorific value
 Higher Calorific Value

 Lower Calorific Value
GROSS (OR) HIGH CALORIFIC VALUE AND NET (OR) LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE
When a fuel containing hydrogen is burnt, the hydrogen present in the fuel undergoes
combustion and is converted into steam. If the products of combustion are cooled to room
temperature, the steam gets condensed into water and latent heat is evolved. Hence in the calorific

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value determination this latent heat of condensation of steam will also be included. This is hence
referred to as higher calorific value or gross calorific value (GCV or HCV).
Gross calorific value (GCV) is hence defined as the total amount of heat produced when
one unit of the fuel has been burnt completely and the products of combustion have been cooled to
room temperature.
In actual use of a fuel the water vapour and moisture are not condensed and escape along
with the combustion gases. Hence only a lesser amount of heat is available and this is called the
lower or net calorific value.
Net or Lower calorific value(LCV) is “the net heat produced when unit mass/volume of
the fuel is burnt completely and the products are permitted to escape”.
Theoretical calculation of calorific value
The calorific value of the fuel can be approximately computed if the percentages of the
various elementary constituents such as C, H, O, S are available.
The higher calorific value of some of the chief combustible constituents of a fuel are as
tabulated below:
Calorific value of fuel constituents:
Constituent Hydrogen Carbon Sulphur
HCV (kcal/ Kg) 34500 8080 2240
The oxygen present in the fuel is assumed to be present in the combined form with hydrogen i.e. in
the form of fixed hydrogen viz. H2O.
Hence hydrogen available for combustion will be
= Total mass of hydrogen in fuel – Fixed Hydrogen
= Total mass of hydrogen in fuel – (1/8) mass of oxygen in the fuel
(since 8 parts of oxygen combine with one part of hydrogen to form water)
The quantity of hydrogen in combination with oxygen will not take part in the combustion reaction.
So the surplus hydrogen available for combustion is H – 0/8
According to Dulong, the calorific value of a fuel is the sum of the calorific values of its
constituent elements.
The calorific values of C, H and S are found to be 8080, 34500 and 2240 kcals when 1 kg
of the fuel is burnt completely.
Dulong‟s formula for GCV is
GCV = [8080 C + 34500 (H - O/8) +2240 S] Kcals/Kg or cal / gm
In Dulongs formula C, H, O and S represent the percentage of the corresponding elements.
9
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LCV = GCV – H  587 kcals/kg

100
Net calorific value or LCV = (Gross calorific value - Latent heat of condensation of vapour
produced)
LCV = GCV – mass of hydrogen per unit weight of the fuel burnt  9  Latent heat of steam
[One part by weight of hydrogen produces nine parts by weight of water as follows.
H2 + O H2 O
2g 16g 18 g
1 8 9
Latent Heat of Steam is 587 cal/g]
9H
Thus NCV = GCV – ----- x 587
100
= GCV – 0.09 x H x 587
Where H = % of H2 in the fuel
COAL
Coal and its varieties (or) coalification of wood (or) rank of coal (or)
classification of coal by rank
Coal is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been formed as a result of alteration of vegetable
matter (eg. plants) under certain favourable conditions. It is chiefly composed of C, H, N and O
besides non-combustible inorganic matter.
The rank of coal stands for its degree of maturity or degree of alteration or coalification
from the parent material wood.
Wood Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthracite
moisture content H, O, N & S content, volatile matter
carbon content, calorific value and hardness
The progressive transformation of wood to anthracite results in
i) decrease in the moisture content
ii) decrease in hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen &sulphur contents
iii) decrease in volatile matter content
iv) increase in carbon content from 57% to 93%
v) Increase in calorific value
vi) Increase in hardness

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Analysis of Coal
The quality of coal can be assessed by
(a)Proximate analysis
(b)Ultimate analysis
(a) PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
It involves determination of
(i) Moisture
 Significance
When coal is burnt the moisture in it will evaporate. This moisture will take away some of
the liberated heat in the form of latent heat of evaporation. Therefore the presence of moisture will
lower the effective calorific value of coal Besides this the moisture will also quench the fire in the
furnace.
Hence lesser the moisture content better will be the quality of coal as a fuel.
 Determination of moisture
About 1 gm of finely powdered air dried coal sample is weighed in a crucible. This is then
placed in an air-oven maintained at 105oC – 110oC. After 1 hr the crucible is taken out, cooled in a
desiccator and weighed. Loss in weight gives the moisture content.
Loss in weight
Percentage of moisture = x 100
Wt. of coal taken
ii) Volatile Matter
Significance
If the content of volatile matter is high it means a large part of the fuel will escape unburnt.
Hence coal with higher volatile content is undesirable. Lesser the volatile matter better will be the
rank of coal.
Determination of volatile matter
The procedure for determination of moisture is repeated. The dried sample of coal left in
the crucible is then covered with a lid and placed in an electric furnace maintained at 925oC +
20oC. The crucible is taken out of the oven after 7 mts of heating. The crucible is cooled first in
air, then inside a dessicator and weighed again. The loss in weight will give the volatile matter.
Loss in wt due to removal of volatile matter x 100
Percentage of volatile matter = wt of coal sample taken

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iii) Ash content

Significance
Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter and it reduces the calorific value of coal.
a) It hinders the flow of air and heat thereby lowering the temperature.
b) It forms clinkers (fused ash lumps) which will block the interspaces on the grate on which coal is
being burnt. As a result it will block the air supply and the burning of the coal will become
irregular
c) It also increases transporting, handling and storage costs.
d) It causes early wear of furnace walls
e) Ash disposal becomes a problem
Hence lower the ash content the better the quality of coal.
Determination of Ash content
The residual coal in the crucible, for finding the volatile matter is heated without lid in a
muffle furnace at 700 + 50oC for half an hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air,
then in a desiccator and weighed.
Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated till a constant weight is obtained. The residue is ash.
Wt. of ash left
Percentage of ash = x 100
Wt. of coal taken
iv) Fixed Carbon
Significance
If the percentage of fixed carbon is high it means the percentage of volatile matter will be less.
The calorific value and the quality of coal will be greater if the percentage of fixed carbon is high.
Hence high percentage of fixed carbon is desirable.
It is the fixed carbon that burns in the solid state. Hence knowing percentage of fixed carbon helps
in designing the furnace and the shape of the fire box.
Determination of fixed carbon
Percentage of fixed carbon = 100 – % of (moisture + volatile matter + ash)
Hence in proximate analysis we find the percentage of moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and
ash in the coal.
Thus proximate analysis gives the approximate composition of the main constituents of coal.
These results will help in deciding the use of the coal for a particular industry.

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(b) ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

By this method the weight percentage of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur of the pure
coal free from moisture and inorganic constituents is found out. Hence it is an analysis of the
elementary constituents of coal.
(i) Carbon and Hydrogen
Significance
Greater the percentage of carbon, greater will be the quality and calorific value of the coal.
The higher percentage of carbon in coal will reduce the size of the combustion chamber required.
Greater the percentage of hydrogen better will be coal quality and calorific value. But
hydrogen will be mostly associated with the volatile matter. When coal which contains more of
hydrogen is heated it will combine with nitrogen present in the coal forming NH 3. This NH3 is
recovered as (NH4)2 SO4, a useful fertiliser.
Determination of Carbon and Hydrogen
A known weight (wgm) of the coal sample is burnt in a current of oxygen in a combustion
apparatus.C and H of the coal are converted into CO2 and H2O respectively. The gaseous products
of combustion are absorbed respectively in KOH and CaCl2 tubes of known weights. The increase
in weights of these are then determined.
C + O2 CO2
12 44
H2 + ½ O2 H2 O
2 18
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
CaCl2 + 7H2O CaCl2 . 7H2O
Increase in wt of KOH tube 12 x 100
 Percentage of carbon = x
wt. of the coal sample taken 44
Increase in wt of CaCl2 tube 2 x 100

 Percentage of hydrogen = x
wt. of the coal sample taken 18

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(ii) Nitrogen
Significance
Its presence in coal is undesirable as it has no calorific value. Good quality coal should
have low nitrogen content. However when coal is carbonized its N2 and H2 combine thereby
producing NH3 which is recovered as (NH4)2 SO4 a valuable fertilizer.
Determination of Nitrogen in Coal
Nitrogen is estimated using the Kjeldahl‟s flask.
About Wgm of exactly weighed coal is heated with conc. H2SO4 along with K2SO4
(catalyst) in a long-necked flask (called kjeldahl‟s flask). When the solution becomes clear i.e.
when all the nitrogen has been converted to ammonium sulphate it is heated with 50% NaOH.
(NH4)2 SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + 2NH3 + 2H2O
The liberated ammonia is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume of standard H 2SO4 (say
xN). The volume of unused xN H2SO4 is then determined by back titrating against standard NaOH
using phenolphthalein as the indicator. From this the volume of the acid neutralized by ammonia
can be calculated.
Let,
Volume of xN H2SO4 = A ml
Volume of unused xN H2SO4 = B ml
Acid neutralized by ammonia = (A – B) ml
1000 ml of 1N acid  14 gm of N2 (or 17 gm of NH3)
14 x (A – B) xN
(A-B) ml of xN acid = gm of N2
1000 x 1
14 x (A – B) xN
% of N2 in coal =  100
1000  W
14  volume of acid used  Normality
=  100
1000  W
= 1.4  volume of acid used x Normality
W

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(iii) Sulphur
Significance
Presence of sulphur increases calorific value of the coal. It however has undesirable side
effects because its oxidation products like SO2, SO3 etc. in presence of moisture can corrode the
equipments and cause atmospheric pollution.
Determination of Sulphur
When coal is burnt in the bomb calorimeter with oxygen, ash is obtained. This ash will
contain sulphates from the sulphur present in the coal. This is extracted with diluted HCl. On
treatment with BaCl2, barium sulphate will get precipitated. This is filtered, washed, dried and
weighed. Let the weight of BaSO4 obtained = x gm
BaCl2
S + 2O2 SO4 BaSO4
32 233
233 gm of BaSO4 contains 32 gm of sulphur
x gms of BaSO4 will contain
32 x
= gm of sulphur
233
 % of sulphur in coal
32 x
=  100
233 w
Where w is the weight of the coal taken.
iv) Oxygen
Significance
When the oxygen content in the coal is high, the inherent moisture content will be high.
It will have low calorific value and low coking power.
Further if oxygen content is there it will be in combination with hydrogen in coal and hence
the hydrogen available for combustion will be lesser than otherwise.
Presence of oxygen will lower the quality of the coal.
Determination of oxygen in coal
% of oxygen in coal = 100 % of (C + H + N + S + ash)
(v) Ash
Ash determination is done as in proximate analysis

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METALLURGICAL COKE(CARBONISATION OF COAL)

Metallurgical coke is derived from the primary solid fuel coal. When coal is subjected to
destructive distillation (heated in the absence of air) it leaves behind a white lustrous, porous mass
which is called coke. This process is called carbonizationviz preparation of coke from coal.
Types of Carbonization
(i) Low temperature carbonization
If carbonization is carried out in the temperature range of 500-700oC it is called low
temperature carbonization. Low temperature carbonization produces high yield of 75-80% but
the quality of coke produced will be of the lowest rank as it contains 5-15% volatile matter. Hence
it is mostly used as a domestic fuel.
(ii) High temperature carbonization
If carbonization is carried out in the temperature range of 900-1200oC it is called high
temperature carbonisation. High temperature carbonisation produces a yield of 65-75% but the
volatile matter content will be low (1-3%). Coke produced by high temperature carbonisation is of
right porosity and hardness which suits the requirement for metallurgical processes.
Prequisites of coke used in Metallurgy
Good coke for metallurgy should possess the following requisites.
(i) Porosity: It should be porous, so that oxygen can easily come in contact with the carbon of the
coke.
(ii) Strength: The coke should be hard and strong to withstand dropping abrasion as well as
pressure of the over-burden (ore + fuel + flux) in the furnaces.
(iii) Constituents: Coke should have low ash, S and P contents to avoid these getting incorporated
in the metal to be extracted.
(iv) Size :The size of the coke should be neither too big nor too small. If the size of the coke is too
big, the uniformity of heating is never maintained. If the size is too small choking will result.
(v) Cost : Coke should be cheap and easily available near the site of the metallurgical plant so that
the transportation cost is low.
vi) Calorific value: The calorific value of coke should be high.
vii) Combustibility : Coke should burn easily. This will depend on the nature of the coal,
carbonization temperature and reaction temperature.
Coke is superior to coal as a metallurgical fuel, as coke is stronger and more porous, contains lesser
amount of sulphur and less volatile matter than coal.
Manufacture of Matullurgical Coke(Otto-Hoffman‟s Method)
Coke for metallurgical purpose is obtained by Otto Hoffman‟s Process.
Otto Hoffman‟s Byproduct coke oven

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Otto Hoffman devised the modern byproduct coke oven to

i) Increase the thermal efficiency by saving on fuel used.
ii) Recover various byproducts like coal gas, tar, ammonia, naphthalene, benzene, H2S, etc.
A, B, C, D - Coke Ovens
1, 2, 3, 4 - Heat re-generators
Coal Gas
A B C D
1 2 3 4
To Chimney To Chimney
Air Producer gas
Fig. 4.1 Otto Hoffman‟s Byproduct coke oven
Heating is done externally on the basis of “regenerative system of heat economy” Here waste gas
produced during carbonisation is used for heating the heat regenerators or checker-brick works.
The by-product coke oven consists of a number of narrow silica chambers each being about
10 to 12 m long, 3 to 4m high and 0.40 to 0.45 m wide. They are erected side by side with vertical
flues in between them.
The ovens are charged by introducing finely crushed coal through the charging hole at the
top and closed to restrict the entry of air.
Carbonisation is carried out at a temperature of 1200 oC. Preheated air and producer gas will
supply heat for carbonisation through the second and third heat regenerators. If the fuel has a low
calorific value both air and fuel need to be preheated. If the fuel gas has a high calorific value
preheating of air alone will be sufficient.
The flue gases produced during combustion, before escaping to the chimney will pass their
sensible heat to the 1st and 4th regenerators until this brick-work has been raised to a temperature of
about 1000oC. Now the flow of the heating gases will be reversed and the inlet gases will be passed
through the 1st and 4th regenerators. The flue gases will now be made to pass through the 2nd and
3rd heat regenerators to heat them. This will now preheat the inlet gases when the flow is again

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reversed. Thus the cycle will go on and the heating will be continued until all the volatile matter
escapes. The carbonisation time is usually between 11 to 18 hours.
After the carbonisation is complete the red hot coke is removed and quenched by a water
spray wet quenching (or) placed in a chamber and cooled by passing inert gases from boilers
like nitrogendry quenching. These heated inert gases can be circulated to boilers where they can
generate steam.
Coke produced by dry quenching is cheaper, drier and will contain lesser dust than „wet
quenched‟ coke.
Recovery of Byproducts
The gas coming out from the oven during carbonisation is called “coke oven gas”. It contains coal
gas, tar, ammonia, naphthalene, benzene, hydrogen sulphide etc.
i) Recovery of tar
Coke oven gas is passed first through a tower in which liquor ammonia is sprayed. Dust
and tar will collect at the bottom of the tank, which is heated by steam coils to recover back the
ammonia sprayed.
ii) Recovery of ammonia
When passed through a tower in which water is sprayed the ammonia gas will go into
solution as ammonium hydroxide.
iii) Recovery of naphthalene
When passed through another tower in which water at very low temperature is sprayed
naphthalene will condense.
iv) Recovery of benzene
When the gases are sprayed with petroleum, benzene and its homologues will be removed.
v) Recovery of hydrogen sulphide
When the gases are passed through a purifier packed with moist Fe2O3, hydrogen sulphide
will be retained.
Fe2O3 + 3H2S  Fe2S3 + 3H2O
When the conversion of all the Fe2O3 to Fe2S3 is complete the purifier will be exposed to the
atmosphere to regenerate Fe2O3
Fe2S3 + 4O2 2 FeO + 3SO2
4FeO+ O2 2 Fe2O3

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PETROLEUM PROCESSING AND FRACTIONS
Petroleum is also referred to as crude oil. It is a naturally occurring dark greenish-brown

viscous oil found deep under the earth‟s crust. Chemically it is composed of several hydrocarbons
together with small amounts of organic compounds containing nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
The approximate composition of petroleum is 79.5 to 87.1% C ; 11.5 to 14.8% H, 0.1 to 3.5% S
and 0 .1 to 0.5% N + O
Classification of Petroleum
i) Paraffin-base type crude
They consist mainly of n-alkanes viz. saturated hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35H72 together
with a little of naphthalenes and aromatics.
The paraffins from C18 H38 to C35 H72 are semi-solids called waxes
ii) Naphthenic or Asphaltic base type crude
They contain aromatic and alicyclic hydrocarbons
iii) Mixed-base type crude
They contain both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons. They are generally rich in semi-
solid waxes.
Refining of Petroleum or crude oil
The process of removing impurities and separating out the oil into various fractions having
different boiling points is known as refining of petroleum. The plants set up for the purpose are
called oil refineries.
Refining is carried out as follows:
(i) Separation of water: Cottrell‟s process: crude oil is a stable emulsion of oil and salt water.
→ater is separated from the oil by Cottrell‟s process. In this process crude oil is allowed to
flow between two highly charged electrodes. The colloidal water-droplets coalesce to form large
drops, which separate out from the oil.
Modern methods to remove NaCl, MgCl2, etc. from the oil like electrical desalting are also
resorted to.
(ii) Removal of harmful sulphur compounds: when oil is treated with copper oxide, copper
sulphide will be formed. This solid can be removed by filteration.
(iii) Fractional distillation
The crude oil, thus purified, is then heated in an oil heater which is a furnace, where the
temperature is maintained around 400oC. All volatile constituents, except asphalt or coke will
vaporise. The hot vapours are then passed up a fractionating column.

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The fractionating column is a tall cylindrical tower in which a number of horizontal stainless
steel trays are located at short distances. Each tray is provided with a small chimney which is
covered with a loose cap. The tower will be hotter at the bottom and comparatively cooler
upwards. As the vapours move up in the tower they get cooler and cooler and fractional
condensation will occur at different regions of the column. Higher boiling fractions will condense
first while the lower boiling fractions will condense later. Low boiling fractions are purified and
used. High boiling fractions which collect at the bottom can be subjected to “cracking” to get more
useful lower boiling fractions.
Table: Fractions obtained by distillation of crude oil
Approx
composition in
Boiling
Name of fraction terms of Uses
range
hydrocarbon
containing atoms
1. Uncondensed gas < 30oC C1 – C4 Domestic Fuel – LPG
2. Petroleum ether 30-70oC C5 – C7 Solvent for varnish and rubber
3. Gasoline or Petrol Motor fuel, as solvent and in
40-120oC C8 – C9
dry cleaning
4. Naphtha or solvent As solvent and in
120-180oC C9 – C10
spirit dry cleaning
5. Kerosene oil 180-250oC C10– C16 Domestic fuel, jet engine fuel

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6. Diesel oil or fuel

250-320oC C10– C18 Diesel engine fuel
oil or gas oil
7. Heavy oil 320-400oC C17-C30 To get gasoline by cracking process
This heavy oil on
refractionation gives
a) Lubricating oil As lubricant
b) Petroleum jelly As lubricant, in cosmetics and
(vaseline) medicine
c) Grease As lubricant, used in candles
d) Paraffin wax Boot polishes, tarpolin cloth etc.
8. Residue
a) For water proofing of roofs and
in road making
Residue may be Above 400oC C30 and above
b) As fuel and in moulding arc light
a) Asphalt (or)
rods
b) Petroleum coke
Some of the important liquid fuels derived from petroleum are

a) Gasoline or Petrol
 Low boiling fraction of petroleum, highly volatile and inflammable.
 Obtained between 40-120oC
 Mixture of hydrocarbons ranging from C5H12 (pentane) to C8H18 (Octane).
 Calorific value is about 11250 kcal/kg
 Approximate composition is C=84%, H=15%, N+S+O=1%
Uses
 As a fuel for internal combustion engines of automobiles and aeroplanes.
b) Kerosene oil
 High boiling fraction of petroleum, does not vaporise easily.
 Mixture of hydrocarbons ranging from C10H22 (decane) to C16H34 (hexadecane)
 Calorific value is 11100 kcal/kg
 Approximate composition is C=84%, H=16% with less than 0.1% S
 Specific gravity is 0.75-0.85
Use: As a domestic fuel in stoves, as jet engine fuel and for making oil gas.

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c) Diesel oil
 Relatively high boiling fraction of petroleum
 Mixture of hydrocarbons ranging from C15H22 to C18 H38
 Calorific value is about 11000 kcal / kg
Uses :As a diesel engine fuel.
d) Fuel oil or heavy oils or Residual oils
The residue of petroleum after the lighter fraction is distilled off is called fuel oil.
 They are high molecular weight fraction of petroleum
 Mixture of hydrocarbons ranging from C17H36 to C58H118
 Calorific value is of the order of 10000 kcal/kg
 Heaviest fraction
Uses :As fuel for ships, metallurgical furnaces.
On refractionation of the heavy oil the following fractions can be recovered.
Lubricating oil.
Composition ranges from C17H36 to C20H42
Used as a lubricating oil
Petroleum jelly
Used as a lubricant and in cosmetics and medicines.
Grease
Used as a lubricant in vehicle, machines, motors etc.
Paraffin Wax
Composition ranges from C20H42 to C28H58. Used for making candles, wax paper, boot polishes etc.
Asphalt or Bitumen
Used for making road and water-proofing roofs etc.Petroleum coke
used for moulding electrode rods for cells and as a fuel.
e) Naphtha or white spirit
 Distills off from Petroleum between 120-180oC
 Light, Colourless to straw-coloured liquid
 Mixture of hydrocarbons ranging from C9H20 (nonane) to C10H22 (decane).
Uses:
 Mainly used as an industrial solvent
 Used in dry cleaning

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 Used as varnish thinner

 Used for floor and furniture polishes
f)Aviation fuel / Aviation gasoline
Aviation gasoline is the gasoline which is used as fuel in aeroplanes. It can be produced or
converted to from any gasoline by alkylation, isomerisation, polymerisation and reforming.
Aviation gasoline is made of higher percentage of isoparaffin and smaller percentage of
naphthalenes and aromatics. Aviation gasoline has higher antiknock value, volatility and stability
than any other gasoline.
It has an octane number of 100 or even more.
KNOCKING
Piston engines comprise of Spark Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI). The former
runs on petrol while the latter operates on diesel.
SI Engine (Petrol engine)
A mixture of gasoline vapour and air forms the fuel in the internal combustion engine. A
spark in the cylinder will initiate the combustion reaction. The flame should spread rapidly and
smoothly through the gaseous mixture. The expanding gas will drive the piston down the cylinder.
The ratio of the gaseous volume in the cylinder at the end of the suction-stroke to the
volume at the end of the compression-stroke of the piston is known as compression ratio. The
efficiency of an internal combustion engine will increase with the compression ratio. This will
depend on the nature of the constituents present in the gasoline used.
Due to the presence of certain constituents in the gasoline used the rate of oxidation will
increase and become so great that the last portion of the fuel-air mixture will get ignited
instantaneously. This will result in an explosive violence known as „knocking‟, which will cause a
drop in the efficiency.
The tendency of fuel constituents to knock will be straight chain paraffins> branched chain
paraffins i.e. isoparaffins> olefins >cycloparaffins> aromatics.
So from above it follows that olefins have better anti-knock properties than the
corresponding paraffins and so on.
Octane rating
n-heptane, knocks very badly. Hence its anti-knock value has been arbitrarily fixed as zero.
H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H
n - heptane

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Isooctane (2:2:4 – trimethyl pentane) gives very little knocking and its anti-knock value has
been fixed as 100
CH3 H CH3
CH3 C C C CH3
CH3 H H
(2:2:4 – trimethyl pentane)
Therefore octane number or rating of a gasoline or any other internal combustion engine fuel is the
percentage of isooctane in a mixture of isooctane and n-heptane, which matches the fuel under test
in knocking characteristics.
Hence if a petrol sample behaves like a mixture of 60% isooctane and 40% n-heptane, its
octane number is taken as 60.
Improvement of anti-knock characteristics of a fuel.
Addition of extremely poisonous material such as tetraethyl lead (C2H5)4Pb (TEL) and
diethyl telluride (C2H5)2Te will raise the octane number.
Petrol to which TEL is added is called leaded petrol.
Mechanism
TEL decomposes thermally to form ethyl free radicals. The process of knocking involves a
free radical mechanism. The growth of the chain can be stopped if this is combined with the ethyl
free radicals from TEL. However, TEL forms lead oxide which will deposit on spark plugs.
To overcome this ethylene dibromide is added. Lead bromide will be formed which will go out
with the exhaust gases. This lead bromide will cause atmospheric pollution.
Presence of sulphur compounds in petrol all reduce the effectiveness of TEL.
5.5.2 CI Engine (Diesel Engine)
In a diesel engine the fuel is exploded not by a spark but by the application of heat and
pressure. In the CI engine, air alone is compressed. This will result in the cylinder temperature
going upto as high as 300 oC. Now when the diesel oil is injected or sprayed it must get ignited
spontaneously. The combustion products will expand and the power stroke will begin.
Knocking which will occur when burning will not occur even after the compression stroke
is over and the diesel oil is sprayed. As a result more fuel will have to be injected automatically
and sudden ignition might result and then the whole oil will burn. This delayed ignition will result
in an uncontrolled excessive combustion and produce what is referred to as the „diesel knock‟.
Hence while in SI engine knocking is the result of premature or too early ignition, in CI engines the
knocking is the result of delayed ignition or ignition lag.

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Cetane number
The diesel engine fuels consist of longer chain hydrocarbons than internal combustion
engines. The suitability of a diesel fuel is indicated by its cetane value. This is the
percentage of hexadecane in a mixture of hexadecane and 2-methyl napthalene which has the same
ignition characteristics as the diesel fuel in question.
H
H H H
C H
H C C C H
H 14
H H H
2-methyl napthalene n - hexadecane
(Cetane number = 0) (Cetane number = 100)
Addition of „pre-ignition dopes‟ like ethyl nitrite, acetone peroxide etc. enhances the cetane
number of a diesel fuel.
Diesel oil or gas oil is the usual diesel engine fuel.
 It is obtained between 250-320oC during fractional distillation of crude petroleum.
 It contains 85% carbon and 12% hydrogen.
 It has a calorific value of 11000 kcal/kg.
The hydrocarbon constituents of diesel fuel have the ignition quality order as follows.
n – alkanes>napthalenes> alkenes > branched alkanes > aromatics
Hence from the above, the hydrocarbons which are poor gasoline fuels are quite good diesel fuels.
Addition of ethyl nitrate, isoamyl nitrate etc. will increase the cetane number.
High Speed, Medium Speed and Low Speed Diesels
High Speed Diesel
 Time lag is about 1/500th of a second in getting the diesel droplets heated to the ignition point -
very brief.
 Diesel with cetane numbers 45 to 60 serve the purpose.
Medium Speed Diesel
 Cetane number of medium speed diesel is about 35.
Low Speed Diesel
 Cetane number of low speed diesel is about 25.
S.No. Petrol Diesel
1. This is the low boiling fraction of Contains C10 to C16 hydrocarbons and
petroleum. constitutes the high boiling fraction of
petroleum.

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2. It is the fuel for spark ignition It is the fuel for compression ignition
engines engines
3. Knocking is the result of premature Knocking occurs due to delay in the
ignition ignition.
4. Knocking is measured in terms of Knocking is measured in terms of cetane
octane rating. rating.
5. Adding of TEL improves the anti- Doping with isoamyl nitrate improves anti-
knock property. knocking
6. Thermal efficiency is low High thermal efficiency
7. Consumption is more Consumption is less
SYNTHETIC PETROL (HYDROGENATION OF COAL)

Coal contains about 4.5% hydrogen compared to about 18% in petroleum based on 100
grams of carbon. Hence compared to petroleum, coal is a hydrogen deficient compound.
If coal is reacted with hydrogen under high temperature and pressure, solid coal will get
converted to liquid fuels. The preparation of liquid fuels from solid coal is known as hydrogenation
of coal.
Bergius Process
Powdered
coal
Gases Gases
Catalyst
Heavy Condenser
(Sn or Ni
oil
oleate)
H2
Gasoline
Middle
oil Gasoline
H2
Heavy
oil
Convertor at
450 oC and 200- Fractionating
column
250 atm Crude Oil
Powdered coal, heavy oil and catalysts such as nickel oleate or tin oleate are used. The low ash coal
is powdered (coal dust) well and made into a paste with heavy oil. Thereafter the catalysts viz. tin
or nickel oleate is added. The mixture is heated with hydrogen at 450 oC and at 200-250 atm.
pressure for about 1.5 hours. Under these conditions coal undergoes hydrogenation and forms

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saturated hydrocarbons. These decompose under the existing high temperature and pressure
conditions to give low-boiling liquid hydrocarbons. The gaseous mixture from the converter is led
to a condenser where a liquid resembling crude oil is obtained.
The crude oil is then fractionated and gives
(i) gasoline
(ii) middle oil
(iii) heavy oil
Yield of gasoline is about 60% of the powdered coal used.
Middle oil is again hydrogenated in presence of solid catalysts to give more gasoline.
Heavy oil is used again to make a paste with fresh coal powder.
GASEOUS FUELS
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) or bottled gas or refinery gas
The approximate composition of LPG is 70% n-butane, 17% isobutane, 11% n-propane and
the rest being butylene and ethane. Its calorific value is about 27800 kcal/m3.
It is the byproduct obtained during the cracking of heavy oils or from natural gas. It
consists of hydrocarbons of such volatility that they can exist as gas under atmospheric pressure.
They can however be readily liquified under pressure.
LPG is supplied under pressure in containers under trade names such as Indane, Bharat gas
etc. LPG is dehydrated, desulphurised and traces of organic sulphides (mecaptans) which have
odour are added so that a gas leak can be easily detected.
Uses:
 As it can be easily liquified it can be economically stored and transported in cylinders.
 It is used as a domestic fuel.
 It is also used as an industrial fuel
 Also used as a motor fuel
Advantage of LPG over gasoline as a motor fuel
 Cheaper
 High knock resistance
 Burns cleanly
 Increased engine life
Disadvantages of LPG over gasoline as a motor fuel
 Only in engines working under high compression ratios use of LPG is advantageous.
 Always handling of LPG will be under pressure.
 As the odour is faint detection of leakage may not be easy.

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Compressed Natural Gas

It is a potential alternative for gasoline fuels for spark ignition engines. Compressed
Natural Gas is a fossil fuel substitute for petrol and diesel. Its combustion does produce greenhouse
gases but it is still a more environmentally clean alternative.
It is made by compressing natural gas (mainly methane) to less than 1% of its volume at
standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored & distributed in hard containers at a normal pressure of
200-220 bar in cylindrical or spherical shapes.
CNG is used in the traditional internal combustion engine cars that have been converted into
bi-fuel vehicles (gasoline/CNG).
CNG‟s volumetric energy density is estimated to be 4β% of LNG‟s and β5% of diesels. It
has to be hence compressed to high pressures of the order of 200 bars.
CNG cylinders can be made of steel, aluminium or plastic. Lightweight composite
cylinders are especially beneficial for vehicular use as they result in remarkable weight reduction
when compared to the previously used steel and aluminium cylinders. This leads to lower fuel
consumption.
Advantages
The advantage of CNG when used as a fuel in spark-ignition engines are
1) It is a light weight gas
2) It has high ignition temperature
3) Octane number is 130
4) No need for adding any anti-knock additive as the octane number is 130.
5) Environmental pollution is less as the emission of CO and unburnt hydrocarbons are
minimum.
6) Does not carbonize the spark plugs.
7) Life of the engine is more when CNG is used
8) CNG is almost insoluble in the engine oil, unlike petrol. So the oil lasts longer
Limitations of CNG
1) Trunk space has to be more
2) They require heavy cylinders to store the natural gas at high pressure.
3) CNG driven vehicles have shorter operating range when compared to petrol driven vehicles.
Power alcohol
When ethyl alcohol is blended with petrol at concentration of 5-10%. It is called power alcohol .in
other words absolute alcohol (100% ethyl alcohol) is also called power alcohol. Ethyl alcohol is
used in an internal combustion (IC) engine. The addition of ethyl alcohol to petrol increases its
octane number. When ethyl alcohol is blended with diesel it is called E Diesel.

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Manufacture
Step:1
Manufacture of ethyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol can be synthesized by fermentation of carbohydrates (sugar materials).
Fermentation of molecules which is the residue left after the crystallization of sugar, with yeast
generates alcohol. This fermentation yields only about 20 % alcohol.
C6H12O6 Yeast 2C5H5OH + 2CO2
Concentration of alcohol can be increased up to 97.6% by fractional distillation yields rectified
spirit. The concentration of alcohol cannot be increased by distillation above 97.6 %. Because it
forms a constant boiling mixture with water. The constant boiling point has a lower boiling
point than alcohol.
Step:2
Conversion of ethyl alcohol into power alcohol.
But for IC engine, 100% alcohol (absolute alcohol) is prepared by removing last trace of water
from rectified spirit. It can be done by the following two methods.
i) alcohol containing trace of water, is distilled with benzene. When benzene passes over with a
portion of alcohol and water, it leaves behind absolute (power)alcohol.
ii) alcohol is distilled in the presence of dehydrating agent, which holds water.
Finally absolute alcohol is mixed with petrol at concentration of 5-10% to get power alcohol.
Properties
 Power alcohol has a lower calorific values(7000K.Cal/Kg)
 It has high octane number(90)
 Its anti-knocking properties are good.
 It generates 10% more power than the gasoline of same quality.
 Its compression ratio is also high.
Uses:It is used as a very good fuel in motors.

5.8.1 Advantages and disadvantages of power alcohol
Advantages
1. It is cheaper than petrol
2. If any moisture is present, power alcohol absorbs it.
3. As ethyl alcohol contains oxygen atoms complete combustion occurs, so emission of CO2,
hydrocarbon particulates are reduced.

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Disadvantages
1. As the calorific value of power alcohol (7000 cal/gm) is lower than petrol (11,500cal/gm),
specially designed engine is required.
2. Output power is reduced upto 35%
3. Due to its high surface tension, atomization of power alcohol is difficult, so it causes
starting trouble.
4. It may undergo oxidation to give acetic acid, which corrodes engine part.
5. As it contains oxygen atoms, the amount of air required for combustion is less therefore the
engine and carburetor need to be modified.
BIO-DIESEL
Vegetable oils comprise of 90-95% triglycerides with small amount of diglycerides, free fatty acids,
phospholipids, etc. triglycerides are esters of long chain fatty acids, like stearic acids and palmitic
acids. The viscosity of vegetable oils are higher and their molecular weight are in the range of 600
to 900 which are about 3 times higher than those of the diesel fuels.
Problem in using vegetable oils directly.
1. As the viscosity of vegetable oils are high, atomization is very poor and hence inefficient
mixing of oil with air leads to incomplete combustion.
2. Oxidation and thermal polymerization of vegetable oil cause deposit formation.
3. Their high viscosity causes misfire and ignition delay.
4. Their high volatility and consequent high flash point leads to more deposit formation.
5. The use of vegetable oils as direct fuel requires modification of the conventional diesel
engine design.
Manufacture: trans-etherification (or) alcoholysis.
The above problems are overcome by reducing the viscosity of the vegetable oils by the process
known as trans-etherification or alcoholysis. Alcoholysis is nothing but displacement of alcohol
from an ester by anther alcohol.
It involves treatment of vegetable oil (sunflower oil, palm oil, soybean oil mustard oil, etc) with
excess of methanol in presence of catalyst to give mono ethyl ester of long chain fatty acid and
glycerin. It is allowed to stand for some time and glycerin is separated.

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Equation
Methyl ester of fatty acid, thus formed are called Bio-Diesel is defined as mono-alkyl ester of
long chain fatty acid derived from vegetable oils or fats. It is a pure fuel before blending with
conventional diesel fuel. Bio-diesel can be blended with petroleum diesel.
5.9.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio diesel.
Advantages
 Bio-diesel is biodegradable.
 It is from renewable resources.
 The gaseous pollutant are lesser as compared to the vegetable oils.
 Bio-diesel can be produced from different types of vegetable oils.
 Best engine performance and less smoke emission are achieved.
Disadvantages.
1. Bio-diesel gels in cold weather.
2. As Bio-diesel are hygroscopic, Bio-Diesel can absorbs water from atmosphere.
3.Bio-diesel decreases the horse power of the engine.
4. Bio-diesel degrades and soften the rubber and plastics that are used in some old cars.
5. Bio-diesel has about 10% higher nitrogen-oxide (NOx) emission than conventional
petroleum.
5.10 ANALYSIS OF FLUE GAS – ORSAT‟S APPARATUS
Flue gas refers to gases such as CO2, O2 and CO which came out from the combustion
chamber. To have an idea if the combustion of the fuel is complete or not we analyse these flue
gases in the Orsat‟s apparatus.

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(a) Principle
If the flue gas has more of CO it means the combustion is incomplete. This means the fuel is
being wasted. It also means that the oxygen available for combustion is insufficient. If the flue gas
contains a lot of oxygen it would mean that the oxygen supply is in excess and that combustion is
complete.
The CO2, O2 and CO which come out from the combustion chamber are determined in the
Orsats apparatus by absorbing them in KOH, alkaline pyrogallic acid and ammoniacal cuprous
chloride respectively.
Orsat‟s apparatus consists of a water-jacketed measuring burette connected in series to a set
of three absorption bulbs through stop-cocks. At the other end is a three-way stop cock, the free
end of which is connected to a U-tube packed with glass wool. This will prevent the entry of
smoke particles etc.
The graduated burette is surrounded by a water jacket. This water jacket will keep the
temperature of the gas, constant during the experiment. The lower end of the burette is connected
to a water reservoir by means of a long rubber tube. The level of water in the water reservoir can
be raised or lowered by raising or lowering the water reservoir. By changing the level of water the
flue gas can be moved into various parts of the apparatus.
The first bulb contains KOH solution and it absorbs CO 2. The second bulb has alkaline
pyrogallic acid and it can absorb CO2 and O2. The third bulb contains ammoniacal cuprous
chloride and it can absorb CO2, O2 and CO. Hence it is a must that the flue gases be first passed
through the KOH bulb where CO2 will be absorbed, then through alkaline pyrogallic acid bulb
when only oxygen will be absorbed (as CO2 has already been removed) and finally through
ammoniacal cuprous chloride bulb, where only CO will be absorbed.

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(b) Working
Step 1
The flue gas is passed through the three way stop cock and the reservoir is lowered to draw
the gas into the burette. But the sample gas being drawn in will be mixed with some air too. Hence
the 3-way stop-cock is opened to the atmosphere and the gas is pushed out by raising the reservoir.
The process if sucking and exhausting of the gas is repeated 3-4 times so as to expel the air from
the apparatus. Finally gas is sucked into the burette. The volume of the flue gas is adjusted to 100
ml at atmospheric pressure.
Step 2 (Absorption of CO2)
The 2-way stop-cock of the first absorption bulb- containing caustic potash solution is
opened and all the gas is forced into this bulb by raising the reservoir. This process is repeated
several times to ensure complete absorption of the CO2. Now the stop-cock of bulb A is closed.
The volume of the residual gases in the burette is noted after equalizing the water level both in the
burette and water reservoir. The difference between the original volume (100 CC) and the volume
of the gases after CO2 absorption gives the volume of CO2 absorbed.
Step 3 (Absorption of oxygen)
The stopcock of bulb A is closed and bulb B is opened Oxygen present in the flue gas is
absorbed by alkaline pyrogallic acid. The procedure thereafter is the same as followed for bulb A.
Step 4 (Absorption of CO)
The stopcock of bulb-B is now closed and that of bulb C opened. The ammoniacal cuprous
chloride will absorb the CO present in the flue gas. The procedure thereafter is the same as
followed for bulb-A.
The total volume of the flue gas analysed is 100 ml. Hence the volumes of the constituents
obtained will be their percentages.
The residual gas left after the absorption of CO2, O2 and CO is taken as that of nitrogen.
THEORETICAL AIR FOR COMBUSTION
Combustion of fuels
Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction which is accompanied by the development
of heat and light at a rapid rate, so that the temperature rises considerably
eg C(S) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 97 kcal
The rate of combustion depends on
1) the nature of the fuel
2) the temperature
3) concentration of the fuel and air or oxygen
The rate of combustion can be increased by

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1) preheating the fuel and air

2) increasing the surface area of the fuel
3) increasing the pressure of air or oxygen used for combustion.
The aim of combustion is to get the maximum amount of heat from a combustible material in the
shortest time and to use this heat for various purposes.
Calculation of minimum quantity of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of solid
and liquid fuel.
To achieve efficient combustion of the fuel it is necessary that there should be
a) Intimate mixing of sufficient quantity of air with the combustible matter.
b) Sufficient time should be given for the combustible process to be completed. If not combustion
will be incomplete.
Combustion involves the elements such as C, H, S and oxygen in the fuel. Nitrogen, ash and CO2
(if any) present in the fuel being incombustible will not take up any oxygen during combustion.
Air contains 21% of oxygen by volume and 23% of oxygen by mass.
1 kg of oxygen is supplied by 1 x 100/23 = = 4.35 kg of air
Similarly 1m3 of oxygen is supplied by 1 x 100 / 21 = 4.76 m3 of air
Hence from the amount of oxygen required by the fuel, the weight or volume of air required can be
calculated.
Combustion of Carbon
C + O2 CO2
12 32 44 (by weight)
12 parts by weight of C requires 32 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion.
C parts by weight of carbon requires = 32 x C / 12 =2.76 C
Combustion of Hydrogen
If the fuel has oxygen it will be in combination with hydrogen. Hence this hydrogen will not
be available for combustion. This hydrogen in combination with oxygen will have to be deducted
from the total hydrogen in the fuel.
Quantity of hydrogen available for combustion reaction will be [H – O/8]
Where H = total quantity of hydrogen and O is the total quantity of oxygen in the fuel.
In water the quantity of hydrogen in combination with oxygen is one eighth of the weight of
oxygen.
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2x2 32 36 (by weight)
4 parts by weight of hydrogen requires 32 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion
 H - O /8 part by weight of hydrogen requires.
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[(H - O / 8) x 32 ] / 4 = 8 (H - O / 8)
4
Combustion of Sulphur
S + O2 SO2
32 32 64 (by weight)
32 parts by wt of sulphur requires 32 parts by weight of oxygen for complete combustion.
32 x S
 S part by weight of sulphur requires = =S
32
Theoretical amount of oxygen required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of solid or liquid fuel
= 2.67C + 8 [ H - O /8 ] + S
Since the percentage of oxygen in air by weight is 23, the amount of air required for combustion of
1 kg of fuel
100 O
= 2.67C + 8 H - +S kg
23 8
Volume of air required for complete combustion of Gaseous combustible matters
(1) H2(g) + ½ O2 H2 O
1 Vol 0.5 vol
1 Vol. of H2(g) requires 0.5 vol. of oxygen
CO2
1 Vol 0.5 vol
1 Vol. of CO requires 0.5 vol. of oxygen
(3) CH4(g) + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
1 Vol 2 vol
1 Vol. of CH4(g) requires 2 vol. of oxygen
1 Vol 2.5 vol
1 Vol. of C2H6(g) requires 2.5 vol. of oxygen
(5) C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
1 Vol 5 vol
1 Vol. of C3H8(g) requires 5 vol. of oxygen
Hence combustion reaction equations we can calculate the quantity of oxygen required by
weight or volume.

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The following should be borne in mind while calculating the amount of air required for
complete combustion of a fuel.
1) The combustion reaction equation should be written.
2) From the above equation the amount or volume of the oxygen required by the elements or
compounds present in the fuel can be calculated.
3) If oxygen is mentioned in the problem, the weight or volume of the oxygen present in the
fuel should be subtracted from the total oxygen required by the other elements or compounds.
4) N2, CO2 and H2O will not burn and they do not require any oxygen. Hence their value if
mentioned in the problem can be ignored.
5) Finally the volume of air required by the fuel can be obtained by multiplying the total
volume of oxygen required by 100/21 (air contains 21% oxygen by volume)
The weight of the air required by the fuel can be found by multiplying the total amount of oxygen
required by 100/23 (air contains 23% oxygen by weight)
6) In actual practice more than the theoretical amount of air is necessary to achieve complete
combustion.
Excess air as a percentage 100 + excess air
of the theoretical air = Theoretical air x
100
Problems based on volume of air
1) Calculate the volume of air (volume percentage of oxygen in air = 21) required for the
complete combustion of 1 litre of CO.
Solution:
Combustion equation for CO is
CO + ½ O2 CO2
1 vol 0.5 vol
For complete combustion,
One volume of CO requires 0.5 volume of oxygen
We know that,
21 litres of oxygen is present in 100 litres of air
100 0.5
0.5 litre of oxygen is present in = 2.38 litres of air
21
Volume of air required for the complete

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combustion of one litre of CO = 2.38 litres

2) A gas used in an internal combustion engine had the following composition by volume
H2 = 45%, CH4 = 36%, CO = 15%, N2=4%. Find the volume of air required for the
combustion of 1m3 of the gas.
Solution:
The combustion equation for the various constituents of the gas is given by,
(i) 2H2 + O2 2H2O
Two volumes of hydrogen requires one volume of oxygen
1  0.45
 0.45 m3 of hydrogen requires = 0.225 m3 of oxygen
2
(ii) CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

1 vol. 2 vol.
One volume of methane requires two volumes of oxygen
2  0.36
0.36 m3 of methane requires = 0.72 m3 of oxygen
1
iii) 2CO + O2 2CO2
2 vol. 1 vol.

two volumes of methane requires two volumes of oxygen
 0.15 m3 of CO requires 1  0.15 / 2 = 0.075 m3 of oxygen
iii) Nitrogen is non-combustible
Total volume of oxygen required = 0.225 + 0.72 + 0.075
the complete combustion of
all the given constituents
of the gas = 1.02 m3
We know that,
21 litres of oxygen is present in 100 litres of air

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1.02 m3 of oxygen is present in 1.02  100 / 21 = 4.857 m3 of air

Volume of air required for complete
combustion of 1 m3 of the gas = 4.857 m3
3) A gaseous fuel has the following composition by volume. Methane = 5%, Hydrogen =
20%, Carbonmonoxide = 25%, CO2=6% and rest nitrogen. If 20% excess air is used for
combustion, then calculate the volume of air supplied per m3 of fuel and composition of dry
flue gases.
Solution:
1 m3 of fuel contains
CH4 - 5/100 = 0.05 m3
H2 - 20/100 = 0.20 m3
CO - 25/100 = 0.25 m3
CO2 - 6/100 = 0.06 m3
N2 - 1 – (0.05 + 0.20 + 0.25 + 0.06) = 0.44 m3
(i) CH4+ 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
1 vol 2 vol
one volume of methane requires two volumes of oxygen
2  0.05 / 1
 0.05 m3of methane requires
1
= 0.1 m3 of oxygen
ii) 2H2 + O2 2 H2 O
2 vol 1 vol
Two volumes of hydrogen requires one volume of oxygen
0.20  1
 0.20 m3 of hydrogen requires =0.100 m3 of oxygen
2
(iii) 2CO+ O2 2CO2

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2 vol 1 vol
Two volumes of CO requires one volume of oxygen
0.25  1
 0.25 m3 of CO requires = 0.125 m3 of oxygen
2
(i) N2 of CO2 are non-combustible constituents. Therefore no oxygen is required for

burning.
So total volume of oxygen required = 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.125
for complete combustion = 0.325 m3
 Volume of air required per m3 100

of the gaseous fuel = 0.325 
21
Volume of air required using
20% excess air for combustion 100 120
per m3 of the fuel = 0.325 
21 100
= 1.857 m3
Calculation for composition of dry flue gases
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
1 Volume of methane on combustion gives one volume of CO2
0.05 m3 of methane on combustion will give 1  0.05 m3
= 0.05 m3 of CO2
2CO + O2 2CO2
2 volumes of CO gives on combustion 2 volumes of CO2
2
0.25 m3 of CO on combustion will give  0.25
2
= 0.25 m3 of CO2

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CO2 present in 1 m3 of fuel = 0.06 m3

So total CO2 present in the dry flue gas = 0.05 + 0.25 + 0.06
= 0.36 m3
Oxygen content in the flue gas 20
as 20% excess air is taken = 0.325 
 100
= 0.065 m3
Nitrogen per m3 of gaseous fuel = 0.44 m3
Nitrogen in the volume of air 77
required (using 20% excess) = 1.857 
100
= 1.4299
 Nitrogen in the flue gas = 0.44 + 1.4299
= 1.8699 m3
 CO2 = 0.36 m3
O2 = 0.065 m3
N2 = 1.8699 m3
Total = 2.2949 m3
0.36
Percentage of CO2 =  100
2.2949
= 15.69%
1.869
Percentage of N2 =  100
2.2949
= 81.44%
0.065
Percentage of O2 =  100
2.2949
= 2.83%

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Problems based on weight of air

4) A sample of coal was found to contain C = 80%, H 2 = 5%, O2=1%, N2 = 2%, remaining
being ash. Calculate the amount of minimum air required for the complete combustion of 1
kg of coal sample.
Solution:
1 kg of coal sample contains
C – 80/100 = 0.80 kg
H2 – 5/100 = 0.05 kg
O2 – 1/100 = 0.01 kg
N2 – 2/100 = 0.02 kg
(i) C + O2 CO2
12 kg 32kg
For complete combustion
12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of oxygen,
32 x 0.8
 0.8 kg of carbon requires = 2.133 kg of O2
12
(ii) 2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 kg 32 kg
For complete combustion
4 kg of H2 requires 32 kg of oxygen,
32 x 0.05
 0.05 kg of H2 requires = 0.4 kg of O2
4
(iii) Nitrogen is non-combustible. Therefore no oxygen is required for burning.
 Total amount of oxygen required = 2.133 + 0.4
= 2.533 kg
But the amount of oxygen already = 0.01 kg
Net amount of oxygen required = Total amountfor complete combustion of
oxygen present in fuel – Amount of all the constituents already present in fuel
= 2.533 – 0.01
= 2.523 kg

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We know that,
23 kgs of oxygen is present in 100 kgs of air
2.523 x 100
2.523 kg of oxygen is present in = 10.970 kg of air
23
Minimum amount of air required = 10.970 kg
for complete combustion of
1 kg of coal
5) A coal sample on analysis gives C = 80%, S = 1%, H2 = 4.5%, O2=2% and rest ash.
Find the theoretical amount of air required per 2 kg of coal burnt .
Solution:
1 kg of coal sample contains.
C = 80/100 = 0.8 kg
S = 1/100 = 0.01 kg
H2 = 4.5/100 = 0.045 kg
O2 = 2/100 = 0.02 kg
The combustion equation for the various constituents of the gas is given by
(i) C + O2 CO2
12 kg 32 kg
12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of oxygen
32 x 0.8
0.8 kg carbon requires = 2.133 kg of O2
12
(ii) 2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 kg 32 kg
4 kg of H2 requires 32 kg of oxygen,
32 x 0.045
0.045 kg H2 requires = 0.36 kg of O2
4

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iii) S + O2 SO2
32 kg 32 kg
32 kg of S requires 32 kg of oxygen
32 x 0.01
0.01 kg of S requires = 0.01 kg of O2
32
(iv) Ash is non-combustible. Therefore no oxygen is required for burning.

Total amount of oxygen required = 2.133 + 0.36 + 0.01
= 2.503 kg
But the amount of oxygen already
present in the fuel = 0.02 kg
Net amount of oxygen required = Total amount – Amount of Oxygen

for complete combustion of oxygen
all the constituents already present in fuel
= 2.503 – 0.02
= 2.483 kg
We know that,
23 kg of oxygen is present in 100 kgs of air
2.483  100
 2.483 of oxygen is present in
23
= 10.796 kg of air
Minimum amount of air
required for complete
combustion of 1 kg of coal = 10.796 kg
Minimum amount of air
required for complete
combustion of 2 kg of coal = 10.796 x 2
= 21.592

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7. Calculate the mass of air needed for the complete combustion of 5 kg of coal
containing C = 80%, H = 15%, O = rest
Solution:
1 kg of coal sample contains
C – 80 / 100 = 0.8 kg
H – 15 /100 = 0.15 kg
oxygen = 1 – (0.8 + 0.15)
= 0.05 kg
100 O
Mass of air required = 2.67C + H  8+S
for complete combustion 23 8
of 1 kg of coal
100 0.05
= (2.67 0.8) + 0.15  8+O
23 8
= 14.3 kg
Hence mass of air required for the complete combustion of 5 kg coal = 14.3 x 5 = 71.5
kg
8. A fuel is found to contain C = 90% H = 6%, S = 2.5% O=1% and ash = 0.5%.
Calculate the amount of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of fuel. If
25% excess air is used for combustion calculate the amount of dry products in the flue gas.
Solution:
90
(i) C = = 0.9 kg
100
6
H = = 0.06 kg
100
2.5
S= = 0.025 kg
100
1

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O = = 0.01 kg
100
0.5
Ash = = 0.005 kg
100
100 O
Amount of air required for the = 2.67C + H  8+S
complete combustion of 23 8
1 kg of fuel
100 0.01
= (2.67 0.9) 0.06  8 + 0.025
23 8
= 12.6 kg
ii) Calculation of dry products when 25% excess air is used
C + O2 CO2
Carbon
12 kg of carbon on combustion gives 44 kg of CO2. So 0.9 kg of carbon present in the fuel
will give
44
=  0.9 kg of CO2
12
= 3.3 kg
Sulphur
S + O2 SO2
32 kg of sulphur on combustion gives 64 kg of SO2. So 0.025 kg of sulphur present in fuel will
give
64
=  0.025 = 0.05 kg
32
Nitrogen
Nitrogen present in 12.6 kg of air

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77
= 12.6  kg
100
77 125
Nitrogen present when 25% = 12.6 x 
excess air is used 100 100
= 12.115 kg
Oxygen
Oxygen present in the fuel = 0.01 kg
23
Oxygen present when 12.6 kg of air = 12.6  kg
100
23 125
Oxygen present when 25% = 12.6 x  = 3.626 kg
excess air is used 100 100
Total amount of dry products
in the flue gas =C+S+N+O
= 3.3 + 0.05 + 12.115 + 3.626
= 19.091 kg
% CO2 = (3.3 /19.091)  100
= 17.28%
% SO2 = 0.05/19.091 x 100
= 0.26%
% N2 = 12.115/19.091 x100
= 63.34%
% O2 = 3.626/19.091 x100
= 19.02%
9. Calculate the weight and volume of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg
coke or carbon.
Solution:
(i) C + O2 CO2
12 kg of carbon for combustion requires = 32 kg of oxygen
1 kg of carbon will require = 32/12 1 = 2.67 kg of oxygen

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Wt of air required for

complete combustion of = 100 /23  2.67 = 11.61 kg of air
1 kg of coke or carbon
ii) Based on the fact that
(a) 22.4 l of any gas at NTP has a mass equal to its gram molecular weight.
(b) Molecular mass of air is taken as 28.94 g/mol
28.94 g mole-1 of air will occupy 22.4 l
 11.61  1000 gm of air will occupy
= 22.4/28.94 x 11.61 x 1000
= 8986.3 L
Ignition Temperature (IT)
It is defined as “the lowest temperature to which the fuel must be heated, so that it starts burning
smoothly”
Spontaneous ignition temperature (SIT)
It is defined as “the minimum temperature at which the fuel catches fire spontaneously without
external heating”.
UNIT V – ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES
INTRODUCTION
For our energy requirement, we mainly depend upon the conventional sources of energy like
coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc., These sources are limited in quantity and can be exhausted in
near future. This is because of their continuous and rapid use.
To overcome this energy crises, the scientists have accelerated the search and use of non-
conventional (renewable) sources of energy like wind energy, solar energy, nuclear energy, etc.
Nuclear Fission
When U235 is bombarded by thermal neutron (low energy neutron), it splits into two
approximately equal parts with the liberation of large amount of energy.
Definition
Nuclear fission is defined as “the process of splitting of heavier nucleus into two (or) more
smaller nuclei with simultaneous liberation of large number of energy”.
Mechanism of nuclear fission
When U235 is bombarded by thermal neutron (slow moving), unstable U236 is formed. The unstable

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U236 then divides into two approximately equal nuclei with the release of neutrons and large
number of energy
Illustration
During the nuclear fission a large amount of energy is released.
Fig. 5.1 The fission process illustrated

CHARACTERISTICS OF NUCLEAR FISSION
 A heavy nucleus such as (U235 (or) Pu239) is bombarded by slow moving neutrons, split into two or
more smaller nuclei.
 Two or more neutrons are produced by fission of each nucleus.
 Large quantities of energy are produced as a result of conversion of small mass of nucleus into
energy.
 All the fission fragments are radioactive, giving off く and け radiations.
 The atomic weights of fission fragments range from about 70 to 160.
 All the fission reactions are a self-propagating chain-reactions fission products contain neutrons
(secondary neutrons) which further cause fission in other nuclei.
 The nuclear chain reactions can be controlled and maintained steadily by absorbing a desired
number of neutrons. This process is used in nuclear reactor.
 Every secondary neutron, released in the fission process, does not strike a nucleus, some escape

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into air and hence a chain reaction cannot be maintained.

 Multiplication factor: The number of neutrons, resulting from a single fission is known as the
Multiplication factor. When the value of multiplication is less than 1, a chain reaction does not take
place.
Advantages and disadvantages ofnuclear fission energy
Advantages of nuclear fission energy over fossil fuels energy
1. A small amount of nuclear fuel (U235) gives a large amount of energy while large quantity
of fossil fuel is required to produce large amount of heat.
2. In a nuclear power plant, the nuclear fuel is inserted once to get energy over a long period of
time. But, in a thermal power plant, fossil fuel is to be supplied continuously to get the
energy.
Disadvantages of nuclear fission energy over fossil fuels energy
1. .Nuclear fission causes more serious pollution problems than burning fossil fuels.
2. The biggest problem of using nuclear fission energy is the safe disposal of nuclear waste.
But no such problem is faced in the disposal of fossil fuels.
NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion is defined as “the process of combination of lighter nuclei into heavier
nuclei, with simultaneous liberation of large amount of energy”. Nuclear fusion occurs
in sun.
Example:
2
1H + 1H2 s 2He4 + Energy
2
1H + 1H3 s 2He4 +0n1
.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF NUCLEAR FUSION

1. Unlike nuclear fission, there is no limit on the amount of nuclear fusion that can occur.
2. It is possible only when the distance between the nuclei is of the order of one Fermi.
3. The amount of energy in fusion is 4 times more compared to that of fusion.
5.3.2 Difference between nuclear fission and fusion
S.No Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1. It is the process of breaking of heavier It is the process of combination of

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nucleus. lighter nuclei.

2. It emits radioactive rays It does not emit any kind of
radioactive rays.
3. It occurs ordinary temperature. It occurs high temperature(>106)
4. The mass number and atomic number of The mass number and atomic
new elements are lower than that of parent number of product is higher than
nuclei. that of starting elements.
5. It gives rise to chain reaction It does not rise to chain reaction
It emits neutrons It emits positrons
6. It can be controlled It cannot be controlled
NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION

In the nuclear fission reaction the neutrons emitted from the fission of U 235atom may hit another
U235 nuclei and cause fission producing more neutrons and so on. Thus, a chain of self-sustaining
nuclear reactions will set up with the release of enormous amount of energy. But the amount of
energy released will be less than expected. Thus the fission of U 235 by slow moving neutrons is a
chainreaction.
Definition
A fission reaction, where the neutrons from the previous step continue to propagate and
repeat the reaction is called nuclear chain reaction.
Reason for less energy
Some of the neutrons, released in the fission of U235, may escape from the surface to the
surroundings or may be absorbed by U235 present as impurity. This will result in breaking of the
chain and the amount of energy released will be less than expected.
Criteria for nuclear chain reaction
 For a nuclear chain reaction to continue sufficient amount of U235 must be present to capture the
neutrons, otherwise neutrons will escape from the surface.
Critical mass
The minimum amount of fissionable material (U235) required to continue the nuclear chain
reaction is called critical mass.
The critical mass of U235 lies between 1 kg to 100kg.
(a) Super critical mass
If the mass of the fissionable material (U235) is more than the critical mass, it is called

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super critical mass.

(b) Sub critical mass
If the mass of the fissionable material is smaller than the critical mass; it is called sub
critical mass.
 Thus the mass greater or lesser than the critical mass will hinder the propagation of the chain
reaction.
Illustration
When U235 nucleus is hit by a thermal neutron, it undergoes the following reaction with the release
of three neutrons.
235
92U + 0n1 s56Ba139 + 36Kr94 + 30n1
Each of the three neutrons, produced in the above reaction, strikes another U 235 nucleus causing 9
subsequent reactions. This 9 reaction further give rise to 27 reactions. This process of propagation
of the reaction by multiplication in threes at each fission is called Chain reaction.
Fig. 5.3 U235 fission chain reaction illustrated

NUCLEAR ENERGY
The enormous amount of energy released during the nuclear chain reaction of heavy isotope like
U235 or Pu239 is called nuclear energy.
DEFINITION
The energy released by the nuclear fission is called nuclear fission energy or nuclear energy.
Illustration
The fission of U235 or Pu239occurs instantaneously, producing enormous amount of
energy in the form of heat and radiation.

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Fig. 5.4 Nuclear energy illustrated

CAUSE OF THE RELEASE OF ENERGY
The enormous amount of energy released during the nuclear fission is due to the loss in some
mass, when the reaction takes place. It has been observed that during nuclear fission, the sum of the
masses of the products formed is slightly less than the sum of masses of target species and
bombarding neutron. The loss in mass gets converted into energy according to Einstein equation.
E = mc2
Where,
c = velocity; m =loss in mass and E = energy
Hazards of using nuclear energy
The radiation is harmful to the living organisms. The long and constant exposure of living
organisms to these radiations causes the following disease.
1. Damage the structure of cells in the human body.
2. Cancer and blindness.
3. Genetic disorder in a human body.
4. Sterility in young generation
Applications of nuclear energy
1. Electricity generation
2. Sources of pure water
3. Health care
4. Agriculture
TYPES OF NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION
Uncontrolled nuclear fission reaction
If a nuclear fission reaction is made to occur in an uncontrolled manner, then the energy released
can be used for many destructive purposes.
Ex: Atom Bomb
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Controlled nuclear fission reaction

If a nuclear fission reaction is made to occur in an controlled manner, then the energy released can
be used for many constructive purposes.
Ex: Nuclear Reactor
NUCLEAR REACTOR (OR) PILE: If a nuclear fission reaction is made to occur in a
controlled manner, then the energy released can be used for many constructive purposes.
DEFINITION
The arrangement or equipment used to carry out fission reaction under controlled
conditions is called a nuclear reactor.
Example:
The energy released (due to the controlled fission of U235 in a nuclear reactor) can be used to
produce steam which can run turbines and produce electricity.
Classification of nuclear reactors
I. Based on neutron energy and moderator
1. Thermal neutron reactors
In these reactors, nuclear fission reaction is brought out by slow moving neutrons. These are further
classified into various types
(a) Light water moderated reactors (LWR)
In these reactors, ordinary water is used as moderators and coolant. These are cheaper and
have excellent safety and stability when compared to other nuclear reactors.
These are further classified into
(i) Boiling water reactors (BWR)
(ii) Pressurized water reactors (BWR)
(iii) Supercritical water reactors (BWR)
(b) Heavy water moderated reactors (HWR)
Heavy water is used as a moderator
(c) Graphite moderated reactors (GMR)
Graphite is used as a moderator
(i) Gas cooled reactors
(ii) Water cooled reactors
2. Fast neutron reactors
In these reactors nuclear fission is brought out by unmoderated fast moving (high energy)
neutrons. These are generally cooled by liquid metal.
II. Based on fuel used
1. Burner

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Here, nuclear fuel is burnt to produce heat or electrical energy.

2. Convertor (or) Breeder type reactors
II. Based on purpose
(a) Power reactor
(b) Breeder reactor
(c) Materials testing reactor
COMPONENTS OF A NUCLEAR REACTOR
The main components of the nuclear reactor are
1. Fuel rods
The fissionable materials used in the nuclear reactor are enriched U 235 or Pu239. The enriched
fuel is used in the reactor in the form of rods or strips.
Example:U235; Pu239 (obtained from U238)
Function: It produces heat energy and neutrons which initiates the nuclear chain reaction. The heat
should be removed efficiently during the fission process.
2. Control rods
To control the fission reaction (rate), movable rods, made of cadmium (or) boron, are suspended
between fuel rods. These rods can be lowered or raised. They control the fission reaction by
absorbing excess neutrons. If the rods are deeply inserted inside the reactor, they will absorb more
neutrons and the reaction become very slowly. On the other hand, if the rods are pushed outwards,
they will absorb less neutrons and the reaction will be very fast.
Example:
Cd43113and 5B10
Cd43113 + n01 s Cd 114

43 + γ ray
B510+ n01 s B 511 + γ ray
Function: It controls the nuclear chain reaction and avoids the damage of the reactors.
3. Moderators
The substance used to slow down the neutrons is called moderates.

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Fig. 5.5 Function of a moderator
When the fast moving neutrons collide with moderator they lose energy and gets slow down.
Example:Ordinary water, Heavy water, Graphite, Beryllium
Function: The kinetic energy of fast neutrons (1Mev)is reduced to slow neutrons (0.25eV)
4. Coolants
In order to absorb the heat products during fission, a liquid called coolant is circulated in the
reactor core. It enters the base of the reactor and leaves at the top. The heat carried by out-going
liquid is used to produce steam.
Example:Water and heavy water, Liquid metals like Na, K and Air
Function: It cools the fuel core.
5. Pressure vessel
It encloses the core and also provides the entrance and exit passage for coolant. Holes at the top
of the vessel are provided to insert or pull out the control rods.
Function: It withstands the pressure as high as 200 kg/cm2.
6. Protective shield
The nuclear reactor is enclosed in a thick massive concrete shield (more than 10 meters thick).
Function: The environment and operating personnel‟s are protected from destruction in case of
leakage of radiation.
7. Turbine
The steam generated in the heat exchanger is used to operate a steam turbine, which drives a
generator to produce electricity.
LIGHT WATER NUCLEAR REACTOR
Light-water nuclear -power plant is the one, in which U235 fuel rods are submerged in water.
Here the water acts as coolant and moderator.

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Fig. 5.6 Light water nuclear power plant

Working
The fission reaction is controlled by inserting or removing the control rod of B 10 automatically
from the spaces in between the fuel rods. The heat emitted by fission of U 235 in the fuel core is
absorbed by the coolant (light water). The heated coolant (water at 300 oC) then goes to the heat
exchanger containing sea water. The coolant here, transfers heat to sea water, which is converted
into steam. The steam then drives the turbines, generating electricity.
Pollution
Though nuclear power plants are very important for production of electricity, they will cause a
serious danger to environments.
Problem on disposal of reactor waste
Disposal of reactor waste is another important problem because the fission products viz., Ba139
and Kr92 are themselves radioactive. They emit dangerous radiation for several hundred years. So
waste is packed in concrete barrels, which are buried deep in the sea.
BREEDER REACTOR
Breeder reactor is the one which convert non-fissionable material (U238, Th232) into fissionable
materials (U258, Th239). Thus the reactor produces more fissionable materials than it consumes.
U92238+ n01 s Pu 239
94 + 2e−
Non – fissionable Fissionable
239
Pu94 + 0n1 s Fission products + 30n1
In breeder reactor, of the three neutrons emitted in the fission of U 235, only one is used in
propagating the fission chain with U235. The other two are allowed to react with U238. Thus, two
fissionable atoms of U235 are produced for each atom of U235 consumed. Therefore, the breeder
reactor produces more fissionable material than it uses. Hence Pu239 is a man-made nuclear fuel

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and is known as secondary nuclear fuel.
Fig. 5.7 Principle of breeder reactor
Significance
 The non-fissionable nucleides, such as U238 and Th232called fertile nucleides, are converted into
fissile nucleides.
 The fissionable nucleides such as U235 are called fissile nucleides.
 As regeneration of fissile nucleided takes place, its efficiency is more.
Solar energy conversion
Solar energy conversion is the process of conversion of direct sunlight into more useful forms.
This solar energy conversion occurs by the following two mechanism.
 Thermal conversion
 Photo conversion
Thermal conversion
Thermal conversion involves absorption of thermal energy in the form of IR radiation. Solar
energy is an important source of low-temperature heat, which is useful for heating building, water
and refrigeration.
Methods of thermal conversion
 Solar heat collectors.
 Solar water heater.
1. Solar heat collectors
Solar heat collectors consists of natural materials like stones, bricks or materials like glass, which
can adsorb heat during the day time and release it slowly at night.
Uses

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 It is generally used in cold places, which houses are kept in hot condition using solar heat
collectors.
Solar water heater
It consists of an insulated box inside of which is painted with black paint. It is also provided with
a glass lid to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box it has black painted copper coil, through
which cold water is allowed to flow in, which gets heated up and flows out into a storage tank.
From the storage tank water is then supplied through pipes.
Fig. 5.8 Solar water heater

Photo conversion
Photo conversion involves conversion of light energy directly into electrical energy.
Methods of photo conversion
 Photo conversion can be made by the following method.
 Photo galvanic cell or Solar cell.
PHOTO GALVANIC CELL OR SOLAR CELL
Definition
Photo galvanic cell is the one, which converts the solar energy (energy obtained from sun)
directly into electrical energy.
Principle
The basic principle involved into the solar cell is based on the photovoltaic (PV) effect. When the
solar rays fall on a two layer of semi-conductor devices, a potential difference between the two
layers is produced. This potential difference causes flow of electrons and produces electricity.
Construction
A solar cell consists of a p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type
semiconductor (such as Si doped with P). They are in close contact with each other.

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Fig5.9 Solar cell

Working
When the solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semiconductor, the electrons from the valence
band get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semiconductor.
There by potential difference between two layers is created, which causes flow of electrons (ie., an
electric current). The potential difference and hence current increases as more solar rays falls on the
surface of the top layer. Thus when this p and n layers are connected to an external circuit, electrons
flow from n-layer to p-layer, and hence current is generated.
Applications of solar cells
1. Lighting purpose
Solar cells can be used for lighting purpose. Nowadays electrical street lights are replaced by
solar street lights.
Fig. 5.10 Solar light

2. Solar pumps run by solar battery
When a large number of solar cells are connected series it form a solar battery. Solar battery
produces more electricity which is enough to run, water pump, street-light etc. They are also used in
remote areas where conventional electricity supply is a problem.

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Solar cells are used in calculators, electronic watches, radios and TVs.
Fig. 5.11 Solar pump run by solar cells (Battery)

3. Solar cells are superior to other type of cells, because these are non-polluting and eco-friendly.
4. Solar energy can be stored in Ni-Cd batteries and lead acid batteries.
5. Solar cells can be used to drive vehicles.
6. Solar cells, made of silicon, are used as a source of electricity in space craft and satellites.
Advantages of solar cells
1. Solar cells can be used in remote and isolated area, forests and hilly regions.
2. Maintenance cost is low.
3. Solar cells are noise and pollution free.
4. Their lifetime is log.
Disadvantages
 Capital cost is higher.
 Storage of energy is not possible.
WIND ENERGY
Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind energy.
The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed. The wind energy is harnessed by
making use of wind mills.
Methods of harnessing wind energy
1. Wind mills
The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill makes it rotating continuously. The
rotational motion of the blades drives a number of machines like water pump, flour mills and
electric generators.
Now a day‟s wind mill uses large sized propeller blades and is connected to a generator through a
shaft. Wind mills are capable of generating about 100 kW electricity.

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Fig. 5.12 Wind mill

2. Wind farms
When a large number wind mills are installed and joined together in a definite pattern it forms
a wind farm. The wind farms produce a large amount of electricity.
Condition
The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is 15 km/hr.
3. Others methods
Other methods adopted for harnessing wind energy are
(a) Sky sail.
(b) Ladder mill.
(c) Kite ship (Large free flying sails.)
(d) Sky wind power (Flying electric generator.)
(e) Briza technologies (Hovering wind turbine)
(f) Sequoia automation (The kite wind generator).
Advantages of wind energy
(i) It does not cause any air pollution.
(ii) It is very cheap and economic.
(iii) It is renewable.
(iv) It does not cause any pollution.
Disadvantages
 Public resists for locating the wind forms in polluted areas due to noise generated by the machines
and loss of aesthetic appearance.
 Wind forms located on the migratory routes of birds will cause hazards.
 Wind forms produce unwanted sound.
 Wind turbines interfere with electromagnetic signals(TV, Radio signals).
Use of wind energy
1. Used to move the sail boats in lakes, rivers and seas.

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2. Used to operate water pumps.

BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS
INTRODUCTION
In electrochemical cells, the chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. The cell
potential is related to free energy change. In an electrochemical cell, the system does work by
transferring electrical energy through an electric circuit. Thus free energy change for a reaction is a
measure of the maximum useful work that can be obtained from a chemical reaction.
i.e., ∆G = maximum useful work
But we know that
Maximum useful work = nFE
→hen a cell operates, work is done on the surroundings (flow of electricity).
∆G = _- nFE OR ∆G < 0
Decrease in free energy is indicated by negative sign.

One of the main uses of the galvanic cells is the generation of portable electrical energy.
These cells are known as batteries.
Battery
A battery is an arrangement of several electrochemical cells connected in series that can be
used as a source of direct electric current.
A cell: It contains only one anode and cathode.
A Battery: It contains several anode and cathode.
Requirements of a battery
A useful battery should fulfil the following requirements.
 It should be light and compact for easy transport.
 It should have long life both, when it is being used and when it is not used.
 The voltage of the battery should vary appreciably during its use.
TYPES OF BATTERY
1. Primary Battery (or) Primary cells (or) Non-reversible Battery
In these cells, the electrode and the electrode reactions cannot be reversed by passing an
external electrical energy. The reactions occur only once after use they become dead. Therefore,
they are not chargeable. Examples:Dry cell, mercury cell.
2. Secondary Battery or Secondary cells or Reversible Battery
In these cells, the electrode reactions can be reversed by passing an external electrical energy.
Therefore, they can be chargeable by passing electric current and used again and again. These are

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also called Storage cell or Accumulators.

Examples: Lead acid storage cell, Nickel-cadmium cell.
3. Flow Battery or Fuel cell
In these cells, the reactants, products and electrolytes are continuously passing through the cell.
In this chemical energy gets converted into electrical energy.
Example: Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell.
Dry Cell or Leclache‟s Cell
Description
A dry cell consists of a zinc cylinder, which acts as anode. This zinc cylinder is filled with an
electrolyte consisting of NH4Cl2, ZnCl2 and MnO2 in the form of paste using starch and water.
A carbon rod acts as cathode, is immersed in the electrolyte in the cell. The zinc cylinder has an
outer of cardboard case. During use, the zinc cylinder gets consumed and the end, it will develop
holes which are responsible for leakages.
Working
When the cell is working, zinc losses electrons and Zn2+ ions gets dissolved in the electrolyte. The
electrons pass through the circuit and are consumed at cathode .This causes discharge of NH 4+ ions
from the electrolyte.
Cell reactions
Anode:
Zn s Zn2+ + 2e−
Cathode:
NH4+ (aq) + MnO2(s)+ 2e- s MnO(OH)- + NH3
Overall reaction:
Zn + NH4+(aq) + MnO2(s) s Zn2++MnO(OH)- + NH 3
In cathode reaction,Mn is reduced from +4 oxidation state to +3 oxidation state. The liberation of
NH3gas,which disturbs the current flow, is prevented by a reaction of NH3with Zn2+.
ZnCl2 + 2NH3s [Zn(NH3)2]Cl2

Advantages of alkaline battery over dry battery
 This dry cell do not have an indefinite life, because NH4Cl being acidic corrodes the zinc container,
even if it is not used.
 When current is drawn rapidly from it, produces build up on the electrodes, so voltage drop occurs.
Uses: It is used in calculators, watches etc.

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LEAD ACID STORAGE CELL OR LEAD ACCUMULATOR OR ACID STORAGE CELL

Storage cell
A lead acid storage cell is secondary battery, which can operate both as a voltaic cell and as an
electrolytic cell. →hen it acts as a voltaic cell, it supplies electrical energy and becomes “run
down”. →hen it is recharged, the cell operates as an electrolytic cell.
Fig. 6.2 Lead storage cell
Description
A lead acid storage battery consists of a number of (3 to 6) voltaic cells connected in series to
get 6 to 12 V battery. In each cell, the anode is made of lead. The cathode is made of lead dioxide
or a grid made of lead, packed with lead dioxide. A number of lead plates (anodes) are connected in
parallel and a number of lead dioxide plates (cathodes) are also connected in parallel. Various
plates are separated from the adjacent ones by insulators like rubber or glass fibre. The entire
combinations is then immersed in dil.sulphuric acid (38 percentage by mass) having a density of
1.30 gm/ml. The cell may be represented as;
Cell representation:
Pb, PbSO4 | H2SO4(aq) PbO2,Pb
Working (Discharging)
When the lead acid storage battery operates, the following reaction occurs.
Anode
Lead is oxidized to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO4β− forms insoluble PbSO4.
Pb(s) + SO42− (aq)s PbSO4(s) + 2e −
Cathode
PbO2 is reduced to Pb2+ ions, which further combines with SO4β− forms insoluble PbSO4

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PbO2(s) + 4H+ + SO42− + 2e− s PbSO4(s) + 2H2O

Overall reaction:
PbO2(s) + Pb(s) + 4H+(aq) + O42−(aq) s 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) + Energy
From the above cell reactions it is clear that, lead sulphate is precipitated at both the electrode and
sulphuric acid is used up. As a result, the concentration of sulphuric acid decreases and hence the
density of sulphuric acid falls below 1.2 gm/ml. So the battery needs recharging.
Recharging the Battery
The cell can be charged by passing electric current in the opposite direction. The electrode
reaction is reversed. As a result, Pb is deposited on anode and lead dioxide on the cathode. The
desity of sulphuric acid also increases.
The net reaction during charging is,
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O + Energy s Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2 H2SO4(aq)
Advantages of lead acid battery
 It is made easily.
 It produces very high current.
 The self-discharging rate is low when compared to other rechargeable batteries.
 it also acts effectively at low temperature.
Disadvantages of lead acid batteries
 Recycling of this battery causes environmental hazards.
 Mechanical strain and normal bumping reduces battery capacity.
Uses
 Lead storage cell is used to supply current mainly in automobiles such as cars, buses, trucks, etc.,
 It also used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, hospitals, power stations, etc.,
LITHIUM BATTERY
Lithium- ion battery is a secondary battery. As in lithium cell, it does not contailmetallic lithium
as anode. As the name suggests, the movement of lithium ions are responsible for charging and
discharging. Lithium -ion cell has the following three components.
 Cathode-Lithium metal oxide
 Anode-Porous carbon
 Electrolyte- Polymer gel
Construction
The positive electrode is typically made from a layers of chemical compound called lithium-cobalt
oxide (LiCoO2)

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The negative electrode is made from layers of porous carbon.

Both the electrodes are dipped in a polymer gel electrolyte and separated by a separator, which is
a perforated plastic and allows the lithium ions to pass through.
Working (Charging)
During charging Li+ ions flow from the positive electrode to the negative electrode through the
electrolyte. Electrons also flow from the positive electrode to the negative electrode through the
wire. The electrons and Li+ ions combine at the negative electrode and deposit there as Li.
LiCoO2+ C s Li1-xCoO2 +CLix
Fig. 6.4 Solid state lithium battery

Discharging
During discharging, the Li+ ions flow back through the electrolyte from negative electrode
to the positive electrode. Electrons flow from the negative electrode to the positive electrode
through the wire. The Li+ ions and electrons combine at the positive electrode and deposit there as
Li.
Li1-x CoO2 + CLix s LiCoOβ+ C

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Advantages
 Lithium –ion batteries are high voltage and light weight batteries.
 It is smaller in size.
 It produces three time the voltage of Ni-Cd batteries.
Uses
It is used in cell phone, note PC, portable LCD TV and semiconductor driven audio, etc.,
FUELL CELLS
Definition
Fuel cell is a voltaic cell, which converts the chemical energy of the fuels directly into
electrical energy without combustion. It converts the energy of the fuel directly into electricity. In
these cells, the reactants, products and electrolytes pass through the cell.
Fuel + Oxygen s oxidation products + Electricity.
Examples: Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell: Methyl alcohol-oxygen fuel cell.
Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell
Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cell is the simplest and most successful fuel cell, in which the fuel-
hydrogen and the oxidizer-oxygen and the liquid electrolyte are continuously passed through the

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cell.
Description
It consists of two porous electrodes anode and cathode. These porous electrodes are made of
compressed carbon containing a small amount of catalyst (Pt, Pd, Ag). In between the two
electrodes an electrolyte solution such as 25 percentage KOH or NaOH is filled. The two electrodes
are connected through the voltmeter.
Working
Hydrogen (the fuel) is bubbled through the anode compartment, the cathode compartment,
where it is oxidized. The oxygen (oxidizer) is bubbled through the cathode compartment, where it
is reduced.
Fig. 6.6 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

At anode
Hydrogen molecules are oxidized at the anode with the liberation of electrons which then
combine with hydroxide ions to form water.
O2 + 2H2 + 4e- s 4OH-
At cathode
2H2 + 4OH- s 4H2O + 4e-
2H2 + O2 s 2H2O
The electrons produced at the anode pass through the external wire to the cathode, where it is
absorbed by oxygen and water to produce hydroxide ions.
The emf of the cell = 0.8 to 1.0 V
Fuel Battery
When a large number of fuel cells are connected in series, it forms fuel battery.

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Advantages of fuel cells

 Fuel cells are efficient and take less time for operation.
 It is pollution free technique.
 It produces electric current directly from the reaction of a fuel and an oxidiser.
 It produces drinking water.
Disadvantages
 Fuel cell cannot store electric energy as other cells do.
 Electrode is expensive and short lived.
 Storage and handling of hydrogen gas is dangerous.
Applications
 Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cells are used as auxiliary energy source in space vehicles, submarines or
other military-vehicles.
 In case of Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cells, the product of water is proved to be a valuable source of
fresh water by the astronauts.
SUPER CAPACITOR
Super capacitor is a high capacitor with capacitance value much higher than other capacitor. They
store 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume and deliver charge much faster than batteries.
Unlike ordinary capacitors, super capacitors, do not use the conventional solid electric, but
rather they use electrostatic double- layer capacitance.
DESIGN OF SUPER CAPACITOR
Super capacitor consists of two electrodes separated by an ion-permeable membrane and dipped in
an electrolyte, containing positive and negative ions, connecting both the electrodes.
WORKING
When the electrodes are connected to the power source, ions in the electrolyte from electric double
layers of opposite polarity to the electrodes polarity, creating an electric field between them.
For example, positively polarized electrodes will have a layer of negative ions at the electrode/
electrode interface. Similarly negatively polarized electrodes will have a layer of positive ions at the
electrode/electrode interface.
This electric field polarizes the dielectric so its molecules lineup in the opposite direction to the
field and reduce its strength. Its mean that its stores more electrical energy at an electrode/electrode
interface.

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Advantages
 It is highly safe
 Its life time is very high
 It can be cycled millions of time
 It can be charged in seconds
Disadvantages
 Cost per Watt is high
 It cannot be used as source for continuous power supply
 If higher voltage is require the cells must be connected in series
 High self- discharge.

CY8151 Engineering Chemistry Lecture Notes 1

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UNIT I – WATER TECHNOLOGY

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It does not contain dissolved calcium and magnesium salts.

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If the concentration of hardness producing salt is x mgs/lit, then

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Carbonate hardness = Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2

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Ca(HCO3)2 81 162 81X100/162=50

Temporary hardness = Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(HCO3)2

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Standard hard water

Estimation of total hardness of water sample

Estimation of permanent hardness of water sample

Estimation of total hardness of water sample

Estimation of permanent hardness of water sample

1.4.1 Problems based on EDTA method

∴ 1 ml of std. hard water = 1 mg of CaCO 3

∴ 1000 ml of hard water = 33 × 1000/100

Permanent hardness (NCH)

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Given50 ml of water sample after boiling, filtering requires 10 ml of N 50 EDTA

→e know that1 ml of N 50 EDTA ≡ 1 mg of CaCOγ equivalent hardness

Permanent Hardness (NCH)

Temporary Hardness (CH)

= 200 mgs of CaCO3 equivalent

BOILER FEED WATER

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3 Disadvantages: Sludges are poor Disadvantages: Scales act as thermal

さblow-down operationざ. by (a) External treatment. (b)

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gases like O2, CO2.

SOFTENING (OR) CONDITIONING METHODS

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There are two types of ion-exchange resins namely:

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2RH+ + Ca2+ R2Ca2+ + 2H+

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The regenerated ion exchange resins are then used again.

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Fig.1.1 Zeolite process

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Table 1.1 Differences between Zeolite and Demineralisation process

INTERNAL CONDITIONING OR INTERNAL TREARMENT OR BOILER

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 Disodium hydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4)

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 Different methods of desalination are:

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UNIT II – SURFACE CHEMISTRY AND CATALYSIS

Fig 2.1 Illustration of adsorption

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• Molasses is decolourised by activated charcoal.

It is a bulk phenomenon. It is defined as “process in which a substance is uniformly distributed

Fig 2.2 Illustration of absorption

• A sponge placed in water absorbs water into it.