Ecology
Ecology
Ecology
ECOLOGY
BRANCHES OF ECOLOGY :
ORGANIZATION OF ENVIRONMENT
or ECOLOGICAL HIERARCHY
Organism(individual)
Population
Community
Ecosystem
Biome
Biosphere
Population
The total number of individuals of same species .
Bioticpotential :The natural capability of an organism to produce new under ideal condition.it is
always more than realized potential .
Key stone species:most influential species of ecosystem,which determines structural and
functional activities of the ecosystem .
Endemic species :species which are restricted to particular area .
Critical link species :species which established essential link with other species .
Biotype ; strains of same species .
Ecotype :-genetically different but interbreeder.
-morphological differences are genetically fixed .when placed in similar environment
morphology will not be similar.
Ecads \Ecophene :-genetically similar
phenotype are induced by environment ,whenecads are placed in similar
Reproductive isolation \sympatric isolation :sexual dimorphic species when are unable to
develop similar adaptation in changed environment and become sympatric .eg ;fishes,plants.
New concept of ecosystem was given by E.P Odum.he is the father of ecosystem.
According to E.P.Odum “ecosystem is structural and functional unit of nature”
Structural components includes=climatic factors, topographic factors ,biotic factors, edaphic
factors tec.
Functional components includes: food chain, foodweb, ecological pyramid, productivity,
intreactions.
Ecosystem is mainly concerned with: flow of energy and recycling of materials.
Flow of energy is always unidirectional .
Our ecosystem is open unit in case of energy.
Ecosystem is homeostasis of our ecosystem,study of homeostasis is known as cybernetics.
Types of ecosystem
Nano-ecosystem Micro ecosystem Macro ecosystem Mega ecosystem
Water droplets Pond Forests,grassland Ocean,tropical rain
forests.
Most stable ecosystem = Tropical rain forests(@5 max)> ocean.
Unstable ecosystems are –tundra ,deserts,and artificial ecosystems.
CLIMATIC FACTORS
Microclimate :represents climatic condition that prevails at local scale or areas of limited
size,such the immediate surroundings of plants and animals .
Light is ultimate source of energy. ( major source of energy is carbohydrate and immediate
source of energy in cellular level is ATP(currency of cell).)
Driving force of our ecosystem.
Affects activities like photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, growth, movements,
flowering, germination etc.
Stomata open in daytime are called photoactive stomata.
stomata open in night time are called scotoactive stomata.
Seeds which need light for germination are photoblastic seeds and in which germination is
inhibited by light bare called negative photoblastic seeds.
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is .400 to 700 nm .
Heliophytes: sun loving plants (grow in high intensity of light),they have well developed
palisade parenchyma. They have vertically oriented leaves.
Sciophytes: shade loving plants .(less intensity of light ),they have poorely developed palisade
parenchyma. They have horizontally oriented leaves.
Facultative heliophytes:
Facultative sciophytes:
RAINFALL \PRECIPITATION :
WIND \AIR
Wind break :tall trees are planted at the margins of filed to prevent uprooting .
Lodging :grasses flattens in grounds deu to wind .
Compression wood is due to wind velocity .
Wind velocity is measured in anemometer.
ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY
Measured by hygrometer or psyhrometer.
Transpiration and humidity are inversely related.
Plants growing in high humid region are =hygrophytes.eg orchid ( having velamin tissue)
EDAPHIC(SOIL) FACTORS :
Pedogenesis \edaphogenesis: process of formation of soil.
Pedology\edaphology: study of soil.
Weathering :process of braking down of rocks into smaller sand particles.it is the first step
of edaphogensis.
Mulching :moisture conservation of soil.
Leaching :washing of minerals or nutrients from soil .
Hydroponics :soiless cultivation
Phytotron: cultivation in controlled environment .
SOIL HORIZONS
O horizons :outermost layer of soil containg fresh and partly decomposed matter.
O1 –litter region:contain freshly fallen leaves,bark .
O2 –duff region:microbial action starts to decompose.bacteria ,fungi are present in addition to
litter.
O horizons are well developed in in forest and poor in grassland and absent in desert.
A-horizons:eluvial zone ,humus rich.max biological activity occurs.
B –horizons:illuvialzone,rich in mineral matter poor in organic matter.
C horizons :weathering\pedogenesis occur.
D\R horizons:parent rock .
Texture of soil
Porocity increases with increasing the size of particles and water holding capacity
decreases with increase in size of soil particles.
Clay soil is least porous soil, water can be logged.
Sandy soil(85%sand+15%caly or silt or both)
Silt soil(90% silt +10% sand)
Loam soil(50%sand+50%clay or slit or both)
Best soil for plant growth is loam soil.
Physically dry soil :actual scarcity of water ,eg sandy soil.
Physiologically dry soil:water is abundant but not reached to the plant due to disturbed
physiology .eg saline soil. water logging clay soil.
Holard =total amount of water in the soil.(high holard favours growth of hydrophytes)
Chesard = available water for plants.(high chesard favours growth of mesophytes)
Echard =unavailable water.(high echard favours the growth of xerophytes)
Holard = chesard + echard
SOIL WATER
Hygroscopic water:water molecules present in the thin sheet of water around soil
particles.
Gravitational water:water retained due to the effect of gravity.
Combined water:crystalline water present within the soil particles eg:MgSO4.7H2O.
Capillary water :water retained within intercellular spaces of the soil particles in the form
of capillary network. (chesard water. mostly utilized by plants).
Field capacity : holard –gravitational water.
Water holding capacity (storage capacity )=field capacity –hygroscopic water.
Alluvial soil: soil transported by water.
Colluvial soil: soil transported by gravity
Glacial soil: soil transported by glacier.
Eoliansoil: soil transported by air or wind
Topographic factors
BIOME
Largest ecosystem with similar climatic conditions containing several smaller ecosystems.
Altitude and latitude determine the boundary of biome .
They may be terrestrial(mainly )and aquatic.
Based on latitude these may be :
1. Tundra : Extreme low temperature ,arctic \polar region, northern tundra is virtually
trees less .biome with least diversity.
2. Taiga :northern coniferous forests. temperature around 10-15 degree.
3. Tropical rain forests : high temperature, high humidity, high diversity .dense forests.
maximum stratification.
4. Savanah :Grassland with scattered tress.
5. Chaparral\Mediterranean scrub forests: forests lies along pacific coast of North
America and south of Australia. forests with broad leaved evergreen vegetation, consists
of fire resistant resinous plants drought adapted animals.
6. Desert :extreme temperature and low humidity .it may be hot(Sahara, Thar ) may be
cold (Tibet, Gobi).
7. Grasslands: prairies of Canada and USA. pampas of south America, steppes of Europe
and Asia .etc.
Based on latitude biome may be : tropical ,sub-tropical, temperate, sub-alpine ,alpine and
nivial.
BIOTIC FACTORS:
The living beings of particular ecosystem is biota:that consist of flora and fauna .
Biological sequence of food transfer is :producer-consumer-reducer.
Producer \transducer\converters.
They are the first link of food chain .
Food chain starts with photosynthesis.
They connect abiotic to biotic factors.
Includes phytoplankton, cynobacteria, algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, angiosperms,
gymnosperms.
Insectivorous plant(carnivorous, predator plant like Nepenthes) play dual role considered
as both producer as well as consumer.
Consumers \heterotrophs :
Based on size they may be macroconsume r(phagotrophs) or microconsumer (saprotrophs or
decomposer).
Macroconsumers are:
1. primary consumer\first order consumer \herbivores.
Depends on producer for their foods.eg cattle, deer, rabbit, zooplanktons, small fish etc.
Plant parasites are primary consumer.
Decomposer \reducer\saprotrophs\osmotrophs\mineralizer\scavanger
Food chain
Transfer of energy in the form of food materials from one level to another by eating and being
eaten .
Food web :
Complex and interlinked food chain are called food web.
Food web is more stable than food chain.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Graphical representation of relationship between different trophic levels.
Concept was given by :Charles Elton so also known as Eltonian pyramids.
Environmental relationship can be best depicted through ecological pyramid.
In ecological pyramids the first or producer level constitutes the base and successive levels
(primary, secondary consumers, etc.) make the apex.
The ecological pyramids are 3 types:
Pyramid of Numbers
Represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level .
In grassland and crop ecosystem = Erect or upright (where producers are maximum in number)
and primary, secondary and tertiary consumers constitute the successive tiers; last tier makes
the apex.
In a tree ecosystem =inverted, i.e., one single tree which is primary producer has got large
number of birds on it (Primary consumers) which have large number of insects outside their
body (Secondary consumers).
Spindle shaped =forest ecosystem(not always it is usually erect) :It is narrow at the base as well
as apex of pyramid.
Pyramid of Biomass
The total fresh or dry weight of all living organisms in a certain unit area is called biomass.
The amount of new biomass produced in a single growing season is called yield.
It shows the amount of energy stored in an ecosystem .
Standing crop: quantity of biological or organic matter present in given area in an ecosystem.
Standing state :total amount of inorganic substances present in particular area in an ecosystem.
The pyramid of biomass =upright (terrestrial ecosystem) .
The pyramid of biomass= inverted (aquatic ecosystem).
Pyramid of Energy
Represents the amount of transfer of energy at different trophic levels.
Pyramid of energy is always upright. (may be inverted in case of artificial and unstable
ecosystem.)
Follows the second law of thermodynamics .
Represents the ecological efficiency, stability of ecosystem, gives best picture of overall nature
of the ecosystem.
1. Expanding: It has a high birth rate and low death rate so there is a greater number of young
individuals in the population.
2. Stable population: Birth rate and death rate are equal in this type of population. Therefore there is
zero population growth in such a population.
Age Pyramid :
If the proportions of different age groups in a population is represented geometrically the model so
obtained is called as the age pyramid. The three hypothetical pyramids are as follows
A. Triangular Pyramid : This is a pyramid with broad base. This indicates the rapidly growing population.
In this there is a greater number of pre-reproductive young individuals. The birth rate is high.
B. Bell-shaped Pyramid : These pyramids indicate the slow or almost stable growth of the population. In
this the percentage of the pre-reproductive and post-reproductive individuals is more or less the equal,
the post-reproductive group of individuals remaining as the smallest.
C. Urn-shaped Pyramid : In this type the percentage of pre-reproductive group of individuals is very low.
The age group of reproductive individuals is higher as compared to the individuals of other two age
groups.
Productivity
Amount of energy\biomass produced\obtained by particular trophic level per unit area per
unit time .
Expressed in kg\m2\year or kcal\m2\yr( rate of biomass production )
Primary productivity :rate of biomass production at the producer level.
Gross primary productivity :rate of production of organic matter during
photosynthesis.(GPP= total photosynthesis.)
The amount of solar radiation reaching up to the earth surface is nearly 5kcal\sq cm\min.
Green plants convert only 1-2% of the total radiant energy in to gross primary productivity .
Max energy converters are aquatic plants( dinoflagellates and diatoms )
Net primary productivity (NPP): GPP-respiration loss.( available biomass for consumption
to heterotrophs .apparent photosynthesis used by plant for growth and development ).
Order of productivity
Coral reef ( eusterian)> tropical rain forest (high productive in terrestrial ecosystem)
>sugarcane field (most productive plant convert 10-12% of radiant energy )>>tropical
forest (high in nepal)>crop land >temperate forest>ocean >lake >tundra (least in nepal
)>desert.
Efficiency in ecosystem
Positive interactions:
Fig:
3.Protocoperation :(+,+) both species are benifited but not obligatory.generally requires
two previous relationship.
Eg:predatory birds with cattle,birds with crocodile,Hermit crab and sea anemone.
Fig:
4.Aggregation:intra species gathering of individual for common benefit and last for short
duration.eg herding of cattle.
NEGATIVE INTERACTION :
2.Parasitism:(-,+)
Two species of different sizein which smaller (parasite) gets benefit and larger ( host
) is harmed.generally host is not killed.
Ectoparasite :lives on the body of host,eg : leech ,mosquito.
Endoparasite :lives inside the body of host eg:taenia,ascaris,Schistosomaetc
Stem parasites like cuscuta(total),loranthus,viscum(partial).
Root parasites like Rafflesia(total),santalum(partial).
3.Predation :(-,+)
Stronger (predator) feeds upon weak (prey).it is temporary relnin which one
organism is killed.
Eg tiger upon rabbit,insectivorous plants.
4.Cannibilism:(-,+)
Its itra-species relationship in which stronger feed its own individuals.
5.Competition:(-,-)
It rivalry relationship in which involved individuals are adversely
affected.compitition is mainly for food ,shelter.
Intraspecies competition is severe than interspecies competition.
Mimicry :
Resemblance of one organism with an other organism \object for some advantage
(to catch the prey or to protect from predator).
Organism exhibiting mimicry=mimic
Fig:
Camouflage :
:Ability of organism to blend with surroundings. it is protective colouration.eg :stick
insect resembles with twig, organism like salamander, chemeoleon can show it.
Fig:
PLANT ADAPTATION :
Based on the available of water source ,Warming classified plants in to
hydrophytes,mesophytes and xerophytes.
Hydrophytes :
The epidermis is without cuticle in almost submerged hydrophytes.
Heterophylly (presence of more than one type of leaves in same plant) is common in
emergent hydrophytes. i.e deeply finely dissected submerged leaves and normal
emergent leaves.
In floating hydrophytes gas exchange may occur through epistomata. whereas in
case of submerged stomata are absent so exchange through general body surface.
Leaves are coated with waxy substances, vascular strands are poorly developed.
Xerophytes :
They are well adapted in xeric habitat where water scarcity exists and plants develop
measures for reducing transpiration.
Physically xerophytes: Grow in area where there is actual scarcity of water. eg:
opuntia, casuarina.
Physiologically xerophytes: grow in such are where there is plenty of water but not
in usable form,like in saline soil.
They escape the drought and desiccation by reducing their life span( they
disappear before summer).
They perennate hot summer month in seed state
Eg:argemonemaxicana, cassia, solanumxanthocarpum etc.
These plants have fleshy stem leaf and root to store water and continue life
without any damage or injury.
Water storing in leaves: aloe vera ,bryophyllum
Water storing in stem :opuntia.
Water storing in roots :asparagus.
They are real drought resistant plants which withstand extreme condition of
drought and dessication.
Eg:Zizyphus, Acacia, Nerium ,Calotropis etc.
Root system and vascular strands are well developed.(high root\shoot ratio)
Stems are modified into phyllocladode and cladode.
Leaves are modified into spines or needles.
Cuticle is thick to reduce transpiration loss.
Sunken stomata and scotoactive stomata are present .
Epidermis is well developed with thickened cell wall.many layered epidermis is found
in ficus,Nerium.
In xerophytes four types of leaves may be found such as, highly reduced leaves
(microphyllous), fleshy leaves(malacophyllous), leaves with hairs( Trichophyllous),
and leaves with well developed sclerenchymatous hypodermis(sclerophyllous).
HALOPHYTES:
NITROGEN CYCLE :
Plant utilize nitrogen in the form of nitrite ,nitrate and ammonium compounds,
usually takes nitrates.
Nitrogen is used as raw materials for synthesis of amino acid, proteins ,enzymes,
hydrogen acceptors (NAD,NADP,FAD),nucleic acid etc.
Deficiency of nitrogen develops chlorosis in old leaves, early defoliation, stunted
growth, delayed in flowering and early death.
Few insectivorous plants directly get nitrogen compound from atmosphere.
Following are the steps in nitrogen cycle ( 6 steps)
1.Nitrogen fixation :
The process of fixing atmospheric free nitrogen into ammonium compounds is called
nitrogen fixation. it can be by
A.Physically or environmentally:
2.Nitrification:
Oxidation of ammonia to form nitrite and then to nitrate is called nitrification. carried
by two specific chemosynthetic bacteria:
a. Nitrosomonas group \autotrophic( nitrosomonas, nitrococcus, nitrospira):
-convert ammonia to nitrites:NH3 +o2_ HNO2 +H2O+ energy.
b. Nitrobactor group\heterotrophic(Nocardia, penicillium, Streptomyces):
-convert nitrite to nitrate.
HNO2 + O2 HNO3+ Energy
3.Nitrogen assimilation:
4.Ammonification :
5.Denitrification:
Conversion of all bound forms of nitrogen to free gaseous nitrogen for recycling
is denitrification.
Carried out by bacteria like: Thiobacillusdenitrificans, pseudomonas,
micrococcusdenitrificans etc.
It leads to nitrogen deficient in soil .
6.Sedimentation:
CARBON CYCLE
2. Carbon assimilation:
3.Decarboxylation:
4.Sedimentation or fossilization:
Communities are never stable. They go on changing regularly over time and space due to their
constant interactions with environment. Both, the environment and the community, tend to
modify each other through positive or negative interactions. However, these changes are very
slow and thus can be noticed distinctly only after a very long time.
This results in elimination of previous community gradually and a new interaction starts
between the second community and the modified environment.
This gradual replacement of one community by another due to modification in
environment by community environment interactions refers to succession.
Succession is the universal and unidirectional change in vegetation during ecological
time.
It is the law of nature.
The term succession was coined by Hult (1885).
Succession is a non-cyclic changes in the community overtime. These changes can be
noticed only after a decade or sometimes even after a century. Some of these changes
are related with origin, migration or extinction of texa and are thus have historical
importance.
.
Causes of Succession
Succession is not caused by any single factor, rather, it is the product of interactions of several
abiotic and biotic factors causing changes in community structure during interaction with
environment.
Generally these factors are grouped into three types, as follows-
(i) Initiation factors : These factors are responsible for making an area barren to initiate
succession. Climatic and biotic factors, both are responsible for this. Erosion, volcanic eruption,
frequent flood or inundation, alluvial deposition, forest fire, indiscriminate deforestation, etc.,
(ii) Continuing factors : Processes like migration, invasion, ecesis (establishment). aggregation
competition, etc., are responsible for successive waves of seral communities in a succession
until the climax is reached.
(iii) Stabilizing factors : They are responsible for establishment of climax when a community
gets estabilized. Neither the community modifies environment nor the environment forces the
community to leave the place.
.
Process of Succession
1. Nudation : It is the process of formation of bare area to provide site for colonization of
pioneercommunity. Natural catastrophy or man made activities cause nudation.
(b) Seral communities :After pioneers, several seral communities come one after the other in
the following order :
(i) Rooted submerged stage: Dead organic remains of phytoplanktons develop a thin layer
ofsoft mud at bottom which favours submerged hydrophytes like Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum,
Najas,Vallisneria, Potamogeton, Utricularia or Myriophyllum..
(ii) Rooted floating leaved stage: When the thickness of soft mud at the bottom
increasesbeyond 4 to 6 inches, rooted floating leaved hydrophytes like Nelumbo, Nymphaea,
Nymphoides, Euraleor Victoria invade the pond. into gradually drying of pond.
(iii) Free-floating stage : Plants floating freely over the surface of water invade the pond after
rooted floating leaved stage. Eichhornia, Lemna, Spirodela, Wolffia, Pistia, Azolla or Salvinea
dominate in this stage of succession. They are capable of changing their place on the mercy of
wind.
(iv) Reed swamp stage : In this stage, attached emergents like Scirpus, Typha, Sagittaria,
Monochoria, Eleocharis, etc., predominate and form large pure patches due to having creeping
rhizomes burried in mud and abundance of nutrients releasing from rapid decomposition of
dead organic remains of previous occupants.
(v) Sedge meadow stage : Amphibians like Cyperus, Vitiveria, Juncus, Cymbopogon, Jussiaea,
Ranunculus, Dentella, Limnophila, etc., now start replacing the Reed swamp vegetation
gradually and they develop terrestrial look to the pond.
(vi) Woodland stage : Shrubs and trees start appearing at this stage by gradually
replacingamphibians. Salix, Populus, Almus, Terminalia, Barringtonia, Eugenia, etc.,
predominate at this stageand the trace of a pond has altogether disappeared. This is the
beginning of climax of the succession.
(c) Climax community : In hydrosere, the climax is attained when the forest develops at this
areapredominated by trees with a few shrubs and ground flora. Forest represents a most stable
communitycapable of maintaining a dynamic equilibrium with the prevailing environmental
conditions.
The area which was once in the form of a pond with only phytoplanktonic population has
Xerosere begins on barren or naked rocks or rocky substratum. Rock surface is devoid of
sollwithout which rooted plants can not grow and colonize. No free minerals and nutrients are
available onthe surface of rocks. Moisture is also not retained and the environment is xeric
(scarcity of water). Theprocess of transformation of a barren rock into a forest site refers to
Xerosere (Lithosere).
Various stages of xerosere are as follows:
(a) Pioneer community :
Only the lichens have the capacity to grow over barren rocks. Initial thecrustose lichens like
Graphis, Haemotomma, Lecanora, Lecidia, Rhizocarpon.
(b) Seral communities:
Several seral communities appear and disappear during xerosere andprocess continues till the
climax is attained. The dominant seral communities are asunder in order of their appearance:
Gradually the herbaceous plants are replaced by woody shrubs from this areaas they are more
effecient and aggresive. Seeds and prapagules of shrubs migrate from nearby area
andgradually, establish themselves by replacing herbaceous vegetation.Capparis,Zyzyphus,
Clerodendron, Cassia, Zygophyllum, Urena, Crotelaria, Tephrosia, etc., are thecommon shrubs
which appear at this stage.
Environmental pollution :
The undesirable change in physical chemical or biological characteristics of air ,water or land that
may harm the human life.
1. Biodegradable pollutants :
These pollutants degrade after sometime through the agency of microorganism.
e.g. domestic sewage
2. Non-biodegradable pollutants :
These pollutants are not degraded or broken down naturally or by microorganisms into
harmless materials and are there also called persistent pollutants. mercury salts, some phenolic
compounds and DDT which are either not at all degraded or degradation is partial, pollute the
environment.
These substances are harmful even in low concentration and the harm increases with their
concentration.
Primary pollutants: present in the same form in which they are produced, eg co ,SO2
Secondary pollutants :are produced by reactions between primary pollutants.eg PAN, ozone
1. AIR POLLUTION
Air is a mixture of gases comprising 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide, 0.9 argon,
0.0018% neon, 0.005% helium, 0.0002% methane and 0.0001% krypton with still smaller trace of
hydrogen, ozone, ammonia, etc.
Oxides of sulphur:
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) released from chimneys of factories is an important pollutant. It is a
colourless and odourless gas, normally present at the Earth's surface at low concentration. In
higher concentration, SO, may cause death of cells.
Due to SO2, margin of leaf and portion of lamina in between vascular bundle dries up. Some
effects of SO2 and its transformation products in the atmosphere on plant cells include damage
of membrane, plasmolysis, chlorophyll destruction, growth and yield reduction
In addition SO, absorbs water vapour from atmosphere thus forming sulphuric acid (H2SO4.)
which is harmful to tissues.
SO2 is harmful to eyes, throat and in high concentration enters our lungs.
The major source of sulphur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels, mostly coal in power plants or
crude petroleum gas in oil refinaries..
Oxides of Carbon
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless and a very much poisonous gas and is the main
and primary air pollutant.
Even a very low concentration of it is extremely toxic to human. When inhaled this gas combines
with blood haemoglobin about 200 times faster than does oxygen are results in oxygen
deficiency.
Approximately 90% of the carbon monoxide in the atmosphere come from natural resources
and the other 10% comes mainly from fires, automobiles and other sources by incomplete
burning organic compounds.
High levels of carbon monoxide in atmosphere causes suffocation and death due to formation
of carboxy- haemoglobin to reduce oxygen uptake for cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide
released d cellular respiration of biosphere is sufficient enough to meet the requirements of
carbon dioxide photosynthesis. However the level of carbon dioxide is increasing in atmosphere
day by day due to excessive release from industrial and domestic sources
Increase in CO2 level is responsible for Greenhouse effect' as well as 'Global warming'. Rapid
deforestation during recent part is also responsible for increasing rate of carbon dioxide in
atmosphere.
Ozone
Özone (O3) is a form of oxygen in which three atoms of oxygen occur together rather than the
normal two. ozone is synthesized from oxygen using energy of UV radiation of Sun.
The major sources of ozone are automobiles, fossil fuel and industrial processes that produce
nitrogen dioxide. When inhaled this gas combines with blood haemoglobin about 250 times
faster than does oxygen and thereby prevents haemoglobin from carrying oxygen and results in
oxygen deficiency.
Ozone is both pollutant as well as protectant .
Photochemical Smog:
Photochemical smog contains large amount of different oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons released
from different engines.
Nitric oxide (NO) is formed by reaction between oxygen and nitrogen. This reacts which air forming
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) which is a brown coloured pungent gas. This gas absorbs light due to which nitric
oxide (NO) and a molecule of atomic or nascent oxygen (0) are formed.
This atomic oxygen (O) is very reactive and reacts immediately with such molecules in which unburnt
hydrocarbons are present.
This gives rise to Peroxyl radicals which after reaction with oxygen form ozone or reacting with NO2
give rise to Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN).
PAN inhibits Hill reaction of photosynthesis and ozone promotes excessive transpiration. Ozone is also
harmful for cloth and rubber. PAN also causes irritation in eyes.
The pollutants released by jet planes are aerosol which mainly contain fluorocarbon.
(Particles in air with diameters less than 1 um) and dust (solid particles in air with diameters
greater than 1 um) or mist (liquids), cement dust, reduces photosynthesis and also leaf size thus
reducing overall primary productivity.
(a) Natural processes like volcanic eruptions, dust storms and forest fires.
(b) Human activities like metallurgical processes, oil refineries, manufacturing of pesticides fungicides
and cosmetics.
Lịchens and mosses are the main indicators of air pollution and thus acts as Indices of
Atmospheric Purity (IAP).
Indicator of soil pollution are mosses.
carbon dioxide(main cause ), methane and CFCS, warm the Earth's atmosphere because they
absorb and reemit radiation.
This is called the greenhouse effect because it is like the glass pan of a green house that allows
sunlight(short wavelength,high energy radiation) to pass through and then traps(long
wavelength,less energy) the resulting heat inside the structure.
The air pollutants responsible for the greenhouse effect are known as the greenhouse gases.
They are as follows :
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principal 'greenhouse gas' responsible for warming the Earth Carbon
dioxide (CO2) is rising into the atmosphere slowly as a result of large scale burning of fossil fuels
co allows solar radiations to pass through and strike Earth's surface but when it reradiates in the
for infrared radiations, CO2, absorbs them and leads to warming up.
This rise in temperature would result in melting of the pollar ice caps and would add more
water to the sea.
Methane is green house gas released from paddy field.
The level of greenhouse gases can only be reduced by afforestation as the trees are the best
sink for most of the air pollutants produced by Man's action.
CFCS (Chlorofluorocarbons) are the major factor in ozone reduction or ozone shield depletion.
The compounds of chlorine, fluorine and carbon are odourless and invisible. These are found in
refrigerators and air conditioners (as the coolants), solvents and plastic foams.
When a CFC molecule absorbs ultraviolet light, it gives up one chlorine atom. The chlorine reacts
with ozone yeilding oxygen and chlorine monoxide. Chlorine monoxide can react with free
oxygen and release another chlorine atom. Each released chlorine atom can convert 10,000 or
more ozone molecules to oxygen.
CFCS are not the only 'ozone eaters', methyl bromide, a fungicide is better at it. It persists only
briefly in atmosphere but it will account for about 15% of thinning in years unless its production
stops.
Acid Rain
It is surprising to note that all rainfalls are slightly acidic, water reacts with atmospheric carbon
dioxide to produce weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). Thus pure rainfall has a pH of about 5.6.
Acid rain Is defined as precipitation in which the pH is below 5.6.
In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are transformed by reactions with
oxygen and water vapour to form sulphuric and nitric acids.
Acid rain affects the ability of the trees to tolerate cold temperatures and often causes
immature defoliation and the weakened trees are killed by cold conditions or become more
susceptible to diseases.
Acid rain also affects a lake ecosystem by dissolving chemical elements needed for life and
keeping them in solution so that they leave the lake with the water outflow, Without these
nutrients, algae don't grow and fishes that feed on the algae have little to eat.
It causes 'rock cancer' or 'rock leprosy' (produces black spots on marble stones).
The lusture of old monuments like Krishna mandir, Tajmahal etc. are degraded by acid rain –threatened
mainly due to SO2 ( air pollution ).
The Bhopal gas tragedy (2-3dec 1984) is mainly caused by MIC (methyl isocynate, gas released
from pesticide manufacturing plant of union carbide)
WATER POLLUTION
Biological oxygen demand (BOD) :
Amount of oxygen needed by microorganism to break down organic matter present in given
water sample at certain temp over specific time period .
Dissolved oxygen
amount of oxygen dissolved in water taken by clean water organism like fishes, which depends
on: already dissolved oxygen, temperature, saltness .
it is normally 4-5ppm.
BOD is inversely proportional to DO.
EUTROPHICATION
Process in which water receives excess nutrients that stimulate excessive microvegetation
growth ( algal bloom).
Mainly due to high concentration of phosphate and nitrate (excessive chemical fertilizers,
sewage, detergents )
It is natural aging of lake .lake becomes shallower and warmer.
Eutrophic lake :
More nutrients , shallow, highBOD, low DO, high productivity .
Massive killing of fishes is eutrophication .
Oligotrophic lake :
Rich in oxygen ,clear water with low productivity .
Dystrophic lake :
High humic substances and organic acids. low ph ,low productivity .
BIOMAGNIFICATION
Due to highly enrichment of flora and fauna ,nepal falls on the 10th position in asia and
31st position in world based on biodiversity .
Wild life
Refers to any species in their own natural habitat.
Catagories of wildlife
TYPES OF CONSERVATION
Ex-situ :conserving wildlife out of their natural habitat.eg: Zoos, botanical garden, gene
bank ,breeding centres etc.
IN-situ :conserving the wildlife in their own natural habitat .eg: National parks ,wildlife
reserve, conservation area , sanctuaries, biosphere reserve.
According to national park and wildlife protection act 1973,there are 27 sp of
mammals ,9 sp of birds and 3 sp of reptiles are legally protected in Nepal .
National parks : both flora and fauna get protected.
Zones of national parks or biosphere reserve: manipulation zone
: buffer zone
: Core zone
Phytogeography of Nepal
QUESTIONS
1 Biotic potential refers to 8 Valliseneria is a:
A. increase in population under optimum A. submerged hydrophytes
conditions B. free-floating hydrophytes
B. increase in population under given C. suspended halophytes
condition D. mesophytes
C. increase in population under natural 9 Typha is an example of
conditions A. free floating hydrophytes
D. increase in population under climatic B. submerged hydrophytes
conditions
C. emergent hydrophytes
2. Biotic potential is counteracted by
D. floating and attached halophytes
A. competition with other organism
10 An aquatic plant with floating leaves
B. limitation of food supply
A. has stomata on lower surface
C. producer is largest
B. has stomata only on upper surface
D. none of the above
C. has stomata on both surfaces
3. When a tiger attack cheetals, the stag with
D. does not have stomata
best antlers is surrounded by other
individuals to protect it. It is an example of 11 Photosynthesis and respiratory gaseous
exchange in hydrophytes takes place
A. cooperation
through
B. group formation
A. stomata B. hydathodes
C. altruism
C. lenticels D. epidermis
D. monkey
12 Water plant usually have
4 A climax community is recognizable because
A. reduced vascular system
it is
B. a well-developed stomatal system
A. uniform in composition
C. a well-developed root system
B. highly productive
D. a well-developed vascular system
C. composed of trees
13 Gaseosusexchange in submerged
D. composed of grasses, herb and shrubs
hydrophytes takes place through
5 The earliest settlers on barren land is
A. general surface of plants
generally
B. lenticels
A. lichens B. ferns
C. stomata
C. mosses D. diatoms
D. hydathodes
6 When the vegetation of any region reaches
climatic climax it is 14 Which of the following is the most
characteristics feature of xeric environment
A. lithophtyic B. xerophytic
A. low atmospheric humidity
C. mesophytic D. hydrophytic
B. extremes of temperature
7 Heterophyllous plant are found in
C. The precipitation
A. rooted and floating hydrophytes
D. High rate of vapourisation
B. submerged hydrophytes
15. Higher root: shoot ratio is found in
C. free-floating hydrophytes
A. psammophytes B. halophytes
D. halophytes
C. epiphytes D. halophytes
Answers:
1.a 2.b 3.c 4.c 5.a 6.c 7.b 8.a 9.c 10.b
11.d 12.a 13.a 14.a 15.a 16.d 17.b 18.c 19.c 20.c
21.d 22.a 23.c 24.c 25.d 26.c 27.a 28.d 29.b 30.c
31.b 32.a 33.b 34.d 35.a 36.c 37.b 38.b 39.a 40.c
41.d 42.b 43.b 44.c 45.a 46.d 47.b 48.d 49.a 50.b
51.a 52.a 53.d 54.d 55.c 56.b 57.a 58.c 59.c 60.c
61.b 62.b 63.c 64.a 65.b 66.a 67.b 68.a 69.b 70.c
71.c 72.d 73.c 74.c 75.b 76.b 77.c 78.c 79.d 80.a
81.a 82.d 83.d 84.b 85.c 86.d 87.d 88.b 89.b 90.a
91.a 92.a 93.a 94.b 95.c 96.d 97.d 98.b 99.b 100.b
101.d 102.d 103.b 104.c 105.a 106.c 107.a 108.c 109.d 110.b
111.a 112.a 113.b 1114.b 115.b