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Lecture 1.1

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15 views7 pages

Lecture 1.1

Uploaded by

zanarmziri7
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Preliminaries

Sets and set operations


Set
• Definition: A set is a (unordered) collection of objects. These objects are
sometimes called elements or members of the set.

• Examples:
– Vowels in the English alphabet
V = { 𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢 }

– First Six prime numbers.


P = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 }
– Is the set of colors of the Kurdistan flag.
D = {green, red, yellow, white}.

Representing sets
Representing a set by:
1) Listing (enumerating) the members of the set. (Roster form)
2) Definition by property, using the set builder notation. (Set – builder form)
{𝑥 | 𝑥 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑃} 𝑜𝑟 {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑃}.
Example:
• Even integers between 30 and 45.
1) E = {30, 32, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44}
2) E = {x | x, 30 <= x < 45, x is an even integer}
If enumeration of the members is hard we often use ellipses (“…”).
Example: a set of integers between 1 and 100
• A = {1,2,3, … , 100}

Lecturer [email protected] Duhok Polytechnic University


Harivan R. Nabi pg. 1 Duhok Technical Institute
Preliminaries

Important sets in discrete math


• Natural numbers:
– ℕ = {0,1,2,3, … }
• Integers
– Z = {… , −2, −1,0,1,2, … }
• Positive integers
– Z+ = {1,2, 3, … }
• Negative integers
– Z− = {−1, −2, − 3, … }
• Rational numbers
– ℚ = {p/q | p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, q ≠ 0}
• Real numbers: denoting the set of all real numbers. This set includes all
rational numbers, together with all irrational numbers.
–ℝ
Examples:
The set A consisting of the natural numbers (or positive integers) less than 6
can be expressed as
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → 𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
The entire set of integers is written as
𝑍 = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, … }
Another way to describe a set is to enclose in braces a rule that generates all
the elements of the set. For instance, the set
A = {𝑥 |𝑥 is an integer and 0 < 𝑥 < 6} → set − builder form
is the set of positive integers less than 6.

Lecturer [email protected] Duhok Polytechnic University


Harivan R. Nabi pg. 2 Duhok Technical Institute
Preliminaries

Example: Write the following in set -builder form:


(a) A = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} (b) B = {3, 6, 9, 12}
Solution: (a) A = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 }
(b) 𝐵 = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 = 3𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑛 ≤ 4 }
Example: Write the following in Roster form.
(a) C = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 50 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 60}
(b) D = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0}
(c) E = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 < 𝑥 < 7}
Solution: (a) C = {50, 51, 52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60}
(b) 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
x 3x 20
𝑥 = 3, 2.
D  {2, 3}
(c) E = {3, 4, 5, 6}
Equality of Sets
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
Example: Are A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3 ,1 , 2} equal?
Yes, are said to be equal sets and are written as A = B.
Note: Duplicates don't contribute anything new to a set, so remove them. The
order of the elements in a set doesn't contribute anything new.
Example: Are C = {1,2,3,4} and D = {1,2,2,4} equal?
No! → are said to be equivalent sets and are written as 𝐂 ≈ 𝐃.

 𝐷 = {1,2,3} , 𝐸 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} .

Lecturer [email protected] Duhok Polytechnic University


Harivan R. Nabi pg. 3 Duhok Technical Institute
Preliminaries

• Special sets:
– The universal set is denoted by U: the set of all objects under the consideration.
– The empty set is denoted as ∅ or { }.

A Subset
• Definition: A set A is said to be a subset of B if and only if every element of
A is also an element of B. We use 𝐀 ⊆ 𝐁 to indicate A is a subset of B.

U
B

• Alternate way to define A is a subset of B:


∀𝑥 (𝑥 ∈ A) → (𝑥 ∈ B)

Empty set / Subset properties


Theorem ∅ ⊆ 𝐒
• Empty set is a subset of any set.
Theorem: 𝑺 ⊆ 𝐒
• Any set S is a subset of itself
Note on equivalence:
• Two sets are equal if each is a subset of the other set.

Lecturer [email protected] Duhok Polytechnic University


Harivan R. Nabi pg. 4 Duhok Technical Institute
Preliminaries

Infinite set
Definition: A set is infinite if it is not finite.
Examples:
a) The set of natural numbers is an infinite set. 𝑁 = {1, 2, 3, . . . }
b) The set of reals is an infinite set.
c) Let A and B be two sets where
A = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a natural number}
B = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a student of your classroom}
As it is clear that the number of elements in set A is not finite (infinite) while
number of elements in set B is finite. A is said to be an infinite set and B is
said to be is finite set.
Set operations
Union
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is
the set that contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.
• Alternate: A ∪ B = { 𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ A ∨ 𝑥 ∈ B }.

• Example:
• A = {1, 2, 3, 6}, B = { 2,4,6,9}
• A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9}

Lecturer [email protected] Duhok Polytechnic University


Harivan R. Nabi pg. 5 Duhok Technical Institute
Preliminaries

Intersection
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B,
is the set that contains those elements that are in both A and B.
• Alternate: A ∩ B = { 𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ A ∧ 𝑥 ∈ B }.

Example:
• A = {1, 2, 3, 6} B = { 2, 4, 6, 9}
• A ∩ B = { 2, 6 }

Disjoint sets
Definition: Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is empty.
• Alternate: A and B are disjoint if and only if A ∩ B = ∅.

U A
B

Example:
• A = {1, 2, 3, 6} B = {4, 7, 8} Are these disjoint?
• Yes.
•A∩B = ∅
Examples:
1. {1, 2} ∪ {red, white} = {1, 2, red, white}.
2. {1, 2, green} ∪ {red, white, green} = {1, 2, red, white, green}.
3. {1, 2} ∪ {1, 2} = {1, 2}.
4. {1, 2} ∩ {red, white} = ∅.
5. {1, 2, green} ∩ {red, white, green} = {green}.

Lecturer [email protected] Duhok Polytechnic University


Harivan R. Nabi pg. 6 Duhok Technical Institute
Preliminaries

Example: If A = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a vowel of English alphabet} and B = {𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 ∈ 𝑁 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≤ 5}


Is (i) A = B (ii) AB?
Solution: A = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}, B = {1, 2, 3, 4,5}.
Each set is having five elements but elements are different
A B but AB.
Exercises
1) Given that
A = { 2, 4} and B = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a solution of 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 8 = 0 }.
Are A and B disjoint sets?
2) Which of the following sets
A = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a point on a line}
B = {𝑦 ∶ 𝑦 ∈ N and y ≤ 50}
are finite or infinite ?
3) Which of the following sets
A = { 𝑥: 𝑥 is irrational and 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0}.
B = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ Z and − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2} are empty?
4) Write each of the following sets in the Roster form:
(i) A = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 and − 5 ≤ 𝑥 < 0 }.
(ii) B = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑥 2 − 1 = 0}.
(iii) C = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a letter of the word banana}.
(iv) D = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a prime number and 𝑥 ≤ 13}.

5) Write each of the following sets are in the set builder form?
(i) A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} (ii) B = {3, 6, 9, . . . , ∞}
(iii) C = {2, 3, 5, 7} (iv) D = {−√2, √2}
6) In the following check whether A = B or A ≈ B .
(i) A = {a}, B = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is an even prime number}.
(ii) A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a letter of the word guava}.
(iii) A = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 is a solution of 𝑥 2 − 5x + 6 = 0 }, B = {2 , 3}.

7) Which of the following are null set (empty set)?


(i) A = { 𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ R and 𝑥 is a solution of 𝑥 2 + 2 = 0} .
(ii) B = {𝑥 ∶ 𝑥 ∈ Z and 𝑥 is a solution of 𝑥 − 3 = 0}.

Lecturer [email protected] Duhok Polytechnic University


Harivan R. Nabi pg. 7 Duhok Technical Institute

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