Ecology

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

ECOLOGY

 Derived from Greek word .(oikos=home ,oikologies term used by =Reiter .


 Earnest Haeckel first correctly used the term ecology and define as “study of reciprocal
relationship living organism and their surrounding environment ”
 Warming employed ecology for study of plants .
 Ethology ,Hexicology, bioecology (refers to integrated study of plant and animal ecology ) are
the new terminologies for ecology

BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY :

 Autecology :study of relationship between individual species or their population with


environment .
 Synecology ( community ecology ) :Study of relationship between communities and
environment .
 Genecology :study of ecological adaptation in relation to genetic variability .
 Paleoecology :study of relationship between organism and environment in the past or fossils .
 Applied ecology :application of ecological concepts for human welfare .eg agriculture
,conservation ecology ,silvicultureetc .
 Systems ecology : interpretation of ecological concepts in terms of mathematical principles .

ORGANIZATION OF ENVIRONMENT
or ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY
 Organism(individual)
 Population
 Community
 Ecosystem
 Biome
 Biosphere

 Noosphere: area dominated


by human mind like green
house ,culture media

Pg. 1 Lecture notes by Dr.Drona Pokhrel


Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Population
The total number of individuals of same species .

 Population is dynamic factor of ecology and measured by vitality index .


 Vitality index =natality \mortality
 VI =1,constantpopn .VI >1 increasing popn.VI<1 ,decreasing popn .
 Vitality indexdoesnot depend on migration .
 Deme :is local demographic unit of population .

Population Growth Curve:

 Exponential growth : J shaped ,eg:human population


 Logistic growth curve :Shaped,eg:yeast growth in culture.It has lag,log and stationary phase.
 Carrying capacity :total no of individual of species that can be host by certain habitat .when popn
reaches carrying capacity popn growth rate becomes zero .
 Beyond carrying capacity popn starts to decrease .

 Bioticpotential :The natural capability of an organism to produce new under ideal condition.it is
always more than realized potential .
 Key stone species:most influential species of ecosystem,which determines structural and
functional activities of the ecosystem .
 Endemic species :species which are restricted to particular area .
 Critical link species :species which established essential link with other species .
 Biotype ; strains of same species .
 Ecotype :-genetically different but interbreeder.
-morphological differences are genetically fixed .when placed in similar environment
morphology will not be similar.
 Ecads \Ecophene :-genetically similar
phenotype are induced by environment ,whenecads are placed in similar

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

environment they become morphologically similar ..


 Ecotone :transition zone between two different ecosystems.fig
Eg:eusturine (place where river meets ocean),
Richnessin diversity of species in ecotone than adjoining ecosystems is known as edge effect.

Speciation ( formation of new species ) :


 Geographical isolation \allopatric speciation : formation of new species due to physical barrier
or geographical barrier like volcanic eruption ,large dams .eg birds ,mammals .

 Reproductive isolation \sympatric isolation :sexual dimorphic species when are unable to
develop similar adaptation in changed environment and become sympatric .eg ;fishes,plants.

Pg. 3 Lecture notes by Dr.Drona Pokhrel


Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

-behaviouralchanges like ,courtshiprituals,flowering time.

HABITAT AND ECOLOGICAL NICHE :

 Habitat : place where organism lives .


: physical and functional area of ecosystem occupied by specific organism .
:E.POdum define ,habitat as address of sp.and niche as occupation of sp.
: A habitat may contain many niche.
 Microhabitat :is a part of habitat which has specific property of its own due to change in one or
few environmental factors .eg canopy tree.
 Territory :specific area of home range where the aggressiveness of organism is expressed
(breeding area)
:usually it doesnot overlap if so competition occurs .

Ecological niche(Term was coined by Grinell )

 Role of an organism in its environment (physical space and functional role )


 It comprises of –physical space(space niche ) ,food resource(trophic niche ) and interactions .
 Total interaction of species in the community ,range of condition it can tolerate ,resource it
utilize and function .
 No two species can occupy exact same ecological niche “Gause law of competitive exclusion ”
 Ecological equivalents :similar ecological niche but different habitat .
 Competition is severe among the species occupying same ecological niche .
ECOSYSTEM

Defined as dynamic interaction between biotic and abiotic components.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Term was given by A.G Tansley.

Termbiocoenosis for ecosystem was given by karl Mobius.

 New concept of ecosystem was given by E.P Odum.he is the father of ecosystem.
 According to E.P.Odum “ecosystem is structural and functional unit of nature”
 Structural components includes=climatic factors, topographic factors ,biotic factors, edaphic
factors tec.
 Functional components includes: food chain, foodweb, ecological pyramid, productivity,
intreactions.
 Ecosystem is mainly concerned with: flow of energy and recycling of materials.
 Flow of energy is always unidirectional .
 Our ecosystem is open unit in case of energy.
 Ecosystem is homeostasis of our ecosystem,study of homeostasis is known as cybernetics.

Types of ecosystem
Nano-ecosystem Micro ecosystem Macro ecosystem Mega ecosystem
Water droplets Pond Forests,grassland Ocean,tropical rain
forests.
 Most stable ecosystem = Tropical rain forests(@5 max)> ocean.
 Unstable ecosystems are –tundra ,deserts,and artificial ecosystems.

CLIMATIC FACTORS
Microclimate :represents climatic condition that prevails at local scale or areas of limited
size,such the immediate surroundings of plants and animals .

: may differ from prevailing regional climate .

Temperature :optimum temp (0-40`c)

 Enzymatic action has specific range of temp for optimum function .


 Eurythermal:organism tolerate wide range of tempn.eg man ,cat .
 Stenothermal :organism tolerate narrow range of temp.eg corals.
 Megatherms :vegetations grow in high temp throught the year .(tropical rain forests).
 Mesotherms:vegetations grow in high temp alternated by low temp.(sub tropical
,deciduous forests )
 Microtherms :vegetations grow in low temp throughout the year.(temperate forests)
 Hekistotherms :vegetations grow in very low temp throughout the year ( alpine
forests).

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Temperature stratification in lake .

 Allen’s rule:The tails ,limbs,eyes,ear of mammals in colder region is smaller


and larger in warmer region.
 Bergman’s rule :Birds and mammals attain greater size in colder region and
lesser in warmer region.
 Jordan’s rule: The fishes in colder water posses more vertebrae than that of
warmer water.

LIGHT \SOLAR ENERGY

 Light is ultimate source of energy. ( major source of energy is carbohydrate and immediate
source of energy in cellular level is ATP(currency of cell).)
 Driving force of our ecosystem.
 Affects activities like photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, growth, movements,
flowering, germination etc.
 Stomata open in daytime are called photoactive stomata.
 stomata open in night time are called scotoactive stomata.
 Seeds which need light for germination are photoblastic seeds and in which germination is
inhibited by light bare called negative photoblastic seeds.
 Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is .400 to 700 nm .
 Heliophytes: sun loving plants (grow in high intensity of light),they have well developed
palisade parenchyma. They have vertically oriented leaves.
 Sciophytes: shade loving plants .(less intensity of light ),they have poorely developed palisade
parenchyma. They have horizontally oriented leaves.
 Facultative heliophytes:
 Facultative sciophytes:

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Light stratification in lake

RAINFALL \PRECIPITATION :

 Rainfall is major source of precipitation.


 Rainfall mainly determines the nature of plant community .
 Rainfall throughout the year =tropical rain forests.
 Rainfall occurring in 7 to 8 months =deciduous forests.
 Rainfall little in summer and more in winter =scrub forests.
 Moderate rainfall in summer leads to formation of grasslands .
 Low rainfall (less than 10cm annually ) =deserts .

Types of vegetation based on annual rainfall

Annual rainfall Vegetation


More than 250cm Tropical rain forests
200-250cm Sub -tropical forests
100-200cm Temperate forests
50-100cm Sub alpine forests
Below 50cm Drylands.
Less than 10 deserts

 Sternohalinespecies :species tolerate narrow range of salt concentration.


 Euryhaline species:species tolerate wide range of salt concentration.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

WIND \AIR
Wind break :tall trees are planted at the margins of filed to prevent uprooting .
 Lodging :grasses flattens in grounds deu to wind .
 Compression wood is due to wind velocity .
 Wind velocity is measured in anemometer.
ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY
 Measured by hygrometer or psyhrometer.
 Transpiration and humidity are inversely related.
 Plants growing in high humid region are =hygrophytes.eg orchid ( having velamin tissue)
EDAPHIC(SOIL) FACTORS :
 Pedogenesis \edaphogenesis: process of formation of soil.
 Pedology\edaphology: study of soil.
 Weathering :process of braking down of rocks into smaller sand particles.it is the first step
of edaphogensis.
 Mulching :moisture conservation of soil.
 Leaching :washing of minerals or nutrients from soil .
 Hydroponics :soiless cultivation
 Phytotron: cultivation in controlled environment .

SOIL HORIZONS
 O horizons :outermost layer of soil containg fresh and partly decomposed matter.
O1 –litter region:contain freshly fallen leaves,bark .
O2 –duff region:microbial action starts to decompose.bacteria ,fungi are present in addition to
litter.
 O horizons are well developed in in forest and poor in grassland and absent in desert.
 A-horizons:eluvial zone ,humus rich.max biological activity occurs.
 B –horizons:illuvialzone,rich in mineral matter poor in organic matter.
 C horizons :weathering\pedogenesis occur.
 D\R horizons:parent rock .

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Texture of soil

Types of soil Diameter of soil particles


Clay soil Less than 0.002 mm
Silt soil 0.002-0.02mm
Fine sand 0.02-0.2mm
Coarse sand 0.2-2mm
Gravel 2mm-5mm
Coarse gravel Above 5mm

 Porocity increases with increasing the size of particles and water holding capacity
decreases with increase in size of soil particles.
 Clay soil is least porous soil, water can be logged.
 Sandy soil(85%sand+15%caly or silt or both)
 Silt soil(90% silt +10% sand)
 Loam soil(50%sand+50%clay or slit or both)
 Best soil for plant growth is loam soil.
 Physically dry soil :actual scarcity of water ,eg sandy soil.
 Physiologically dry soil:water is abundant but not reached to the plant due to disturbed
physiology .eg saline soil. water logging clay soil.
 Holard =total amount of water in the soil.(high holard favours growth of hydrophytes)
 Chesard = available water for plants.(high chesard favours growth of mesophytes)
 Echard =unavailable water.(high echard favours the growth of xerophytes)
 Holard = chesard + echard

SOIL WATER

 Hygroscopic water:water molecules present in the thin sheet of water around soil
particles.
 Gravitational water:water retained due to the effect of gravity.
 Combined water:crystalline water present within the soil particles eg:MgSO4.7H2O.
 Capillary water :water retained within intercellular spaces of the soil particles in the form
of capillary network. (chesard water. mostly utilized by plants).
 Field capacity : holard –gravitational water.
 Water holding capacity (storage capacity )=field capacity –hygroscopic water.
 Alluvial soil: soil transported by water.
 Colluvial soil: soil transported by gravity
 Glacial soil: soil transported by glacier.
 Eoliansoil: soil transported by air or wind

Plant community based on habitats.


 Psammophytes: plants growing on sandy soil.
 Psychorophytes: plants growing on cold soil.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Cryophytes : plants growing extreme cold soil.


 Oxylophytes : plants growing on acidic or humic soil.
 Halophytes : plants growing on saline soil.
 Xerophytes : plants growing on dry soil .
 Eremophytes : plants growing on deserts
 Rheophytes : plants growing on running water.
 Pyrophytes : plants growing on burnt land .
 Helophytes : plants growing on marshy area.
 Psilophytes : plants growing in savanah grasslands.
 Lithophytes : plants growing on rocks .
 Chasmophytes : plants growing on cervices of rocks.
 Trophophytes: plants becomes mesophytes in winter, hydrophytes in rainy and
xerophytes in summer.

Topographic factors

 Related to the geography of earth like slope .steepness.altitude.


 This factor influence vegetation by producing variation in climate of geographical area.

BIOME
 Largest ecosystem with similar climatic conditions containing several smaller ecosystems.
 Altitude and latitude determine the boundary of biome .
 They may be terrestrial(mainly )and aquatic.
 Based on latitude these may be :
1. Tundra : Extreme low temperature ,arctic \polar region, northern tundra is virtually
trees less .biome with least diversity.
2. Taiga :northern coniferous forests. temperature around 10-15 degree.
3. Tropical rain forests : high temperature, high humidity, high diversity .dense forests.
maximum stratification.
4. Savanah :Grassland with scattered tress.
5. Chaparral\Mediterranean scrub forests: forests lies along pacific coast of North
America and south of Australia. forests with broad leaved evergreen vegetation, consists
of fire resistant resinous plants drought adapted animals.
6. Desert :extreme temperature and low humidity .it may be hot(Sahara, Thar ) may be
cold (Tibet, Gobi).
7. Grasslands: prairies of Canada and USA. pampas of south America, steppes of Europe
and Asia .etc.
 Based on latitude biome may be : tropical ,sub-tropical, temperate, sub-alpine ,alpine and
nivial.

BIOTIC FACTORS:
 The living beings of particular ecosystem is biota:that consist of flora and fauna .
 Biological sequence of food transfer is :producer-consumer-reducer.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Producer \transducer\converters.
 They are the first link of food chain .
 Food chain starts with photosynthesis.
 They connect abiotic to biotic factors.
 Includes phytoplankton, cynobacteria, algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, angiosperms,
gymnosperms.
 Insectivorous plant(carnivorous, predator plant like Nepenthes) play dual role considered
as both producer as well as consumer.

Consumers \heterotrophs :
 Based on size they may be macroconsume r(phagotrophs) or microconsumer (saprotrophs or
decomposer).
Macroconsumers are:
1. primary consumer\first order consumer \herbivores.
Depends on producer for their foods.eg cattle, deer, rabbit, zooplanktons, small fish etc.
Plant parasites are primary consumer.

2. secondary consumer\second order consumer\first order carnivores.


-depends on herbivores for their food.
-animal parasites are secondary consumer.
eg: jackel, fox, larger fish, etc.

3.Tertiary consumer\top order consumer \second order carnivores.


-depends on either producer, primary consumer,secondary consumer for food.eg lion, largest
fish, water birds, hawk etc.
 All the predators are carnivores but all carnivores are not predators.

Decomposer \reducer\saprotrophs\osmotrophs\mineralizer\scavanger

 Bacteria and fungi are main decomposer of ecosystem .


 Helps in recycling of materials
 Vulture is scavenger not predators.

Food chain
 Transfer of energy in the form of food materials from one level to another by eating and being
eaten .

Grazing \predatory food chain.


 Starts from green plants then smaller organism to larger organism.
 Eg: grass, rabbit, fox, tiger.
 It is most stable, common and independent food chain.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Parasitic food chain


 Starts from host i.e. larger organism to the smaller organism.
 It is dependent food chain.
 Eg: Tree_birds_parasites_hyperparasites.

Detritus \saprophytic food chain.


 Starts from dead organic matter to microorganism then to detritus feeding organism.
 Detritus food chain involves large no of microscopic organism so energy transfer is minimum
and slow.

Food web :
 Complex and interlinked food chain are called food web.
 Food web is more stable than food chain.

Trophic level \energy level.


 Each and every level of food chain are called trophic level.
 Producer _ PC _SC _TC _Decomposer.
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
 Lindmann gave the law of 10% transfer of energy in successive trophic level.only 10% of
total energy is transferred from one trophic level to another ,90% get lost as metabolic
heat.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
 Graphical representation of relationship between different trophic levels.
 Concept was given by :Charles Elton so also known as Eltonian pyramids.
 Environmental relationship can be best depicted through ecological pyramid.
 In ecological pyramids the first or producer level constitutes the base and successive levels
(primary, secondary consumers, etc.) make the apex.
 The ecological pyramids are 3 types:

Pyramid of Numbers
 Represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level .
 In grassland and crop ecosystem = Erect or upright (where producers are maximum in number)
and primary, secondary and tertiary consumers constitute the successive tiers; last tier makes
the apex.
 In a tree ecosystem =inverted, i.e., one single tree which is primary producer has got large
number of birds on it (Primary consumers) which have large number of insects outside their
body (Secondary consumers).
 Spindle shaped =forest ecosystem(not always it is usually erect) :It is narrow at the base as well
as apex of pyramid.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Pg. 13 Lecture notes by Dr.Drona Pokhrel


Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Pyramid of Biomass
 The total fresh or dry weight of all living organisms in a certain unit area is called biomass.
 The amount of new biomass produced in a single growing season is called yield.
 It shows the amount of energy stored in an ecosystem .
 Standing crop: quantity of biological or organic matter present in given area in an ecosystem.
 Standing state :total amount of inorganic substances present in particular area in an ecosystem.
 The pyramid of biomass =upright (terrestrial ecosystem) .
 The pyramid of biomass= inverted (aquatic ecosystem).

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Biomass is measured by bomb calorimeter.

Pyramid of Energy
 Represents the amount of transfer of energy at different trophic levels.
 Pyramid of energy is always upright. (may be inverted in case of artificial and unstable
ecosystem.)
 Follows the second law of thermodynamics .
 Represents the ecological efficiency, stability of ecosystem, gives best picture of overall nature
of the ecosystem.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Age Structure and Age Distribution


 The proportion of individuals in each age group in a population is called as distribution or age
structure of that population.
 The ratio of different age groups in a population determines the current reproductive status of a
population thus anticipating its feature.
 The age distribution of a population into three groups-Pre-reproductive, Reproductive and Post-
reproductive.

1. Expanding: It has a high birth rate and low death rate so there is a greater number of young
individuals in the population.

2. Stable population: Birth rate and death rate are equal in this type of population. Therefore there is
zero population growth in such a population.

3.Declining population :there is larger population of older individuals.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Age Pyramid :
If the proportions of different age groups in a population is represented geometrically the model so
obtained is called as the age pyramid. The three hypothetical pyramids are as follows

A. Triangular Pyramid : This is a pyramid with broad base. This indicates the rapidly growing population.
In this there is a greater number of pre-reproductive young individuals. The birth rate is high.

B. Bell-shaped Pyramid : These pyramids indicate the slow or almost stable growth of the population. In
this the percentage of the pre-reproductive and post-reproductive individuals is more or less the equal,
the post-reproductive group of individuals remaining as the smallest.

C. Urn-shaped Pyramid : In this type the percentage of pre-reproductive group of individuals is very low.
The age group of reproductive individuals is higher as compared to the individuals of other two age
groups.

Productivity
 Amount of energy\biomass produced\obtained by particular trophic level per unit area per
unit time .
 Expressed in kg\m2\year or kcal\m2\yr( rate of biomass production )
 Primary productivity :rate of biomass production at the producer level.
 Gross primary productivity :rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis.(GPP= total photosynthesis.)
 The amount of solar radiation reaching up to the earth surface is nearly 5kcal\sq cm\min.
 Green plants convert only 1-2% of the total radiant energy in to gross primary productivity .
 Max energy converters are aquatic plants( dinoflagellates and diatoms )

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Net primary productivity (NPP): GPP-respiration loss.( available biomass for consumption
to heterotrophs .apparent photosynthesis used by plant for growth and development ).

 Secondary productivity :rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Tertiary productivity :total amount of energy not utilized by heterotrophs.(TP=NPP-


Consumption by heterotrophs .
 Factors affecting primary productivity :plant species
:availability of nutrients
:environmental factors
 Aquatic ecosystem productivity is generally limited by light which decreases with
increasing depth .
 In deep oceans nutrients often become limiting for productivity .(nitrogen –is most
important nutrient limiting in marine)

Order of productivity

Coral reef ( eusterian)> tropical rain forest (high productive in terrestrial ecosystem)
>sugarcane field (most productive plant convert 10-12% of radiant energy )>>tropical
forest (high in nepal)>crop land >temperate forest>ocean >lake >tundra (least in nepal
)>desert.

Efficiency in ecosystem

 Photosynthetic efficiency =gross primary productivity (GPP)\incident solar energy


*100%
 Net production efficiency =net primary productivity \gross primary productivity*100%
 Assimilation efficiency =total assimilated food energy\total ingested food *100%
 Ecological efficiency =energy for biomass production at the trophic level\energy for
biomass production at previous trophic level *100%

INTERACTION AMONG BIOTIC COMMUNITY

Positive interactions:

1.Symbiosis:(+,+) both species are benifited and it is obligatory.


Eg:mutalism: obligate symbiosis,lichen (algae and fungi)
-mycorrhiza (between fungus and roots of higher plants.
-Nostoc,Anabena with corolloid roots of cycas.
-myrmecophilliy (ants with flower)
-Zoochlorella( chlorella and gastrointestinal tract of hydra).
-Rhizobium with root nodules of legumes.
-Escheria coli with human intestine.

2.Commensalism (+,0): one species is benifited and another is neither harmed


norbenifited.
Eg :Epiphytism (like orchid with tree branches)

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Lianas is woody climber in tropical rain forests.


Sucking fish with shark,clown fish with seaanemone.

Fig:

3.Protocoperation :(+,+) both species are benifited but not obligatory.generally requires
two previous relationship.
Eg:predatory birds with cattle,birds with crocodile,Hermit crab and sea anemone.

Fig:

4.Aggregation:intra species gathering of individual for common benefit and last for short
duration.eg herding of cattle.

5.Colonization:intraspecies gathering of individuals for common benefit which last


throughout the life.eg:colonization in lower organism.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

6 Social community:advance type of intraspecies gathering with division of


labour.eg:beewasp,termites.

NEGATIVE INTERACTION :

1.Antibiosis \ammensalism\allelopathy (-,0):


 One species inhibit the growth of another species with production of toxins which
are known as allochemicals.
 Chemical which repel other enemies are called allomon.
 Eg:penicillium secrets chemicals penicillin which inhibit the growth of
staphylococcus bacteria.
 Allelopathy is seen in higher organism,likejuglansregia (walnut)produce chemical
juglone toxic to apples.parthenium produce transcinamic acid which prevents
growth of herbs(like cassia tora).
 Smoother crops(like sugarcane )inhibits the growth of weeds.

2.Parasitism:(-,+)
 Two species of different sizein which smaller (parasite) gets benefit and larger ( host
) is harmed.generally host is not killed.
 Ectoparasite :lives on the body of host,eg : leech ,mosquito.
 Endoparasite :lives inside the body of host eg:taenia,ascaris,Schistosomaetc
 Stem parasites like cuscuta(total),loranthus,viscum(partial).
 Root parasites like Rafflesia(total),santalum(partial).

3.Predation :(-,+)

 Stronger (predator) feeds upon weak (prey).it is temporary relnin which one
organism is killed.
 Eg tiger upon rabbit,insectivorous plants.

4.Cannibilism:(-,+)
 Its itra-species relationship in which stronger feed its own individuals.

5.Competition:(-,-)
 It rivalry relationship in which involved individuals are adversely
affected.compitition is mainly for food ,shelter.
 Intraspecies competition is severe than interspecies competition.

Mimicry :
 Resemblance of one organism with an other organism \object for some advantage
(to catch the prey or to protect from predator).
 Organism exhibiting mimicry=mimic

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Organism \object to which it resembles=model.


 Protective mimicry:employed by prey.
 Aggressive mimicry: employed by predator.
 Batesianmimicry :edible species resembles with inedible species.mimic is
defenseless.Eg: viceroy butterfly resembles with monarch butterfly .

Fig:

 Mullerian mimicry: both mimic and model are inedible species.


Eg : Queen butterfly and monarch butterfly .

Camouflage :
:Ability of organism to blend with surroundings. it is protective colouration.eg :stick
insect resembles with twig, organism like salamander, chemeoleon can show it.

Fig:

PLANT ADAPTATION :
 Based on the available of water source ,Warming classified plants in to
hydrophytes,mesophytes and xerophytes.

Hydrophytes :

Grow in an environment where water is available plenty. Hydrophytes are classified as


follows:

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

1. Free floating hydrophytes: They float on the surface of water.eg:


Eichhornia,pistia,lemna,azolla,wolffiaetc.wolffia is smallest rootless
angiosperm.
2. Fixed \rooted floating hydrophytes: These plants have rhizomatous stem
and produce long petiolated leaves which float on the surface. Eg:
Nelumbo,Nymphea.
3. Submerged hydrophytes: They remain submerged in water ,usually rooted in
mud.eg : Hydrilla,ceratophyllum.Vallisneria,potamogeton etc.
4. Amphibian \helophytes\emergent hydrophytes: They grow in shallow
waters,remain attached with mud by their extensive root system ,produce
upright shoot and whose assimilatory organs and floral parts are remain
emergent( exposed over the surface of water.). eg: Jussiaea,Thypa,segittaria
etc.

ADAPTATIONAL FEATURES OF HYDROPHYTES:

 Root system is poorly developed or even absent ( Wolffia,Ceratophyllum)


 Root hairs are absent and root caps are replaced by root pockets .
 Spongy petiole is present ( eichhornia,trapa)
 Arenchyma tissue is well developed.


 The epidermis is without cuticle in almost submerged hydrophytes.
 Heterophylly (presence of more than one type of leaves in same plant) is common in
emergent hydrophytes. i.e deeply finely dissected submerged leaves and normal
emergent leaves.
 In floating hydrophytes gas exchange may occur through epistomata. whereas in
case of submerged stomata are absent so exchange through general body surface.
 Leaves are coated with waxy substances, vascular strands are poorly developed.

Xerophytes :

 They are well adapted in xeric habitat where water scarcity exists and plants develop
measures for reducing transpiration.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Physically xerophytes: Grow in area where there is actual scarcity of water. eg:
opuntia, casuarina.
 Physiologically xerophytes: grow in such are where there is plenty of water but not
in usable form,like in saline soil.

Xerophytes are classified as follows:

1.Drought escapers or drought evaders or ephimerals:

 They escape the drought and desiccation by reducing their life span( they
disappear before summer).
 They perennate hot summer month in seed state
 Eg:argemonemaxicana, cassia, solanumxanthocarpum etc.

2.Drought avoiding \succulents (malacophyllous xerophytes):

 These plants have fleshy stem leaf and root to store water and continue life
without any damage or injury.
 Water storing in leaves: aloe vera ,bryophyllum
 Water storing in stem :opuntia.
 Water storing in roots :asparagus.

3.Non succulents \true xerophytes, drought enduring

 They are real drought resistant plants which withstand extreme condition of
drought and dessication.
 Eg:Zizyphus, Acacia, Nerium ,Calotropis etc.

Adaptational features of xerophytes:

 Root system and vascular strands are well developed.(high root\shoot ratio)
 Stems are modified into phyllocladode and cladode.
 Leaves are modified into spines or needles.
 Cuticle is thick to reduce transpiration loss.
 Sunken stomata and scotoactive stomata are present .
 Epidermis is well developed with thickened cell wall.many layered epidermis is found
in ficus,Nerium.
 In xerophytes four types of leaves may be found such as, highly reduced leaves
(microphyllous), fleshy leaves(malacophyllous), leaves with hairs( Trichophyllous),
and leaves with well developed sclerenchymatous hypodermis(sclerophyllous).

HALOPHYTES:

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Plants growing in saline habitats.


 Mangroves which forms shallow littorial forests near sea shores are also halophytes.
 Fig:
 They have shallow root system for remaining above the zone of high concentration of
salts.
 Negetively geotrophic roorts pneumatophores are present with numerous lenticels
and pore for exchange.
 Internally halophytes reveal xerophytic as well as hydrophytic characteristics.
 Another stricking features of mangroves is vivipary (germination of seed when they
are in parent plant to avoid failure of germination on saline soil) germination of
seed.
 Eg:Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia.

BIO GEOCHEMICAL CYCLE


 Flow of nutrients and important macro and microelement from biotic to abiotic
components of ecosystem and vice-versa forms the movement of nutrients within
ecosystem defined as biogeochemical cycle or nutrient or mineral cycle.
 It mainly emphasizes their uptake ,retention and release from various trophic level.
 E.P.Odum classified biogeochemical cycles in 3 types which are
1:Gaseous cycle: nitrogen cycle, carboncycle, oxygen cycle( driven in atmosphere and
soil).
2:Hydrological cycle :water cycle ( driven by sunlight)
3:Sedimentary cycle :calcium, phosphorous cycle ( driven in soil)

NITROGEN CYCLE :

 Plant utilize nitrogen in the form of nitrite ,nitrate and ammonium compounds,
usually takes nitrates.
 Nitrogen is used as raw materials for synthesis of amino acid, proteins ,enzymes,
hydrogen acceptors (NAD,NADP,FAD),nucleic acid etc.
 Deficiency of nitrogen develops chlorosis in old leaves, early defoliation, stunted
growth, delayed in flowering and early death.
 Few insectivorous plants directly get nitrogen compound from atmosphere.
 Following are the steps in nitrogen cycle ( 6 steps)

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

1.Nitrogen fixation :

 The process of fixing atmospheric free nitrogen into ammonium compounds is called
nitrogen fixation. it can be by

A.Physically or environmentally:

 During thundering and lightening atmospheric nitrogen combine with oxygen to


form nitric oxide which is further oxidized to nitrogen dioxide or nitrogen
pentaoxide. these oxides of nitrogen combines with water to form nitric acid and
acid combines with basic components of soil like calcium carbonate to produce
usable nitrogenous compounds.

B.Biological nitrogen fixation :

It is estimated that 70% of nitrogrn is fixed by biological way.


Symbiotic nitrogen fixation by bacteria like :Rhizobium leguminosarum in legumes
rootnodules. These bacteria have extra DNA(plasmid ) that code for Nif (nitrogen
fixing gene)gene which produce pigment leghaemoglobin ( responsible for red
colour of root nodules.
 Nitrogen fixation occurs in the presence of enzyme nitrogen as ereductase. this
enzyme is protected by leghaemoglobin from oxidative damage.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation is shown below:

 Atmospheric N2 _ absorbed by N2 fixing organism _ reduced to ammonia using


NADH2 OR NADPH2 _ converted to amino acid _ used in synthesis of proteins _
remain incorporated in protoplasm _ subjected to microbial decomposition after
death _ release of ammonia from proteins _ synthesis of nitrates through nitrification
_ increase fertility of soil.

List of nitrogen fixing bacteria

Rhizobium :symbiotic, saprophytic and soil borne


Azotobactor: aerobic , free living, saprophytic and soil borne
Clostridium:anaerobic ,freeliving, and soil borne
Rhodospirillum: anaerobic ,autotrophic, and free living
Klebsilella : symbiotic, saprophytic air borne
Azospirillum: forming loose association and helps in nitrogen fixation .
Nitrogen fixing blue green algae are : Nostoc, Anabaena, Aulosira etc.

2.Nitrification:

 Oxidation of ammonia to form nitrite and then to nitrate is called nitrification. carried
by two specific chemosynthetic bacteria:
a. Nitrosomonas group \autotrophic( nitrosomonas, nitrococcus, nitrospira):
-convert ammonia to nitrites:NH3 +o2_ HNO2 +H2O+ energy.
b. Nitrobactor group\heterotrophic(Nocardia, penicillium, Streptomyces):
-convert nitrite to nitrate.
HNO2 + O2 HNO3+ Energy

3.Nitrogen assimilation:

 The process of utilization of nitrogenous compounds like nitrites, nitrates by living


organism.

4.Ammonification :

 Conversion of dead and decaying organism into ammonia is ammonification.it is


carried in two steps
 Proteolysis: proteins break down into their amino acids in the presence of bacteria
like clostridium, proteus, bacillus etc.
 Deamination :amino acids are transferred into ammonia by removal of amino group
from amino acids by bacteria like bacillus ramosus, bacillus vulgaris etc.

5.Denitrification:

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Conversion of all bound forms of nitrogen to free gaseous nitrogen for recycling
is denitrification.
 Carried out by bacteria like: Thiobacillusdenitrificans, pseudomonas,
micrococcusdenitrificans etc.
 It leads to nitrogen deficient in soil .

6.Sedimentation:

 The fossilization or impregmentation of nitrogenous compounds in to soil .The


nitrogenous compound due course of time dissolved into soil and become
available for future.

CARBON CYCLE

 Carbon is obtained as carbon dioxide by the autotrophic plants. heterotrophic


organism derive carbon from organic source such as. glucose, sucrose.
 The main reservoir of non organic carbon and the sources of almost all carbon
incorporated in body of living organism is atmospheric carbon dioxide. it dissolves in
water as carbonic acid and it is raw material for phtosynsthesis.
 There are four steps of carbon cycle :

1. Carboxylation or carbon fixation:

 The process of utilizing atmospheric carbon dioxide by autotrophs through


photosynthesis is known as carboxylation.
 6Co2+12H2o_C6H12O6+6H2O +6O2 (Photosynthesis)
 6Co2 +12 H2S_C6H12O6+ 6H2O +6O2( chemosynthesis)

2. Carbon assimilation:

 Utilization of carbonic compounds by living organism.


 Autotrophic plants prepare carbonic food materials and get energy by
oxidation whereas heterotrophic depends on carbonic compounds prepare
by autotrophs.

3.Decarboxylation:

 Process of conversion of carbonic compounds in to free atmospheric


carbondioxide.
 All aerobic organism convert carbon compounds into carbon dioxide during
respiration.
 Another way of decarboxylation is combustion of fossil fuel, organic
materials .

4.Sedimentation or fossilization:

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Fossilization of carbon compounds into soil particles. In future they are


available as fossil fuel.

SUCCESSION : PROCESS OF COMMUNITY CHANGE OVER TIME

Communities are never stable. They go on changing regularly over time and space due to their
constant interactions with environment. Both, the environment and the community, tend to
modify each other through positive or negative interactions. However, these changes are very
slow and thus can be noticed distinctly only after a very long time.

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 This results in elimination of previous community gradually and a new interaction starts
between the second community and the modified environment.
 This gradual replacement of one community by another due to modification in
environment by community environment interactions refers to succession.
 Succession is the universal and unidirectional change in vegetation during ecological
time.
 It is the law of nature.
 The term succession was coined by Hult (1885).
 Succession is a non-cyclic changes in the community overtime. These changes can be
noticed only after a decade or sometimes even after a century. Some of these changes
are related with origin, migration or extinction of texa and are thus have historical
importance.
.

 It results from modification of physical environment by the communities, i.e., it is


community controlled, even though the physical environment determines the pattern,
the rate of change often sets limits as to how far development can go.
 It culminates in a stabilized ecosystem in which maximum biomass and symbiotic
functioning between organisms are maintained per unit of available energy flow.

Basic Types of Succession


1. Primary succession: The succession which occurs in originally barren site or area such as a
pond or on rocks or on sand dunes, volcanic island etc.
2. Secondary succession: If succession occurs in an area which was previously well colonized
but the vegetation has been completely destroyed either by any natural calamity (such as, land
sliding, flood or forest fire) or by man's interferences (such as deforestation, urbanization,
industrialization or environmental pollution) the succession is termed as secondary succession.

 The first community in sucession is =pioneer communityand last community in


sucession is =climax community.
 The series of changes occurring in the community during succession is called sere and
each stage of community is called seral community.
 Seral communities in microbial succession or heterotrophic succession are called serule.
 Rate of primary succession is very slow (can be noticed only after a few decades) but of
secondary succession, very fast (can be observed with a few years).

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3. Autogenic succession : The succession proceeding slowly as a result of interaction of the


organisms with the environment.(naturally occurring eg natural forest.)
4. Allogenic succession : Succession influenced by external sources such as by addition of
nutrients, manures, fertilizers from outside.(with the help of human ,national park conservation
area .)

 Induced sucession: totally controlled by human (aquarium,cropland )


5. Autotrophic succession :When the participating communities are dominated by green
plants, whether microscopic or macroscopic, and they are utilizing only inorganic resources of
the environment (water, minerals, gases, etc.), the succession is called autotrophic succession.
6. Heterotrophic succession : Succession occurs on dead and decaying organic matter of soil
and its main participants are saprophytic fungi, bacteria or actinomycetes (i.e., heterotrophic
organisms or chemoorganotrophs). Such succession in which the main domination is of
heterotrophs is referred to as heterotrophic succession.

 Hydrosere or Hydrarch : Succession starting in an aquatic habitat where water is


available in plenty, e.g. succession in a pond or a lake.
 Mesosere or Mesarch: Succession starting in a place where water is available in
moderate amount, e.g., succession on alluvial deposits (soils transported by flood
water).
 Xerosere or Xerarch : Succession starting under xeric environment where water scarcity
prevails and moisture is present in minimum amount, e.g., succession on sand dunce
succession on rocks or succession deserts.
 Lithosere : It is a type of xerosere where succession occurs on barren rocks.
 Psammosere : It is also a type of xerosere where succession occurs on dry sands or sand
dunes.
 Halosere : Succession occurring in saline environment (saline lake or saline soils) is
referred to as halosere.
 Oxylosere:succession occur in acidic soil .

Causes of Succession
Succession is not caused by any single factor, rather, it is the product of interactions of several
abiotic and biotic factors causing changes in community structure during interaction with
environment.
Generally these factors are grouped into three types, as follows-
(i) Initiation factors : These factors are responsible for making an area barren to initiate
succession. Climatic and biotic factors, both are responsible for this. Erosion, volcanic eruption,
frequent flood or inundation, alluvial deposition, forest fire, indiscriminate deforestation, etc.,

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(ii) Continuing factors : Processes like migration, invasion, ecesis (establishment). aggregation
competition, etc., are responsible for successive waves of seral communities in a succession
until the climax is reached.
(iii) Stabilizing factors : They are responsible for establishment of climax when a community
gets estabilized. Neither the community modifies environment nor the environment forces the
community to leave the place.
.

Process of Succession
1. Nudation : It is the process of formation of bare area to provide site for colonization of
pioneercommunity. Natural catastrophy or man made activities cause nudation.

2. Invasion :Arrival of propagating parts of organisms from the surrounding areas


throughphysical or biological agencies and their proper establishment in the new area is called
invasion. Invasion is completed by the following stages :
(a) Migration of flora or vegetation from nearby area takes place with the help of several
agenciesof dispersal of fruits or seeds.
(b) Ecesis or proper establishment of migrant in the new site which includes germination of
seedsor sprouting of vegetative propagules, establishment of seedlings and their proper growth
andcolonization.
(c) Aggregation reveals that after ecesis, the migrated organisms have started producing
theiroffsprings to develop their large population in the area.
3. Competition: During aggregation, offsprings are produced in large number in a limited
spaceand under limited resources. This results in development of severe intraspecific and

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interspecificcompetition (negative interaction) for space, water, minerals, light or nutrients. It


follows the law of"struggle for existence' and 'survival of the fittest' of Darwinism.
4. Reaction : Plant community and environment interact and react with one another
throughuptake and release of materials. Both aerial environment as well as edaphic
environment are graduallymodified through constant interactions with various plant
communities. Some pioneer communitieshave the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen so that
the environment gradually enriches with nitrogenousresources..
5. Climax : In the process of succession, its final stage is called climax. Climax has been defined
invarious ways by different ecologists. It is the final or stable community in a successional
series. It is selfprepetuating and in equilibrium with the physical and biotic environment .
MonoclimaxTheory : Clements (1936) proposed the monoclimax theory stating that
everyregion has only one climax community, irrespective of site condition, soil condition or
biotic conditionsand is entirely governed by the climatic conditions of the area.
PolyclimaxTheory :Tansley(1939) suggested that climax is not attained by the effect of
onlyclimatic factor of the area but edaphic factors, biotic factors and climatic factors, all have
equal bearingover the formation of climax community in a succession.

Succession in a Barren Pond (Hydrosere)


Hydrosere begins from a pond by pioneer com.urity belonging to phytoplanktons and ends into
aclimax community represented by forest when the pond dries up completely by interaction of
severalseral communities.

 Hydrosere is a type of primary succession and is usually autogenic in nature.


 Various stages of hydrosere are summarised below
(a) Pioneer community
It is represented by phytoplanktons which comprise a wide assemblage of organisms belonging
to cyanophyceae, chlorophyceae and bacillariophyceae.

(b) Seral communities :After pioneers, several seral communities come one after the other in
the following order :
(i) Rooted submerged stage: Dead organic remains of phytoplanktons develop a thin layer
ofsoft mud at bottom which favours submerged hydrophytes like Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum,
Najas,Vallisneria, Potamogeton, Utricularia or Myriophyllum..

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(ii) Rooted floating leaved stage: When the thickness of soft mud at the bottom
increasesbeyond 4 to 6 inches, rooted floating leaved hydrophytes like Nelumbo, Nymphaea,
Nymphoides, Euraleor Victoria invade the pond. into gradually drying of pond.
(iii) Free-floating stage : Plants floating freely over the surface of water invade the pond after
rooted floating leaved stage. Eichhornia, Lemna, Spirodela, Wolffia, Pistia, Azolla or Salvinea
dominate in this stage of succession. They are capable of changing their place on the mercy of
wind.
(iv) Reed swamp stage : In this stage, attached emergents like Scirpus, Typha, Sagittaria,
Monochoria, Eleocharis, etc., predominate and form large pure patches due to having creeping
rhizomes burried in mud and abundance of nutrients releasing from rapid decomposition of
dead organic remains of previous occupants.

(v) Sedge meadow stage : Amphibians like Cyperus, Vitiveria, Juncus, Cymbopogon, Jussiaea,
Ranunculus, Dentella, Limnophila, etc., now start replacing the Reed swamp vegetation
gradually and they develop terrestrial look to the pond.
(vi) Woodland stage : Shrubs and trees start appearing at this stage by gradually
replacingamphibians. Salix, Populus, Almus, Terminalia, Barringtonia, Eugenia, etc.,
predominate at this stageand the trace of a pond has altogether disappeared. This is the
beginning of climax of the succession.
(c) Climax community : In hydrosere, the climax is attained when the forest develops at this
areapredominated by trees with a few shrubs and ground flora. Forest represents a most stable
communitycapable of maintaining a dynamic equilibrium with the prevailing environmental
conditions.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

The area which was once in the form of a pond with only phytoplanktonic population has

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

nowrepresenting a dense forest as a result of succession or hydrosere.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Succession on a Barren Rock (Xerosere-I ithosere)

Xerosere begins on barren or naked rocks or rocky substratum. Rock surface is devoid of
sollwithout which rooted plants can not grow and colonize. No free minerals and nutrients are
available onthe surface of rocks. Moisture is also not retained and the environment is xeric
(scarcity of water). Theprocess of transformation of a barren rock into a forest site refers to
Xerosere (Lithosere).
Various stages of xerosere are as follows:
(a) Pioneer community :
Only the lichens have the capacity to grow over barren rocks. Initial thecrustose lichens like
Graphis, Haemotomma, Lecanora, Lecidia, Rhizocarpon.
(b) Seral communities:

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Several seral communities appear and disappear during xerosere andprocess continues till the
climax is attained. The dominant seral communities are asunder in order of their appearance:

(i) Foliose lichen stage:


The thin soil layer over the rock surface provides suitable environmentto foliose lichens like
Parmelia, Physcia, Peltigera, Xanthoria, Gyrophora or Dermatocarpa.
(ii) Moss stage:
Mosses and liverworts both need a thin layer of soil for attachment of therhizoids. Mosses grow
in pure patches and develop cushion like or carpet like dense growth. Funaria,Pogonatum,
Polytrichum, Grimmia, Tortula appear on such substratum and they replace the
lichensaltogether by competing for space, nutrition and light.

(iii) Herbs stage :


Mosses and liverworts interact with the environment very efficiently and helpin formation of a
thick soil layer over the rock (bed-rock) which invites herbaceous vegetation forinvasion. They
establish firm attachment with the soil as they produce roots for attachment as well
asabsorption..Tridex, Justicia, Evolvulus, Convolvulus,Trifolium, Desmodium, Lindenbergia,
Ageratun, Vernonia like herbaceous plants colonize well duringthis stage.
(iv) Shrub stage:

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Gradually the herbaceous plants are replaced by woody shrubs from this areaas they are more
effecient and aggresive. Seeds and prapagules of shrubs migrate from nearby area
andgradually, establish themselves by replacing herbaceous vegetation.Capparis,Zyzyphus,
Clerodendron, Cassia, Zygophyllum, Urena, Crotelaria, Tephrosia, etc., are thecommon shrubs
which appear at this stage.

(c) Climax community :


Shrub stage is replaced by woodland stage which finally developsintoforest with unique
biodiversity butdomination of trees and shrubs. In temperate region, evergreens andconifers
predominate the forest vegetation (Pines,Cedrus, Abies, Picea, Taxus, Cephalotaxus, Oak,Birch
or Maple) whereas, in tropical region, deciduous forms are common (Acacia,
Prosopis,Anogeissus, Boswellia, Albizzia, Capparia, Shorea,Delbergia or Tectona).

Environmental pollution :
The undesirable change in physical chemical or biological characteristics of air ,water or land that
may harm the human life.

1. Biodegradable pollutants :
 These pollutants degrade after sometime through the agency of microorganism.
e.g. domestic sewage

2. Non-biodegradable pollutants :
 These pollutants are not degraded or broken down naturally or by microorganisms into
harmless materials and are there also called persistent pollutants. mercury salts, some phenolic
compounds and DDT which are either not at all degraded or degradation is partial, pollute the
environment.
 These substances are harmful even in low concentration and the harm increases with their
concentration.

Primary pollutants: present in the same form in which they are produced, eg co ,SO2

Secondary pollutants :are produced by reactions between primary pollutants.eg PAN, ozone

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1. AIR POLLUTION

Air is a mixture of gases comprising 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, 0.9 argon,
0.0018% neon, 0.005% helium, 0.0002% methane and 0.0001% krypton with still smaller trace of
hydrogen, ozone, ammonia, etc.

Oxides of sulphur:
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2) released from chimneys of factories is an important pollutant. It is a
colourless and odourless gas, normally present at the Earth's surface at low concentration. In
higher concentration, SO, may cause death of cells.
 Due to SO2, margin of leaf and portion of lamina in between vascular bundle dries up. Some
effects of SO2 and its transformation products in the atmosphere on plant cells include damage
of membrane, plasmolysis, chlorophyll destruction, growth and yield reduction
 In addition SO, absorbs water vapour from atmosphere thus forming sulphuric acid (H2SO4.)
which is harmful to tissues.
 SO2 is harmful to eyes, throat and in high concentration enters our lungs.
 The major source of sulphur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels, mostly coal in power plants or
crude petroleum gas in oil refinaries..

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Oxides of Carbon
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless and a very much poisonous gas and is the main
and primary air pollutant.
 Even a very low concentration of it is extremely toxic to human. When inhaled this gas combines
with blood haemoglobin about 200 times faster than does oxygen are results in oxygen
deficiency.
 Approximately 90% of the carbon monoxide in the atmosphere come from natural resources
and the other 10% comes mainly from fires, automobiles and other sources by incomplete
burning organic compounds.
 High levels of carbon monoxide in atmosphere causes suffocation and death due to formation
of carboxy- haemoglobin to reduce oxygen uptake for cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide
released d cellular respiration of biosphere is sufficient enough to meet the requirements of
carbon dioxide photosynthesis. However the level of carbon dioxide is increasing in atmosphere
day by day due to excessive release from industrial and domestic sources
 Increase in CO2 level is responsible for Greenhouse effect' as well as 'Global warming'. Rapid
deforestation during recent part is also responsible for increasing rate of carbon dioxide in
atmosphere.

Ozone
 Özone (O3) is a form of oxygen in which three atoms of oxygen occur together rather than the
normal two. ozone is synthesized from oxygen using energy of UV radiation of Sun.
 The major sources of ozone are automobiles, fossil fuel and industrial processes that produce

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

nitrogen dioxide. When inhaled this gas combines with blood haemoglobin about 250 times
faster than does oxygen and thereby prevents haemoglobin from carrying oxygen and results in
oxygen deficiency.
 Ozone is both pollutant as well as protectant .

Smog (secondary pollutant )


The word smog is derived from an elision of smoke and fog,

Los angles smog Classical London smog


USA (light induced ) EUROPE
In increased temperature In low temperature
Mainly due to ozone , PAN, nitrogen oxide . Mainly due to Sulphur dioxides, fumes of
Oxidizing effect sulphuric acid . reducing effect

Photochemical Smog:
Photochemical smog contains large amount of different oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons released
from different engines.

Nitric oxide (NO) is formed by reaction between oxygen and nitrogen. This reacts which air forming
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) which is a brown coloured pungent gas. This gas absorbs light due to which nitric
oxide (NO) and a molecule of atomic or nascent oxygen (0) are formed.

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This atomic oxygen (O) is very reactive and reacts immediately with such molecules in which unburnt
hydrocarbons are present.

This gives rise to Peroxyl radicals which after reaction with oxygen form ozone or reacting with NO2
give rise to Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN).

Both ozone and PAN are very harmful to plants.

PAN inhibits Hill reaction of photosynthesis and ozone promotes excessive transpiration. Ozone is also
harmful for cloth and rubber. PAN also causes irritation in eyes.

Aerosols :defined as dispersion of solid or liquid matter in atmosphere.

 The pollutants released by jet planes are aerosol which mainly contain fluorocarbon.
 (Particles in air with diameters less than 1 um) and dust (solid particles in air with diameters
greater than 1 um) or mist (liquids), cement dust, reduces photosynthesis and also leaf size thus
reducing overall primary productivity.

The ill-effects (diseases) of different kinds of dust are listed below :

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Kind of dust Disease

(a) Coal dust Anthracosis


(b) Silica Silicosis
(c) Asbestos Asbestosis, lung cancer
(d) Iron dust Siderosis
(e) Cane fibre dust Bagassosis
(f) Cotton dust Byssinosis
(g) Hay or grain dust Farmer's lung

Particulates matter and effects :


A large number of particles are released into atmosphere by:

(a) Natural processes like volcanic eruptions, dust storms and forest fires.

(b) Human activities like metallurgical processes, oil refineries, manufacturing of pesticides fungicides
and cosmetics.

 These small particles are called particulates.


 They exert their adverse effects on human health and ecosystem and biosphere. Few of them
with their ill effects are given below :

(a) Soot - Cancer of skin and lungs

(b) Cigarette smoke - Lung cancer

(c) Cadmium oxide – Prostrate cancer

(d) Benzene - Blood cancer (Leukaemia)

(e) Vinyl chloride (VCM)- Sarcoma of liver

(f) Coal tar (3, 4-benzopyrene) – Skin and lung cancer

(g) Mustard gas – Lung cancer

(h) Chromium and nickel - Lung cancer

(i) Benzidine – Bladder cancer

(j) Arsenic - Lung, skin and liver cancer

 Lịchens and mosses are the main indicators of air pollution and thus acts as Indices of
Atmospheric Purity (IAP).
 Indicator of soil pollution are mosses.

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming Melts Ice Caps

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 carbon dioxide(main cause ), methane and CFCS, warm the Earth's atmosphere because they
absorb and reemit radiation.
 This is called the greenhouse effect because it is like the glass pan of a green house that allows
sunlight(short wavelength,high energy radiation) to pass through and then traps(long
wavelength,less energy) the resulting heat inside the structure.
 The air pollutants responsible for the greenhouse effect are known as the greenhouse gases.
They are as follows :

 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principal 'greenhouse gas' responsible for warming the Earth Carbon
dioxide (CO2) is rising into the atmosphere slowly as a result of large scale burning of fossil fuels
co allows solar radiations to pass through and strike Earth's surface but when it reradiates in the
for infrared radiations, CO2, absorbs them and leads to warming up.
 This rise in temperature would result in melting of the pollar ice caps and would add more
water to the sea.
 Methane is green house gas released from paddy field.
 The level of greenhouse gases can only be reduced by afforestation as the trees are the best
sink for most of the air pollutants produced by Man's action.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Ozone Shield Holes Cause Skin Cancer


 The atmosphere of Earth is mainly divided into two parts : troposphere (the one nearest the
Earth between 8 to 12 kms)
 stratosphere (where the temperature remains steady extending from 12-50km. above the
Earth). In stratosphere there is a layer of ozone (O) called an ozone shield.
 The ozone layer, almost twice as high above sea level as the top of Mount Everest. This layer
absorbs the ultraviolet (UV) rays of the sun.
 The massive thinning of ozone layer is also called as "Ozone hole". Seasonal thinning is more in
sept to mid oct over high altitudes.First discovered in 1985 over Antarctica by nimbus 7 satellite.
 It lets more ultraviolet radiation reach the earth which is causing for more skin cancers,
cataracts and weekened immune system.

 CFCS (Chlorofluorocarbons) are the major factor in ozone reduction or ozone shield depletion.
 The compounds of chlorine, fluorine and carbon are odourless and invisible. These are found in
refrigerators and air conditioners (as the coolants), solvents and plastic foams.
 When a CFC molecule absorbs ultraviolet light, it gives up one chlorine atom. The chlorine reacts
with ozone yeilding oxygen and chlorine monoxide. Chlorine monoxide can react with free
oxygen and release another chlorine atom. Each released chlorine atom can convert 10,000 or
more ozone molecules to oxygen.

 CFCS are not the only 'ozone eaters', methyl bromide, a fungicide is better at it. It persists only
briefly in atmosphere but it will account for about 15% of thinning in years unless its production
stops.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Acid Rain
 It is surprising to note that all rainfalls are slightly acidic, water reacts with atmospheric carbon
dioxide to produce weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). Thus pure rainfall has a pH of about 5.6.
 Acid rain Is defined as precipitation in which the pH is below 5.6.
 In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are transformed by reactions with
oxygen and water vapour to form sulphuric and nitric acids.
 Acid rain affects the ability of the trees to tolerate cold temperatures and often causes
immature defoliation and the weakened trees are killed by cold conditions or become more
susceptible to diseases.
 Acid rain also affects a lake ecosystem by dissolving chemical elements needed for life and
keeping them in solution so that they leave the lake with the water outflow, Without these
nutrients, algae don't grow and fishes that feed on the algae have little to eat.
 It causes 'rock cancer' or 'rock leprosy' (produces black spots on marble stones).

The lusture of old monuments like Krishna mandir, Tajmahal etc. are degraded by acid rain –threatened
mainly due to SO2 ( air pollution ).

 Remember earth is threatened mainly by increasing Co2 .

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 The Bhopal gas tragedy (2-3dec 1984) is mainly caused by MIC (methyl isocynate, gas released
from pesticide manufacturing plant of union carbide)

WATER POLLUTION
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) :

Amount of oxygen needed by microorganism to break down organic matter present in given
water sample at certain temp over specific time period .

 Usually calculated in 1 litre water at 20 *c for 5 days, calculated in PPm.


 Drinking water has range =5-17ppm
 It is indicator of degree of water pollution .(note :indicator of water pollution are =daphnia
,cyclops. indicator of faecal water pollution is escheria coli.)

Dissolved oxygen

 amount of oxygen dissolved in water taken by clean water organism like fishes, which depends
on: already dissolved oxygen, temperature, saltness .
 it is normally 4-5ppm.
 BOD is inversely proportional to DO.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

 Amount of oxygen required to oxidize all pollutants by chemically ( using K2Cr2O7).


 It is faster method and its value is more than BOD.

EUTROPHICATION

 Process in which water receives excess nutrients that stimulate excessive microvegetation
growth ( algal bloom).
 Mainly due to high concentration of phosphate and nitrate (excessive chemical fertilizers,
sewage, detergents )
 It is natural aging of lake .lake becomes shallower and warmer.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Terror of fewa lake =Eichornia

Eutrophic lake :
 More nutrients , shallow, highBOD, low DO, high productivity .
 Massive killing of fishes is eutrophication .

Oligotrophic lake :
 Rich in oxygen ,clear water with low productivity .

Dystrophic lake :
 High humic substances and organic acids. low ph ,low productivity .

BIOMAGNIFICATION

 process of increasing concentration of toxins\non biodegradable pollutants(like DDT, mercury)


along successive trophic level.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 (note :bioaccumulation _is accumulation of toxins within oraganism but biomagnification is


increase in trophic level)
 Silent spring is novel written by Rachel carson about effect of DDT on birds.
 Lead poisoning can cause air ,water(plubinism ) and soil poln.tetraethyl led (TED) in gasoline
can pour lead in atmosphere .it can cause mental retardation ,paralysis, anemia. sewage
water turns black due to precipitation of lead in the presence oh H2s.
 Blue baby syndrome is due to high nitrate (methaneglobinemia-respi and cardio problems).
 Itaiitai (ouch ouch ) disease is caused by cadmium poisoning .
 Black foot disease is caused by arsenic poisoning .
 Flurode contaminated drinking water causes dental fluorosis.
 Sr-90 causes mainly bone cancer.
 Iodine 131 ,a radioisotope used in detection of thyroid cancer.
 Bone marrow of the human is first to be affected by nuclear radiation.
 Ultimate hazard to humankind is nuclear pollution.
 Sound above 80db considered as sound pollution.
 Green mufflers are used to reduce sound pollution.
 World environment day =5thjune.

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

BIO-DIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION.


 Biodiversity is the totality of life forms ecological roles they play and genetic diversity
they contain .
 Biodiversity is more in equator and decreases towards poles.it decreases towards higher
altitudes.
 Total no of species in earth is estimated between 1.7million to 1.8 million.
Levels of biodiversity

 Due to highly enrichment of flora and fauna ,nepal falls on the 10th position in asia and
31st position in world based on biodiversity .

Wild life
Refers to any species in their own natural habitat.

 The main cause of wildlife extinction is destruction of habitat.


 Other causes of wild life extinction are poaching ,international trade, alien spescies
invasion, over exploitation, tourism, deforestation etc.
 Conservation means the management of biosphere in such a way that yields greatest
benefit for present generation and also maintain for future generation.
 Red data book :catalogue of threatened species of both plants and animals. First

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

published by IUCN in 1963.


 Green data book :provides information about endangered sp of plants (specially
domesticated).
 Hot spot area: Area having maximum biodiversity .

Catagories of wildlife

 Extinct sp.(EXN):species not seen over the duration of past 50 years.


 Threatened species(T): species which needs immediate protection. They may be either
endangered or vulnerable or rare.
 Critically endangered(CR):species experiencing very high risk of extinction in the wild
and can become extinct in any time in immediate future.
 Endangered sp(E): species experiencing high risk of extinction if causative factors are
operating .
 Vulnerable species(v):species which are going to be endangered if causative factors are
operating .
 Rare or lower risk (R):small in population which are neither endangered nor vulnerable.
 Indeterminate (I):known to be endangered ,vulnerable or rare but not having enough
information to which category they exactly fall.

TYPES OF CONSERVATION
 Ex-situ :conserving wildlife out of their natural habitat.eg: Zoos, botanical garden, gene
bank ,breeding centres etc.
 IN-situ :conserving the wildlife in their own natural habitat .eg: National parks ,wildlife
reserve, conservation area , sanctuaries, biosphere reserve.
 According to national park and wildlife protection act 1973,there are 27 sp of
mammals ,9 sp of birds and 3 sp of reptiles are legally protected in Nepal .
National parks : both flora and fauna get protected.
Zones of national parks or biosphere reserve: manipulation zone
: buffer zone
: Core zone
Phytogeography of Nepal

 It belongs to paleoarctic and indo Malayan biome.

Types of forests in Nepal :


Tropical forest ( up to 1000m altitude )

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

 Characterized by high Rainfall and high Temperature. forests of terai.


 Main dominated forests are –salforests (shorearobusta), sisoo forests (dalbergiasisoo).
 Wood of sisoo is known as shisham.
 Acacia catechu (khayer in nepali ).is tropical thorn forest.A tannin is extracted from
wood of it known as =kutch or kathha ,which is dying agent used in pan.
 Butea monosperma also known as flame of the forests means forests full of red flowers
in autumn.
 Seasonal periodicity is seen in deciduous forests.
 Epiphytes and lianas are common in tropical rain forests. In Nepal in tropical forests.
 Maximum biodiversity is seen in tropical rain forests.( lowest in tundra )

Sub- tropical forests (1000-2000m)


 Main dominant species are : Castanopsisindica (katus), Alnusnepalensis (uttis)
Schimawallichi (chilaune), Pinusroxburghii (salla).

Temperate forests (2000-3000m)


 Lower temperate mixed broad leaved forests, temperate mixed evergreen forests,
upper temperate mixed broad leaved forests.
 Main species are = Quercus (oak-earliest growing species in temperate zone during
sucession, commercially cork is obtained from it, cricket ball is made from bark of it )
,cedrusdeodara (devdar).Rhododendron arborium (national flower of our country)
Taxusbaccata (anticancer drugs are made), pinuswallichiana etc.

Subalpine forests (3000-4000m)


 Birch rhododendron forests and silver fir forests .
 Main species are = Rhododendron barbatum, Rhododendron companulatum, betulautilis
(bhojpatra). Abies sp. (silver fir), juniperus (dhupisalla), picea (spruce).
Alpine forests (above 4000m)
 No taller trees. only bushy type of vegetation
 Species like: Aconitum, Nardostchys grandiflora etc, Ephedrageradiana.
 Timber line : altitude beyond which trees are not found.
 Most successful forests management concept in nepal is :community forests
development .

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

QUESTIONS
1 Biotic potential refers to 8 Valliseneria is a:
A. increase in population under optimum A. submerged hydrophytes
conditions B. free-floating hydrophytes
B. increase in population under given C. suspended halophytes
condition D. mesophytes
C. increase in population under natural 9 Typha is an example of
conditions A. free floating hydrophytes
D. increase in population under climatic B. submerged hydrophytes
conditions
C. emergent hydrophytes
2. Biotic potential is counteracted by
D. floating and attached halophytes
A. competition with other organism
10 An aquatic plant with floating leaves
B. limitation of food supply
A. has stomata on lower surface
C. producer is largest
B. has stomata only on upper surface
D. none of the above
C. has stomata on both surfaces
3. When a tiger attack cheetals, the stag with
D. does not have stomata
best antlers is surrounded by other
individuals to protect it. It is an example of 11 Photosynthesis and respiratory gaseous
exchange in hydrophytes takes place
A. cooperation
through
B. group formation
A. stomata B. hydathodes
C. altruism
C. lenticels D. epidermis
D. monkey
12 Water plant usually have
4 A climax community is recognizable because
A. reduced vascular system
it is
B. a well-developed stomatal system
A. uniform in composition
C. a well-developed root system
B. highly productive
D. a well-developed vascular system
C. composed of trees
13 Gaseosusexchange in submerged
D. composed of grasses, herb and shrubs
hydrophytes takes place through
5 The earliest settlers on barren land is
A. general surface of plants
generally
B. lenticels
A. lichens B. ferns
C. stomata
C. mosses D. diatoms
D. hydathodes
6 When the vegetation of any region reaches
climatic climax it is 14 Which of the following is the most
characteristics feature of xeric environment
A. lithophtyic B. xerophytic
A. low atmospheric humidity
C. mesophytic D. hydrophytic
B. extremes of temperature
7 Heterophyllous plant are found in
C. The precipitation
A. rooted and floating hydrophytes
D. High rate of vapourisation
B. submerged hydrophytes
15. Higher root: shoot ratio is found in
C. free-floating hydrophytes
A. psammophytes B. halophytes
D. halophytes
C. epiphytes D. halophytes

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Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

16 Which of the following individual characters C. carnivore D. omnivore


can confer relatively better adaptability for 26 In a food chain, the largest population is that
growing in dessert? of
A. well developed root system A. primary consumers
B. Succulent leaves B. secondary consumers
C. reduction of leaves surfaces C. decomposers
D. thick cuticle D. producers
17 Sunken stomata and multiple epidermis are 27 The source of energy in an ecosystem is
found in A. sunlight B. ATP
A. maize B. Nerium C. DNA D. RNA
C. nelebium D. Neem 28 The pyramid of number deals with the
18 Ephemerals are xerophytic that are number of
A. Drought resisting B. Drought enduring A. species in a given area
C. Drought escaping D. none of the above B. sub-species in a community
19 Ephiphytes are found where C. individuals in community
A. Temperature is extremely low D. individuals in a trophic level
B. oxygen concentration is high 29 The pyramid that cannot be inverted in a
C. rainfall occurs throughout the year stable ecosystem is pyramid of:
D. rainfall is seasonal A. number B. energy
20 Ecosystem is C. biomass D. all of the above
A. a closed unit 30 In a pond ecosystem, the shape of pyramid
B. an open unit of number is
C. Both open and closed unit depends upon A. linear B. irregular
biomass present C. upright D. inverted
D. Both open and closed unit depends upon 31 Graphic representation of relationship
the community type between the producer and consumers in an
21 In an ecosystem in abiotic components ecosystem is called:
which of the following occurs? A. ecological niche B. ecological pyramid
A. flow of energy C. ecological system D. trophic levels
B. cycling of materials 32 If we completely remove the decomposers
C. consumers from an ecosystem, the ecosystem
D. flow of energy and cycling of materials functioning will be adversely affected
22 Food level in an ecosystem are called because:
A. trophic levels B. consumer levels A. mineral movement will be blocked
C. producer levels D. herbivore levels B. herbivores will not receive solar energy
23 Nepenthes is C. energy will be blocked
A. primary producer D. rate of decomposition of other
B. consumer components will be very high
C. primary producer and consumer 33 Flow of energy declines from lower to higher
D. none of the above trophic level in ecosystem is highly
24 Man is: explained by:
A. producer A. first law of thermodynamics
B. primary consumer B. second law of thermodynamics
C. secondary consumer C. both
D. both primary and secondary consumer D. none
25 Which of the following is trophic level of 34 Niche of a species in an ecosystem refers to
man? its:
A. producer B. herbivore A. place of occurrence

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B. competitive ability C. cycling of nutrients in an ecosystem


C. center of origin D. cycling of water
D. function at its place of occurrence 45 Maximum contribution of O2 is from
35 Cyanobacteria are: A. phytoplankton B. grassland
A. producers B. consumers C. herbs and shrubs D. dense forest
C. decomposers D. none 46. Rate of increase in the biomass of
36 Species diversity generally increases as one heterotrophs is called
proceeds from A. community productivity
A. low altitude to high altitude and from low B. net primary productivity
latitudes to high latitudes C. gross primary productivity
B. high altitude to low altitude and from low D. secondary productivity
latitudes to high latitudes 47 Laterite soil is rich in
C. A high altitude to low altitude and from A. nitrogen B. iron
high latitudes to low latitudes C. calcium D. magnesium
D. A low altitude to high altitude and from 48 The ultimate environmental hazard to
high latitudes to low latitudes mankind is
37 Vegetation of any place is primarily A. air pollution B. water pollution
determined by C. noise pollution D. nuclear pollution
A. amount of light B. rainfall 49 Sudden mass death of fishes from O2
C. amount of soil water D. soil type depletion is more likely in case of:
38 Hydrological cycle is under control of A. eutrophic lake B. mesotrophic lake
A. grasslands B. forests C. oligotrophic lake D. oxbow lake
C. planktons D. epiphytes 50 Mulching helps in:
39 What percentage of radiant energy is stored A. soil fertility
by producer? B. soil and moisture conservation
A. 1% B.10 % C. mud formation
C. 20% D. 50% D. fish cultivation
40 Which of the following habitats is unsuitable 51 Complete breakdown of soil organic matter
for primary productivity? into minerals and humus is called:
A. meadow B. forested river bank A. humidification B. mineralization
C. cave D. pond C. pedogenesis D. laterisation
41. The term biosphere is used for the zone of 52 Sounds above what level are considered
earth where life exist hazardous noise pollution
A. on the lithosphere surface A. above 80db B. above 120db
B. in the hydrosphere C. above 30db D. above 100db
C. in lithosphere and hydrosphere 53 A biome which is marked by very limited
D. in lithosphere, hydrosphere and winter rain followed by drought in the rest
atmosphere of the year and characterized by broad-
42 Vegetation of any place is defined by leaved evergreen vegetation is called:
A. amount of light B. rainfall A. Taiga B. Deciduous forest
C. amount of soil water D. Soil type C. Tropical rain forest D. Chapparal
43 Hydrological cycle is under the control of 54 The peak concentration of ozone around
A. grasslands B. forests earth is _ km above the surface of earth:
C. planktons D. epiphytes A. 5km B. 10 km
44 Biogeochemical cycling means C. 15 km D. 25 km
A. cycling 0f energy in an ecosystem 55 Tropical dense forest are due to
B. cycling of gases between plants and A. high rainfall and low temperature
atmosphere B. low rainfall and low temperature

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C. high rainfall and high temperature C. aerobic soil


D. low rainfall and low temperature D. none correct
56 Territoriality occurs as a result of 66. Soil microbes play very important role in:
A. predation B. competition A. Biogeochemical cycling
C. parasitism D. cooperation B. Food chain
57 Savannah is C. Food web
A. grassland with scattered trees D. water retention
B. part of ocean 67 Ecotypes are:
C. part of tropical forest A. Morphologically similar but genetically
D. alpine forest different forms
58 The world environment day is observed on B. Morphologically as well as genetically
A. 5thjuly B 15th may different forms
C. 5thjune D. 15thjune C. Only morphologically different forms
59 Ozone hole refers to D. none is correct
A. hole in ozone layer 68 Insectivorous plants like Utricularia,
B. decrease in ozone layer in trophosphere Nepenthus or Drosera are placed in
C. decrease in thickness of ozone layer in ecosystem in
stratosphere A. Trophic level-1 B. Trophic level-2
D. increase in thickness of ozone layer in C. Trophic level-3 D. none
trophosphere 69. Competition process is;
60 Root cap is absent in A. positive interaction
A. lithophytes B. xerophytes B. negative interaction
C. hydrophytes D. mesophytes C. antagonism
61 If the carbon dioxide were withdrawn from D. symbiosis
the biosphere which organism would first 70. Nif-genes occur in:
experience negative effect? A. Nitrosomonas B. E.coli
A. primary consumers C. rhizobium D. Nitrobactor
B. producers 71 Most of the keystone species belong to
C. secondary consumers category of:
D. tertiary consumers A. primary producers B. herbivores
62 Myrmecophilly is a beneficial association C. top predators D. decomposers
between some flowering plants and 72 Succession on sand dunes or sandy areas is
A. bacteria B. ants referred to as:
C. viruses D. mycoplasma A. mesosere B. xerosere
63 Nitrogen fixing forms first convert C. hydrosere D. psammosere
atmospheric nitrogen into: 73 Ecesis refer to:
A. NO2 B. NO3 A. nudation B. migration
C. NH3 D. amino acid C. establishment D. competition
64 Primary factor which determines 74 Most efficient photosynthetic organisms in a
distribution of plants in different geological pond ecosystem are:
areas of the earth is: A. submerged hydrophytes
A. climatic factors B. attached floating plants
B. edaphic factors C. phtyoplanktons
C. biotic factors D. epiphytic algae
D. topographic factors 75 Aquatic plants absorbs CO2:
65 Water logged soils are often considered as: A. directly from atmosphere
A. physically dry B. dissolved in water
B. physiologically dry soil C. CaCO3

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D. none correct A. trophic level-1


76 Clostridium fixes nitrogen B. trophic level-2
A. aerobically C. trophic level-3 and 5
B. anaerobically D. all correct
C. symbiotically 87 Osmotrophs belongs to:
D. none of the above A. primary consumers
77 Nutrient cycle which often affected by B. secondary consumers
weathering of rocks is: C. top consumers
A. carbon cycle B. nitrogen cycle D. decomposers
C. phosphorus cycle D. all correct 88 Energy flow and mineral cycling are
78 Paddy fields produce a greenhouse gas dependent exclusively by the activity of:
which is: A. producers and consumers
A. CO B. SO2 B. producers and decomposers
C. CH4 D. CO2 C. consumers and decomposers
79 Most stable community of hydrosere is D. producers only
A. floating submerged 89 Parasitic angiosperms are:
B. submerged community A. primary producers
C. marsh community B. primary consumers
D. forest community C. secondary consumers
80 Proteolysis occurs during: D. decomposers
A. ammonification B. nitrification 90 Energy content of biomass is determined by
C. nitrogen fixation D. denitrification using:
81 Allogenic succession occurs in: A. bomb calorimeter B. hygrometer
A. forest after deforestation C. luxmeter D. tensiometer
B. ponds and lake after climax 91 Biomass stand for:
C. barren rocks and sand dunes which were A. dry matter per unit area
previously not colonized B. fresh weight per unit area
D. none C. dry matter produced per annum
82 Ability of nitrogen fixation is not found in: D. none correct
A. algae B. fungi 92 10% law was first proposed by:
C. bacteria D. mycoplasma A. Lindeman B. Odum
83 In case of proto cooperation, there is no C. Tansley D. R.mishra
need of any: 93 Global warming is a global warning. This
A. physical contact slogan is proposed by:
B. physiological association A. UNESCO
C. close association B. WHO
D. both a and b C. UNO
84 If + sign is assigned to beneficial interaction D. Nepali pollution control board
– sign to detrimental and O sign to neutral 94 Term ecosystem was coined by:
then interaction with + - refers to: A. E.P.Odum B. A.G.Tansley
A. commensalism B. parasitism C. E.Haeckel D. E.worming
C. mutualism D. Amensalism 95 Spraying of DDT on crops produces pollution
85 Carnivores are: of:
A. primary consumers A. soil and water B. air and soil
B. secondary consumers C. air soil and water D. air and water
C. secondary or tertiary consumer 96 The leukemia is caused by:
D. decomposers rather consumers A. Ca-40 B. Caesium
86 Bacteria have been classified in: C. Iodine D. Sr-90

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97 Pollutant of jet plane is C. International union for conservation of


A. CO B. NH3 nature and natural resources
C. CO2 D. Fluorocarbons D. International union for conservation of
98 Blue baby syndrome is due to natural resources
A. mercury poisoning 109. Atm N2 converted into nitrogenous
B. higher concentration compound by
C. O3 A. nitrifying bacteria B. nitrotoxification
D. CH4 C. nitrifying D. N2-fixing bacteria
99 Mental growth of child is affected by: 110. Environment eliminates
A. ozone poisoning B. lead poisoning A. cells and tissue
C. cadmium D. arsenic B. non-advantageous variation
100. The flame of forest refer to C. advantageous variation
A. Lady with fame in her hands in the forest D. none
B. A forest full of trees which burst with red 111. Plants that grow under canopy of trees are
flowers during autumn known as
C. A fire in forest A. sciophytes B. heliophytes
D. The title of a book C. oxylophytes D. halophytes
101. Which is most stable ecosystem? 112. Natural habitat consisting of herbs, shrubs,
A. mountain B. desert trees , insect, birds ,bacteria is called
C. forest D. ocean A. different population
102. In which of the following biogeographically B. different communities
regions does Nepal lies? C. ecosystem
A. Oriental B. Neotropical D. family
C. Nearctic D. Palaearctic 113. The succession initiated in a pond of about
103. Tundra biomes are characteristic of 6m depth exhibits one of the following
A. temperate region B. arctic region stages
C. tropical region D. none of the above A. Floating plants - submerged plants-
104. Acid loving plants are: reeds- herbs -shrubs -trees
A. psamophytes B. halophytes B. Submerged plants -floating plants- reeds-
C. oxylophytes D. hydrophytes herbs- shrubs- trees
105. The organism that can tolerate narrow range C. Submerged plants -reeds -herbs- floating
of salinity plants- shrubs- trees
A. Stenohaline B. Euryhaline D. Shrubs- trees -submerged plants- floating
C. Homeothermic D. Halophilic plants- reeds –herbs
106. Success of animals in their habitat is due to 114. Smog is a common pollutant in places having
A. natality A. High temperature
B. food B. Low temperature
C. adaptability C. Excessive SO2 in the air
D. interspecific relations D. Excessive ammonia in the air
107. The rate of nitrogen fixation depends on the 115. The component of living cell affected by
soil pollutant SO2 is
A. PH B. temperature A. Nucleus
C. water D. air B. Chloroplast membrane system
108. IUCN stands for C. Cell wall
A. International unity for conservation of D. Plasmodesmata
nature
B. International unity for conservation of
natural resources

Pg. 59 Lecture notes by Dr.Drona Pokhrel


Ecology (BPKIHS 2020)

Answers:
1.a 2.b 3.c 4.c 5.a 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.c 10.b
11.d 12.a 13.a 14.a 15.a 16.d 17.b 18.c 19.c 20.c
21.d 22.a 23.c 24.c 25.d 26.c 27.a 28.d 29.b 30.c
31.b 32.a 33.b 34.d 35.a 36.c 37.b 38.b 39.a 40.c
41.d 42.b 43.b 44.c 45.a 46.d 47.b 48.d 49.a 50.b
51.a 52.a 53.d 54.d 55.c 56.b 57.a 58.c 59.c 60.c
61.b 62.b 63.c 64.a 65.b 66.a 67.b 68.a 69.b 70.c
71.c 72.d 73.c 74.c 75.b 76.b 77.c 78.c 79.d 80.a
81.a 82.d 83.d 84.b 85.c 86.d 87.d 88.b 89.b 90.a
91.a 92.a 93.a 94.b 95.c 96.d 97.d 98.b 99.b 100.b
101.d 102.d 103.b 104.c 105.a 106.c 107.a 108.c 109.d 110.b
111.a 112.a 113.b 1114.b 115.b

Pg. 60 Lecture notes by Dr.Drona Pokhrel

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