6 FUNCTIONS

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Consider the sets N and D defined by

N = {Afi, Yao, Ama, Ami}

D = {Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun}.

The set N contains some Ghanaian names based on the day of birth: Afi is a female born
on Friday, Yao is a male born on Thursday, Ama is a female born on Saturday and Ami is a
female born on Saturday. The members of the set D are days of the week. Computing the
set N × D, we obtain

{(Afi, Mon), (Afi, Tue), (Afi, Wed), (Afi, Thu), (Afi, Fri), (Afi, Sat), (Afi, Sun)
(Yao, Mon), (Yao, Tue), (Yao, Wed), (Yao, Thu), (Yao, Fri), (Yao, Sat), (Yao, Sun)
(Ama, Mon), (Ama, Tue), (Ama, Wed), (Ama, Thu), (Ama, Fri), (Ama, Sat), (Ama, Sun)
(Ami, Mon), (Ami, Tue), (Ami, Wed), (Ami, Thu), (Ami, Fri), (Ami, Sat), (Ami, Sun)}

Now, let us consider the subset S of N × D given by

S = {(Afi, Fri), (Yao, Thu), (Ama, Sat), (Ami, Sat)}.

We observe that if (x, y) ∈ S, then x is born on y. We say that S is a relation from N to D.

The relation S is defined by

(x, y) ∈ S if and only if x is born on y.

We may represent S pictorially as follows:

S D
N

Mon
Tue
Wed
Yao Thu
Afi Fri
Ama Sat
Ami Sun

Figure 6.1: Diagrammatic representation of the relation S.

Definition 6.1 (Relation). A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of A × B.

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Definition 6.2 (Function). Let A and B be sets. A function (also called a map) f from
A to B, denoted by f : A −→ B, is a subset of A × B such that
1. if (a1 , b1 ), (a1 , b2 ) ∈ f then b1 = b2 , and

2. the set {a ∈ A | (a, b) ∈ f } is equal to A.

If (a, b) ∈ f , then we write f (a) = b. If (a, b) ∈
/ f , then we write f (a) ̸= b.
In other words, a function or a map from a set A to a set B is an assignment of elements
of B to elements of A in such a way that one and only one element of B is assigned to each
element of A. So we can rephrase the definition of a function as follows.
Definition 6.3 (Function). Let A and B be sets. A function f : A −→ B (f : a 7→ b) is a
rule that assigns to each a ∈ A exactly one element b = f (a) ∈ B.
In figure 6.2, the relation F1 from A to B does not define a function. This is because
F1 does not satisfy the second axiom in Definition 6.2. The element d ∈ A has not been
assigned any element of B. That is, there exists an element d ∈ A such that for every y ∈ B,
f (d) ̸= y. Note, however, that the first axiom in Definition 6.2 is satisfied by F1 .

F1
A B

a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4

Figure 6.2: F1 is not a function from A to B.

F2
A B

a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4

Figure 6.3: F2 is not a function from A to B.

In Figure 6.3, F2 is not a function since the first axiom in Definition 6.2 fails to hold.
Two elements 3, 4 ∈ B have been assigned to the element d ∈ A. That is, (d, 3), (d, 4) ∈ F2
and 3 ̸= 4. However, the second axiom holds for F2 . That is, for every x ∈ A there exists
y ∈ B such that y = f (x).

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F3
A B

a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4

Figure 6.4: F3 is a function from A to B.

The relation F3 shown in Figure 6.4 is a function from A to B. Every element in A has
been assigned exactly one element of B. Note that c, d ∈ A have been assigned the same
element 3 ∈ B. This does not flout any of the axioms in Definition 6.2.
Consider a function f : A −→ B. The set A is called the domain of f and the set B
is called the codomain of f . If (a, b) ∈ f , then b = f (a) is called the image of a under
f or the value of f at a, and a is called a pre-image of b. It is important to know the
difference between f and f (a). The set
{b | (a, b) ∈ f } = {b | b = f (a) for some a ∈ A}
= {f (a) | a ∈ A}
is called the image of A under f or the image of f or the range of f . In Figure 6.4,
the range of the function F3 is the set {1, 2, 3}.
Example 6.1. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {2, 4, 6}. Decide whether each of the following is
a function mapping A into B.
1. S1 = {(x, 6), (x, 2), (z, 4)}.
2. S2 = {(x, 4), (y, 4), (z, 4)}.
Solution. Let A = {x, y, z} and B = {2, 4, 6}.
1. The relation S1 from A to B is not a function. This is because for all k ∈ B, (y, k) ∈
/ S1 .
In other words, no element of B has been assigned to y. Another reason why S1 is not
a function is that (x, 6), (x, 2) ∈ f but 6 ̸= 2. That is, two distinct elements 6, 2 ∈ B
have been assigned to x.
2. The relation S2 from A to B defines a function. Every element of A has been assigned
exactly one element of B.
■
Definition 6.4 (Image of a set). Let A and B be sets, and let f : A −→ B be a function.
Let P ⊆ A. The image of P under f , denoted f (P ), is the set defined by
f (P ) = {b ∈ B | b = f (p) for some p ∈ P }
= {f (p) | p ∈ P }.
The range of f (also called the image of f ) is the set f (A).

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Definition 6.5 (Inverse image of a set). Let A and B be sets, and let f : A −→ B be a
function. Let Q ⊆ B. The inverse image of Q under f , denoted f −1 (Q), is the set defined
by
f −1 (Q) = {a ∈ A | f (a) ∈ Q}.

Example 6.2. Let X = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} and Y = {a, b, c, d, e, f }. Let the function h : X −→ Y

be defined by
{(0, c), (1, d), (2, c), (3, f ), (4, e)}.
Let M , N and K be given by M = {2, 3, 4}, N = {c, d} and K = {a, b} respectively. Find
h(M ), h−1 (N ) and h−1 (K).

Solution. It may be useful to represent the function as shown below.

h
X Y

0 a
1 b
2 c
3 d
4 e
f

Figure 6.5: The function h from X to Y .

We find that h(M ) = {c, f, e}, h−1 (N ) = {0, 2, 1} and h−1 (K) = { }. ■

Definition 6.6 (One-to-one function). Let A and B be sets. A function f : A −→ B is

one-to-one (or injective) if (a1 , b), (a2 , b) ∈ f implies a1 = a2 for all a1 , a2 ∈ A. That is, f is
one-to-one if for all a1 , a2 ∈ A

f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) =⇒ a1 = a2 .

Definition 6.6 states that a function f is one-to-one if no two distinct elements in the
domain of f have the same image. We can also characterize a one-to-one function by con-
sidering the contrapositive of the above implication, which is the following:

a1 ̸= a2 =⇒ f (a1 ) ̸= f (a2 ).

To show that a function f : A −→ B is not one-to-one, we must show that there exists
a1 , a2 ∈ A such that f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) and a1 ̸= a2 . In other words, we must show that two
distinct element in the domain of f have the same image.

Example 6.3. Let the sets X and Y be given by X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c, d}. Define
the functions f and g from X to Y by

1. f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, c)}

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2. g = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, d)}.
Determine the injectivity, or otherwise of f and g.
Solution. Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c, d}.
1. The function f may be represented diagrammatically as follows:

f
X Y

1 a
2 b
3 c
d

Figure 6.6: The function f from X to Y is not one-to-one.

We see that f (2) = c = f (3) and 2 ̸= 3. Hence, f is not an injective function.

2. The function g may be represented diagrammatically as follows:

g
X Y

1 a
2 b
3 c
d

Figure 6.7: The function g from X to Y is one-to-one.

Here no two distinct elements of X have the same image. Hence, the function g is
injective.
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Definition 6.7 (Onto function). Let A and B be sets. A function f : A −→ B is onto
(or surjective) if for every b ∈ B, there exists a ∈ A such that (a, b) ∈ f . That is, the range
of f is equal to the codomain B of f .
NB: To show that a function f : A −→ B is not onto, we must show that there exists b ∈ B
such that for all a ∈ A, f (a) ̸= b (that is, (a, b) ∈
/ f ).
Example 6.4. Let X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {a, b, c, d}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}. Define
the functions F : X −→ Y and G : A −→ B by

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1. F = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}
2. G = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, b), (4, c)}.
Determine whether F and G are surjective, or not.
Solution. Let X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {a, b, c, d}, A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c}.
1. The function F may be represented diagrammatically as follows:

F
X Y

1 a
2 b
3 c
d

Figure 6.8: The function F : X −→ Y is not onto.

The function F is not onto. To see this, choose d ∈ Y and observe that for all x ∈ X,
f (x) ̸= d. Another way to see that F is not onto is to observe that the range of F is
{a, b, c}, which is not equal to the codomain Y . [We note that F is one-to-one.]
2. The function G may be represented diagrammatically as follows:

G
A B

1 a
2 b
3 c
4

Figure 6.9: The function G : A −→ B is onto.

The function G is onto, since the range of G is equal to the codomain of G. In other
words, for every y ∈ B there exists x ∈ A such that y = f (x). [We notice that G is
not one-to-one.]
■
Definition 6.8 (Bijective function). Let A and B be sets, and let f : A −→ B be a
function. If f is both injective and surjective then f is called a bijective function.
Example 6.5. Let the sets X and Y be given by X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c}. Define
the function f by f = {(1, a), (2, b), (3, c)}. Determine whether f is bijective, or not.

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f
X Y

1 a
2 b
3 c

Figure 6.10: The function f : X −→ Y is bijective.

Solution. Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Y = {a, b, c}. Figure 6.10 is a diagrammatic representation
of f . We see that for all m, n ∈ X, m ̸= n implies f (m) ̸= f (n). Hence, f is one-to-one.
Also, we find that for every y ∈ Y there exists x ∈ X such that y = f (x). Hence, f is onto.
Therefore, we deduce that f is bijective. ■

Definition 6.9 (Equality of functions). Let f : A −→ B and g : C −→ D be functions.

The statement “f = g” means that A = C, that B = D and that the two functions
correspond to the same subset of A × B.

Definition 6.9 says that if f : A −→ B and g : A −→ B are functions, then f = g if and only
if f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A.
NB: The statement “f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ A” is not a statement about equivalent formulas
for f and g, because the functions f and g might not be given by formulas at all. It is rather
a statement about the equality of various elements in the codomain.

Definition 6.10 (Composition of functions). Let A, B and C be sets. The composition

of the functions f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C is the map g ◦ f : A −→ C defined by
(g ◦ f )(a) = g(f (a)).

f g
A B C

g◦f

Figure 6.11: The composition of f and g.

The domain of the composite function g ◦ f is the set of all x satisfying the following two
conditions:

1. x is in the domain of f

2. f (x) is in the domain of g.

The composition of functions is not commutative, that is, g ◦ f ̸= f ◦ g for any two functions
f and g. However, the composition of functions is associative, that is (g ◦ f ) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h).

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Example 6.6. Let the sets X, Y and Z be given by X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {a, b, c, d} and
Z = {w, x, y, z}. Let the function g : X −→ Y be given by g = {(1, b), (2, c), (3, a)}, and the
function f : Y −→ Z by f = {(a, x), (b, x), (c, z), (d, w)}.

1. Find f ◦ g.

2. Is f ◦ g one-to-one or onto? Justify your claims.

Solution. We have that g = {(1, b), (2, c), (3, a)} and f = {(a, x), (b, x), (c, z), (d, w)}.

1. We find that the function f ◦ g : X −→ Z is given by f ◦ g = {(1, x), (2, z), (3, x)}.

2. We notice that (f ◦ g)(1) = x = (f ◦ g)(2) and 1 ̸= 3. Therefor, f ◦ g is not one-to-one.

Now, choose w ∈ Z. Next, choose w ∈ Z. We see that (f ◦ g)(m) ̸= w for all m ∈ X.
Hence, f ◦ g is not onto.

Definition 6.11 (Inverse function). Let A and B be sets. A bijective function f : A −→ B

has an inverse, denoted by f −1 , defined by: If f : A −→ B is the set

{(a, f (a)) | a ∈ A and f (a) ∈ B}

then f −1 : B −→ A is the set

{(f (a), a) | f (a) ∈ B and a ∈ A}.

That is, f (a) = b if and only if f −1 (b) = a. Thus, f (f −1 (b)) = b for all b in the domain of
f −1 , and f −1 (f (a)) = a for all a in the domain of f .

We demonstrate the concept of the inverse of a function in Figure 6.12.

f f −1
X Y Y X

1 a a 1
2 b b 2
3 c c 3

(a) f : X −→ Y (b) f −1 : Y −→ X

Figure 6.12: The inverse of a function.

It is important to understand that a function MUST be both one-to-one and onto in

order for it to have an inverse. Consider the function f in Figure 6.13 (a). The function f is
one-to-one but it is not on to. If we attempt to obtain the inverse, we get a relation from Y
to X that is not a function. This is because the second axiom in Definition 6.2 fails to hold,
as shown in Figure 6.13 (b). Now, consider the function g in Figure 6.14 (a). We observe
that g is onto but not one-to-one. The first axiom in Definition 6.2 does not hold if we try
to invert the function g as shown in Figure 6.14 (b).

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f
X Y Y X

1 a a 1
2 b b 2
c c

(a) (b)

Figure 6.13: Inverse not possible because f is 1-1 but not onto.
g
X Y Y X

1 a a 1
2 b b 2
3 3

(a) (b)

Figure 6.14: Inverse not possible because g is onto but not 1-1.

Functions as equations

In the sequel, we discuss only functions from X to Y where X, Y ⊆ R. Functions are

usually defined in terms of equations rather than as sets of ordered pairs. A function f may
be defined implicitly by an equation involving x and y or explicitly by writing y = f (x).

Example 6.7. Determine whether the following equations define y as a function of x.

(a) x2 + y = 4

(b) x2 + y 2 = 4

Solution.

(a) We have that y = 4 − x2 . We notice that for each value of x ∈ R there is exactly one
value of y ∈ (−∞, 4). Hence, the equation defines y as a function of x.
√
(b) The equation x2 + y 2 = 4 yields y = ± 4 − x2 , from which we see that y has two
values for each x ∈ (−2, 2). Hence, the equation does not define y as a function of x.

Definition 6.12 (The graph of an equation). The graph of an equation in two variables
x and y is the set of all points in the xy-plane whose coordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation.

The vertical line test: If any vertical line intersects the graph of an equation in more than
one point, then the equation does not define y as a function of x.

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Example 6.8. Using the vertical line test, determine whether the following equations define
y as a function of x.
(a) x2 + y = 4
(b) x2 + y 2 = 4
Solution.
(a) No vertical line intersects the graph of y = 4 − x2 at more than one point. Refer to
Figure 6.15.
y
4

x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

−2

Figure 6.15: The graph of y = 4 − x2 .

(b) The line x = 0 meets the graph of x2 + y 2 = 4 at (0, −2) and (0, 2). This is shown in
Figure 6.16. The equation x2 + y 2 = 4 does not define y as a function of x.
y

x
−2 −1 1 2
−1

−2

Figure 6.16: The graph of x2 + y 2 = 4.

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Definition 6.13 (Operations on functions). Let f and g be functions with domains A
f
and B, respectively. Then the functions f + g, f − g, f g and are defined as follows:
g
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) domain = A ∩ B
(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) domain = A ∩ B
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) domain = A ∩ B
 
f f (x)
(x) = domain = {x ∈ A ∩ B | g(x) ̸= 0}
g g(x)

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Example 6.9. Find the domain of the following functions.
1
(a) F (x) = √
x−3
s
(b) g(s) =
s2 + 4
√
x−2
(c) h(x) =
x−5
√ 8
(d) K(t) = t + 2
t +t−2
Solution.
G(x) √
(a) Let F (x) = , where G(x) = 1 and H(x) = x − 3. We see that Dom(G) = R,
H(x) √
since G is a polynomial function. Because x − 3 is defined if x − 3 ≥ 0, we find that
Dom(H) = [3, ∞). Hence, we get

Dom(F ) = {x ∈ Dom(G) ∩ Dom(H) | H(x) ̸= 0}

= (3, ∞).

j(s)
(b) Let g(s) = , where J(s) = s and k(s) = s2 + 4. Since j and k are polynomial
k(s)
functions, we arrive at Dom(j) = Dom(k) = (−∞, ∞). Because s2 + 4 ̸= 0 for all
s ∈ R, the domain of g is given by Dom(g) = (−∞, ∞) ∩ (−∞, ∞) = (−∞, ∞).
f (x) √
(c) Let h(x) = , where f (x) = x − 2 and g(x) = x − 5. We have that Dom(f ) =
g(x)
[2, ∞) and Dom(g) = (−∞, ∞). Because g(5) = 0, we get

Dom(h) = {x ∈ Dom(f ) ∩ Dom(g) | g(x) ̸= 0}

= [2, 5) ∪ (5, ∞).

√ 8
(d) Let K(t) = F (t) + G(t), where F (t) = t and G(t) = . We find that
+t−2t2
Dom(F ) = [0, ∞) and Dom(G) = (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). It follows that

Dom(K) = {x ∈ Dom(F ) ∩ Dom(G)}

= [0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

Example 6.10. Find the range of the following functions.

x−5
1. f (x) =
x+1
s
2. g(s) = 2
s +4

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1
3. F (x) = √
x−3
Solution.
x−5 5+y
1. Let y = . Making x the subject, we get x = . For real values of x, we must
x+1 1−y
have that y ̸= 1. Hence, the range of f is (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞). The graph of f is shown
in Figure 6.17.
y
10

x
−10 −5 5 10

−5

−10

Figure 6.17: The graph of f .

s
2. Let y = g(s). Then, we get y = , which can be expressed as ys2 − s + 4y = 0.
+4 s2
For real values of s, 1 − 4(y)(4y) ≥ 0, that is, 1 − 16y 2 ≥ 0. To solve the inequality
1 − 16y 2 ≥ 0, we obtain the sketch in Figure 6.18, which is a sketch of the graph of
the quadratic function Q given by Q(y) = 1 − 16y 2 . This leads us to conclude that the
range of g is [− 41 , 14 ].

1 1
−
4 4

Figure 6.18:

NB: To solve the inequality 1 − 16y 2 ≥ 0, we can check to see which of the intervals
(−∞, − 14 ), (− 14 , 14 ) or ( 41 , ∞) satisfy the inequality 1 − 16y 2 ≥ 0. To achieve this,
we choose one value from each interval to verify the inequality. Let us choose −1 ∈
(−∞, − 41 ), 0 ∈ (− 14 , 41 ) and 1 ∈ ( 14 , ∞). We notice that 1 − 16y 2 < 0 for y = −1, 1, but
1 − 16y 2 > 0 for y = 0. So the required interval is [− 41 , 14 ], where we have taken into
account equality.
The graph of g is shown in Figure 6.19.

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y

0.3

0.2

0.1
s
−10−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
−0.1

−0.2

−0.3

Figure 6.19: The graph of g.

√
3. The domain of F is (3, ∞). For all x ∈ (3, ∞), x − 3 > 0. It follows that F (x) =
1
√ > 0 for all x ∈ (3, ∞). Hence, the range of F is (0, ∞). The graph of F is
x−3
displayed in Figure 6.20.
y

x
2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Figure 6.20: The graph of F .

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Example 6.11. Find (f ◦ g)(x) and the domain of f ◦ g given that
2 3
(a) f (x) = and g(x) =
x−1 x
4 x
(b) f (x) = − and g(x) =
x x−1
√
(c) f (x) = x − 2 and g(x) = 1 − 2x.
Solution. (a) We have that
2 2 2x
(f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)] = = 3 = .
g(x) − 1 x
−1 3−x

The domain of g is (−∞, 0)∪(0, ∞). Furthermore, the domain of f is (−∞, 1)∪(1, ∞).

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The domain of f ◦ g is given by

Dom(f ◦ g) = {x ∈ Dom(g) | g(x) ∈ Dom(f )}

= {x ∈ Dom(g) | g(x) ̸= 1}
3
= {x ∈ Dom(g) | ̸= 1}
x
= {x ∈ Dom(g) | x ̸= 3}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).

(b) We find that

4 .  x  4(1 − x)
(f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)] = − = −4 = .
g(x) x−1 x

The domain of g is (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞), and the domain of f is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
The domain of f ◦ g is given by

Dom(f ◦ g) = {x ∈ Dom(g) | g(x) ∈ Dom(f )}

= {x ∈ Dom(g) | g(x) ̸= 0}
x
= {x ∈ Dom(g) | ̸= 0}
x−1
= {x ∈ Dom(g) | x ̸= 0}
= (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

(c) The composite function f ◦ g is given by

p √ p
(f ◦ g)(x) = f [g(x)] = g(x) − 2 = 1 − 2x − 2 = −(1 + 2x).

The domain of g is (−∞, ∞), and the domain of f is [2, ∞).

The domain of f ◦ g is given by

Dom(f ◦ g) = {x ∈ Dom(g) | g(x) ∈ Dom(f )}

= {x ∈ R | g(x) ≥ 2}
= {x ∈ R | 1 − 2x ≥ 2}
 
1
= x∈R|x≤−
2
 
1
= −∞, − .
2
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Example 6.12. Determine whether the following functions are one-to-one or not.
1. f (x) = 2x + 1

2. g(x) = x2
Solution.

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1. The domain of f is R. Now, let a, b ∈ R. Suppose that f (a) = f (b). Then, we have
that

2a + 1 = 2b + 1
2a = 2b
a = b.

This means that f is one-to-one.

2. The domain of g is R, g being a polynomial function. Now, choose −1, 1 ∈ R. We

obtain g(−1) = 1 = g(1), however −1 ̸= 1. Hence, we conclude that g is not one-to-one.

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Horizontal line test: A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects
its graph more than once.
We can use Example 6.12 to illustrate the use of the horizontal line. The graphs of f
and g are capture in Figure 6.21. We observe that no horizontal line intersects the graph of
f more than once. On the other hand, the graph of g is intersected by the horizontal line
y = 4 at two points, namely, (−2, 4) and (2, 4).
y y

4 4

2 2

x x
−4 −2 2 4 −4 −2 2 4
−2 −2

−4 −4

(a) The graph of f . (b) The graph of g.

Figure 6.21: Horizontal line test

Definition 6.14 (Inverse function). Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and
range B. Then its inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A, and is defined by

f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y (6.1)

for any y ∈ B.

To find the inverse function f −1 of a 1-1 function f having domain A and range B:

1. Interchange the variables x and y in y = f (x) to obtain x = f (y), which defines the
inverse function f −1 implicitly.

2. If possible, solve the implicit equation for y in terms of x to obtain the explicit form
of f −1 , that is, y = f −1 (x)

3. Check the result by showing that

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−1
(a) f (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ A
(b) f (f −1 (x)) = x for all x ∈ B

NB: The graph of a function f and the graph of its inverse f −1 are symmetric with respect
to the line y = x.

Example 6.13. Find the inverse of the one-to-one function f given by

2x + 1
f (x) = , x ̸= 1.
x−1
2x + 1 2y + 1
Solution. Let y = . Interchanging x and y, we obtain x = . Making y the
x−1 y−1
x+1 x+1
subject, we arrive at y = . Hence, we get f −1 (x) = , x ̸= 2. ■
x−2 x−2

y y

8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
x x
−8 −6 −4 −2
−2 2 4 6 8 −8 −6 −4 −2
−2 2 4 6 8
−4 −4
−6 −6
−8 −8

(a) The graph of f . (b) The graph of f −1 .

Figure 6.22:

Definition 6.15 (Even function). The function f is an even function if f (−x) = f (x) for
all x in the domain of f .

NB: The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

Definition 6.16 (Odd function). The function f is an odd function if f (−x) = −f (x) for
all x in the domain of f .

NB: The graph of an odd function is symmetric with respect to the origin. A graph is
symmetric with respect to the origin if, for every point (x, y) on the graph, the point (−x, −y)
is also on the graph.

Example 6.14. Determine whether the given function is odd, even or neither.

(a) K(x) = x2 + 2

(b) H(x) = x3 + x

(c) J(x) = x2 − x

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Solution.

(a) We find that K(−x) = (−x)2 + 2 = x2 + 2 = K(x). Therefore, K is an even function.

(b) We obtain H(−x) = (−x)3 + (−x) = −x3 − x = −(x3 + x) = −H(x), which implies
that H is an odd function.

(c) We get J(−x) = (−x)2 − (−x) = x2 + x, from which we see that J(−x) ̸= J(x) and
J(−x) ̸= −J(x). Hence, J is neither an even function nor an odd function.

y y y

8 8 8
6 6 6
4 4 4
2 2 2
x x x
−4 −2 −2 2 4 −4 −2 −2 2 4 −4 −2 −2 2 4
−4 −4 −4
−6 −6 −6
−8 −8 −8

(a) The graph of K. (b) The graph of H. (c) The graph of J.

Figure 6.23:

Definition 6.17 (Piecewise-defined function). A function is called a piecewise-defined

function if it is defined by different equations on different parts of its domain.

Example 6.15. The absolute value function is a piecewise-defined function. It is given by

(
−x, if x ∈ (−∞, 0)
|x| =
x, if x ∈ [0, ∞).

The graph of the absolute value function is shown in Figure 6.24.

x
−2 −1 1 2

Figure 6.24: The graph of the absolute value function.

We now describe how to find the composite of piecewise-defined functions.

Let g : X −→ Y and f : Y −→ Z be defined by
( (
f1 (x), if x ∈ A g1 (x), if x ∈ M
f (x) = and g(x) =
f2 (x), if x ∈ B g2 (x), if x ∈ N.

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Then, f ◦ g : X −→ Z is given by
x ∈ M ∩ g1−1 (A)


 (f1 ◦ g1 )(x), if
x ∈ N ∩ g2−1 (A)

(f ◦ g )(x),
1 2 if
(f ◦ g)(x) =


 (f2 ◦ g1 )(x), if x ∈ M ∩ g1−1 (B)
(f2 ◦ g2 )(x), x ∈ N ∩ g2−1 (B)

if
Example 6.16. Let the functions f and g be given by
( (
2x + 1, if x ≤ 0 −x, if x < 2
f (x) = 2
and g(x) =
x, if x > 0 2, if x ≥ 2.
(a) Compute the following:
i. (g ◦ f )(0)
ii. (g ◦ f )(2)
√
iii. (g ◦ f )( 2)
iv. (g ◦ f )(1)
v. (g ◦ f )(−1)
(b) Find g ◦ f .
(c) Sketch the graphs of f and g.
Solution.
(a) We have the following:
i. (gof )(0) = g[f (0)] = g(1) = −1
ii. (gof )(2) = g[f (2)] = g(4) = 2
√ √
iii. (gof )( 2) = g[f ( 2)] = g(2) = 2
iv. (gof )(1) = g[f (1)] = g(1) = −1
v. (gof )(−1) = g[f (−1)] = g(−1) = 1
(b) We have that


 −(2x + 1), if x ≤ 0, f (x) < 2
−x2 ,

if x > 0, f (x) < 2
(g ◦ f )(x) =


 2, if x ≤ 0, f (x) ≥ 2
x > 0, f (x) ≥ 2

2,

−(2x + 1), if x ≤ 0, 2x + 1 < 2

−x2 ,

if x > 0, x2 < 2
=


 2, if x ≤ 0, 2x + 1 ≥ 2
x > 0, x2 ≥ 2

2,

−(2x + 1), if x ≤ 0 √

= −x2 , if 0 < x < 2
 √
2, if x ≥ 2.


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y y
3 3

2 2

1 1
x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1 −1

−2 −2

−3 −3
(a) The graph of f . (b) The graph of g.

Figure 6.25:

(c) The graphs of f and g are shown in Figure 6.25.

Definition 6.18 (Quadratic Function). A quadratic function is any function Q of the

form
Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c (6.2)
where a, b, c ∈ R and a ̸= 0.

The graph of any quadratic function is called a parabola. If a > 0 the parabola opens
upward. If a < 0 the parabola opens downward. The maximum or minimum point on the
parabola is called the vertex of the parabola. Parabolas are symmetric to a line called the
axis of symmetry.

Definition 6.19 (The standard form of the quadratic function). The standard form
of the quadratic function Q is

Q(x) = a(x − h)2 + k, a ̸= 0. (6.3)

In standard form, given by Equation 6.3, the parabola has vertex at (h, k) and has axis of
symmetry x = h. To obtain the standard form of the quadratic function Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c
with a ̸= 0, we complete the squares. To complete the squares, we proceed as follows:
 
2 2 b c
Q(x) = ax + bx + c = a x + x +
a a
 2  2 !
2 b b b c
=a x + x+ − +
a 2a 2a a
2 !
4ac − b2

b
=a x+ +
2a 4a2
2
4ac − b2

b
=a x+ + .
2a 4a

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2
An equation of the form ax + bx + c = 0 with a ̸= 0 is called a quadratic equation. This
equation can be solved using the standard form obtained above. We obtain
2
b2 − 4ac

b
a x+ =
2a 4a
 2 2
b b − 4ac
x+ =
2a 4a2
r
b b2 − 4ac
x+ =± 2
2a 4a
√
b b2 − 4ac
x=− ± ,
2a 2a

which is called the quadratic formula. We call b2 − 4ac the discriminant.

When b2 − 4ac < 0, we get complex roots.
b
When b2 − 4ac = 0, we get one real root(repeated real roots) given by x = − .
2a
When b2 − 4ac > 0, we get two distinct real roots α and β given by
√ √
b b2 − 4ac b b2 − 4ac
α=− + , β=− − .
2a 2a 2a 2a
We observe that  
b b
α+β =2 − =−
2a a
2  √ 2 2
b2 b2 − 4ac

b b − 4ac 4ac c
αβ = − − = 2− 2
= 2 = .
2a 2a 4a 4a 4a a
Here, the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 with a ̸= 0 can be expressed in the form
x2 − (sum of roots)x + (product of roots) = 0.
Example 6.17. Sketch the graph of the quadratic function Q(x) = 5 − 4x − x2 .
Solution. Let y = 5 − 4x − x2 . Then, we have that
y = −(x2 + 4x − 5) = −(x2 + 22 − 22 4x − 5)
= −((x + 2)2 − 9)
= −(x + 2)2 + 9.
The vertex (−2, 9). On the x-axis, y = 0. Thus, we have that
−(x + 2)2 + 9 = 0
(x + 2)2 = 9
x + 2 = ±3
x = −2 ± 3.
Hence, the curve meets the x-axis at (−5, 0) and (1, 0). On the y-axis, x = 0 and y = 5.
The curve meets the y-axis at (0, 5). We obtain the graph of Q as shown in Figure 6.26.
■

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y
9

x
−5 −2 1

Figure 6.26: The graph of y = 5 − 4x − x2 .

Example 6.18. Solve the inequality 5 − 4x − x2 < 0.

Solution. We first solve the equation 5 − 4x − x2 = 0 to find where the graph of f (x) =
5 − 4x − x2 cuts the x-axis. We then obtain a rough sketch of the graph of f (x) = 5 − 4x − x2
showing the x-intercepts. Next, we shade the portion of the x axis corresponding to f (x) < 0.
This is shown in Figure 6.27. We deduce that x ∈ (−∞, −5) ∪ (1, ∞).

−5 1

Figure 6.27:

Alternatively, after obtaining the x-intercepts we construct Table 6.1. From this table,
we notice that x ∈ (−∞, −5) ∪ (1, ∞).

Interval Sign of f (x)

(−∞, −5) −ve
(−5, 1) +ve
(1, ∞) −ve

Table 6.1:

Example 6.19. Determine the quadratic function with vertex (1, −5) and whose y-intercept
is −3.

Solution. Let the quadratic function be given by Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c with a ̸= 0. Since Q
has vertex (1, −5), we must have that Q(x) = a(x − 1)2 − 5, in standard form. Since the
y-intercept is −3, Q(0) = −3. This gives us a − 5 = −3, and so a = 2. Hence, the quadratic
function is Q(x) = 2(x − 1)2 − 5 = 2x2 − 4x − 3. ■

Definition 6.20 (Cubic function). A cubic function is any function f of the form

f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d (6.4)

where a, b, c ∈ R and a ̸= 0.

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If a > 0, the graph of f falls to the left and rises to the right. If a < 0 the graph of f
rises to the left and falls to the right. At a zero of even multiplicity, the graph of f touches
the x-axis. At a zero of odd multiplicity, the graph of f crosses the x-axis. The maximum
number of turning points is 2.
Example 6.20. Solve the following inequalities:
1. −x3 + 2x2 + x − 2 ≥ 0
2. x3 + 5x2 + 3x − 9 < 0
Solution.
1. Let G(x) = −x3 + 2x2 + x − 2 = (x − 1)(x + 1)(2 − x). We obtain a rough sketch of
the graph of G in Figure 6.28. Since G(x) ≥ 0, we consider the portion of the graph
above the x-axis. From Figure 6.28, we deduce that x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, 2].

−1 1 2

Figure 6.28:

Alternatively, we can construct Table 6.2 from which we get x ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, 2].
Interval Sign of G(x)
(−∞, −1) +ve
(−1, 1) −ve
(1, 2) +ve
(2, ∞) −ve

Table 6.2:

2. Let H(x) = x3 + 5x2 + 3x − 9 = (x − 1)(x + 3)2 . We obtain a sketch of the graph of

H, which is shown in Figure 6.29. Because G(x) < 0 we consider the portion of the
graph of H below the x-axis. This gives us x ∈ (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 1). Alternatively, we

−3 1

Figure 6.29:

can construct Table 6.3 from which we get x ∈ (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 1).

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Interval Sign of G(x)
(−∞, −3) −ve
(−3, 1) −ve
(1, ∞) +ve

Table 6.3:

Definition 6.21 (Polynomial function). Let n be a nonnegative integer and let an , an−1 ,
. . ., a2 , a1 , a0 , be real numbers, with an ̸= 0. The function defined by

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 (6.5)

is called a polynomial in x of degree n. The number an is called the leading coefficient.

Definition 6.22 (Rational function). A rational function is a function of the form

p(x)
R(x) = (6.6)
q(x)

where p and q are polynomial functions and q is not the zero polynomial.
4x + 5
Example 6.21. Solve the inequality ≥ 3.
x+2
Solution. For x ̸= −2, (x + 2)2 ∈ R+ . Thus, we get

(4x + 5)(x + 2) ≥ 3(x + 2)2

(x + 2)[4x + 5 − 3(x + 2)] ≥ 0
(x + 2)(x − 1) ≥ 0.

We obtain a sketch of the graph of y = (x + 2)(x − 1). See Figure 6.30. Consequently, we
see that x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ [1, ∞).

−2 1

Figure 6.30:

■
NB: The following are some important properties of the absolute value function (or the
modulus function): Let k be a real constant. For all x ∈ R,

i. |x| ≤ k if and only if −k ≤ x ≤ k

ii. |x| ≥ k if and only if x ≤ −k or x ≥ k

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 √ 6 FUNCTIONS
iii. |x| = x2
Example 6.22. Solve the inequalities
(a) |2 − 3x| > 7
x+1
(b) ≤1
x−1
Solution.
(a) We note that the inequality |2 − 3x| > 7 implies that 2 − 3x < −7 or 2 − 3x > 7.
Consequently, we arrive at x < −5/3 or x > 3.
Alternatively, we may proceed as follows. Squaring both sides of the inequality
|2 − 3x| > 7, we get (2 − 3x)2 > 49. This gives us (3x + 5)(x − 3) > 0. We obtain
a rough sketch of the graph of f (x) = 3x2 − 4x − 15, which is shown in Figure 6.31.
From the sketch, we obtain x < −5/3 or x > 3.

5 3
−
3

Figure 6.31:

x+1 x+1
(b) The inequality ≤ 1 gives us −1 ≤ ≤ 1, which can be seen as the two
x−1 x−1
x+1 x+1
inequalities ≤ 1 and ≥ −1.
x−1 x−1
x+1
Now, we consider the inequality ≥ −1. For x ̸= 1, we multiply both sides by
x−1
2
(x − 1) and simplify to get x(x − 1) ≥ 0. We obtain a rough sketch of f (x) = x(x − 1),
shown in Figure 6.32, from which we deduce that x ∈ (−∞, 0] ∪ (1, ∞).

0 1

Figure 6.32:

For x ̸= 1, the inequality

x+1
≤1 (6.7)
x−1
can be expressed as (x + 1)(x − 1) ≤ (x − 1)2 , which we obtain by multiplying both
sides of (6.7) by (x − 1)2 . The last inequality reduces to x ≤ 1, and so we deduce that
x ∈ (−∞, 1).

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We find the intersection of (−∞, 1) and (−∞, 0] ∪ (1, ∞), which gives us x ∈ (−∞, 0].
x+1
Alternative solution: Squaring both sides of ≤ 1, we obtain the inequality
x−1
(x + 1)2
≤ 1. It follows that
(x − 1)2
x2 + 2x + 1 ≤ x2 − 2x + 1
4x ≤ 0
x ≤ 0,
that is, x ∈ (−∞, 0].
■
Partial fractions
h(x)
We require that the fraction which is to be split into partial fractions be a proper
k(x)
h(x)
fraction. That is, deg(h(x)) < deg(k(x)). If is improper (that is, deg(h(x)) ≥
k(x)
h(x)
deg(k(x))), then we first express as
k(x)
h(x) r(x)
= q(x) + (6.8)
k(x) k(x)
r(x)
where q(x) is the quotient and r(x) is the remainder. We then split into partial fractions.
k(x)
F (x)
Let be a proper fraction to be resolved into partial fractions.
G(x)
1. Suppose that G(x) has a linear factor ax + b with multiplicity 1. That is, ax + b
F (x)
is a non-repeated linear factor in the denominator. Then, in partial fractions,
G(x)
includes the term
A
,
ax + b
where A is a constant to be determined.
2. Suppose that G(x) has a linear factor ax + b with multiplicity n ≥ 2. That is, ax + b is
F (x)
a repeated linear factor in the denominator. Then, in partial fractions, includes
G(x)
the n terms
A1 A2 A3 An
, 2
, 3
,..., ,
ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b) (ax + b)n
where A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . , An are constants to be determined.
3. Suppose that G(x) has an irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c with multiplicity 1.
That is, ax2 + bx + c is a non-repeated irreducible quadratic factor in the denominator.
F (x)
Then, in partial fractions, includes the term
G(x)
Ax + B
,
ax2 + bx + c

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where A and B are constants to be determined.

4. Suppose that G(x) has an irreducible quadratic factor ax2 + bx + c with multiplicity
n ≥ 2. That is, ax2 +bx+c is a repeated irreducible quadratic factor in the denominator.
F (x)
Then, in partial fractions, includes the terms
G(x)
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 A3 x + B3 An x + Bn
2
, 2 2
, 2 3
,...,
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)n
where A1 , A2 , . . . , An , B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn are constants to be determined.
3x + 7
Example 6.23. Express in partial fractions.
x(x + 2)(x − 1)
3x + 7
Solution. Let F (x) = . We can expressed F (x) as
x(x + 2)(x − 1)
A B C
F (x) = + +
x x+2 x−1
A(x + 2)(x − 1) + Bx(x − 1) + Cx(x + 2)
= ,
x(x + 2)(x − 1)
where A, B and C are constants to be determined. This implies that

3x + 7 = A(x + 2)(x − 1) + Bx(x − 1) + Cx(x + 2).

7 1
Setting x = 0, we get A = − . Setting x = −2, we get B = . Setting x = 1, we obtain
2 6
10
C = . Therefore, we infer
3
3x + 7 7 1 10
=− + + .
x(x + 2)(x − 1) 2x 6(x + 2) 3(x − 1)
NB: We can also find the values of A, B and C by equating corresponding coefficients. ■
3 + 2x
Example 6.24. Express in partial fractions.
(2 − x)(x2 + 3)2
3 + 2x
Solution. Let G(x) = . In partial fractions, G(x) is expressible as
(2 − x)(x2 + 3)2
A Bx + C Dx + E
G(x) = + 2 + 2
2−x x +3 (x + 3)2
A(x2 + 3)2 + (Bx + C)(2 − x)(x2 + 3) + (Dx + E)(2 − x)
= ,
(2 − x)(x2 + 3)2
where A, B, C, D and E are constants to be determined. We observe that

3 + 2x = A(x2 + 3)2 + (Bx + C)(2 − x)(x2 + 3) + (Dx + E)(2 − x).

1
When we put x = 2, we find that A = .
7
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1
Equating coefficients of x4 , we obtain 0 = A − B, which yields B = A = .
7
3 2
Equating coefficients of x , we arrive at 0 = 2B − C. Thus, C = 2B = .
7
Equating coefficients of x2 , we have that 0 = 6A − 3B + 2C − D. This produces

D = 6A − 3B + 2C = 1.

By equating coefficients of x, we get 2 = −3C + 6B + 2D − E. It follows that

E = −3C + 6B + 2D − 2 = 0.

Therefore, we obtain
3 + 2x 1 x+2 x
2 2
= + + 2 .
(2 − x)(x + 3) 7(2 − x) 7(x + 3) (x + 3)2
2

■
x3 + 3x − 1
Example 6.25. Express in partial fractions.
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2
x3 + 3x − 1
Solution. Let R(x) = . In partial fractions, R(x) is expressible as
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2
Ax + B C D
R(x) = 2
+ +
x +1 x − 1 (x − 1)2
(Ax + B)(x − 1)2 + C(x2 + 1)(x − 1) + D(x2 + 1)
= ,
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)2
where A, B, C and D are constants to be determined. We observe that

x3 + 3x − 1 = (Ax + B)(x − 1)2 + C(x2 + 1)(x − 1) + D(x2 + 1).

3
When x = 1, we obtain D = .
2
Equating coefficients x3 , we get
1=A+C (6.9)
Equating coefficients x2 , we get 0 = −2A + B − C + D, which gives us
3
− = −2A + B − C. (6.10)
2
Equating coefficients x, we get
3 = A − 2B + C. (6.11)
Adding equations (6.9) and (6.10), we arrive at
1
− = −A + B. (6.12)
2
Adding equations (6.10) and (6.11), we obtain
3
= −A − B. (6.13)
2
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1 1
Adding equations (6.12) and (6.13), we get A = − . Putting A = − in equation (6.12),
2 2
1 3
we get B = −1. Substituting A = − into equation (6.9), we obtain C = .
2 2
Therefore, we have that

x3 + 3x − 1 −(x + 2) 3 3
2 2
= + + .
(x + 1)(x − 1) 2(x + 1) 2(x − 1) 2(x − 1)2
2

Definition 6.23 (The exponential function). The exponential function f with base b is
defined by
f (x) = bx (6.14)
for every x ∈ R where b is a positive constant other than 1 (b > 0 and b ̸= 1).

y y

1 1
x x
1 1
(a) Graph of y = ax , 0 < a < 1. (b) Graph of y = ax , a > 1.

Figure 6.33:

The domain of f is R and the range of f is R+ . The number e (e ≈ 2.71828) is called

the natural base. The function f given by f (x) = ex is called the natural exponential
function.

Definition 6.24 (The logarithmic function). For x > 0 and b > 0 with b ̸= 1, the
logarithmic function to the base b, denoted by y = logb x, is defined by

y = logb x ⇐⇒ x = by .

The logarithmic function with base e is called the natural logarithmic function. The
function f (x) = loge x is usually written as f (x) = ln x.
Transformations of functions
Vertical shifts: Let f be a function and c a positive real number.

• The graph of y = f (x) + c is the graph of y = f (x) shifted c units vertically upward.

• The graph of y = f (x) − c is the graph of y = f (x) shifted c units vertically downward.

Horizontal shifts: Let f be a function and c a positive real number.

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y y

1 1
x x
1 1

(a) Graph of y = loga x, 0 < a < 1. (b) Graph of y = loga x, a > 1.

Figure 6.34:

1. The graph of y = f (x + c) is the graph of y = f (x) shifted to the left c units.

2. The graph of y = f (x − c) is the graph of y = f (x) shifted to the right c units.

Vertical stretching and shrinking: Let f be a function and c a positive real number.

1. If c > 1, the graph of y = cf (x) is the graph of y = f (x) vertically stretched by

multiplying each of its y-coordinates by c.

2. If 0 < c < 1, the graph of y = cf (x) is the graph of y = f (x) vertically shrunk by
multiplying each of its y-coordinates by c.

Horizontal stretching and shrinking: Let f be a function and c a positive real number.

1. If 0 < c < 1, the graph of y = f (cx) is the graph of y = f (x) horizontally stretched by
1
multiplying each of its x-coordinates by .
c
2. If c > 1, the graph of y = f (cx) is the graph of y = f (x) horizontally shrunk by
1
multiplying each of its x-coordinates by .
c
Reflection about the x-axis: The graph of y = −f (x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected
about the x-axis.
Reflection about the y-axis: The graph of y = f (−x) is the graph of y = f (x) reflected
about the y-axis.

EXERCISE SIX

1. Let X = {a, b, c} and Y = {a, b, c}. Which of the following subsets of X × Y are
functions X −→ Y ?

(a) {(b, 1), (c, 2), (a, 3)}

(b) {(a, 3), (c, 2), (a, 1)}
(c) {(c, 1), (b, 1), (a, 2)}

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(d) {(a, 1), (b, 3)}
(e) {(c, 1), (a, 2), (b, 3), (c, 2)}
(f) {(a, 3), (c, 3), (b, 3)}

2. Which of the following diagrams represent functions?

w w 1
w 1 1
x 1 x 2
2 x
y 2 y 2
y 3
z 3 z 3
3
4 4
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6.35:

3. Let X and Y be sets and f : X −→ Y a function. Prove that for every A, B ⊆ Y ,

(a) f −1 (A ∩ B) = f −1 (A) ∩ f −1 (B).

(b) f −1 (A ∪ B) = f −1 (A) ∪ f −1 (B).

4. Let A be a non-empty set. The map iA : A −→ A defined by iA (a) = a for all a ∈ A

is called the identity map on A.

5. Given that f : A → B and g : B → C. Show that if g ◦ f is one-to-one, then f is

one-to-one.
Show that if f : A −→ B is a bijection and f −1 : B −→ A is the inverse of f , then
f ◦ f −1 = iB and f −1 ◦ f = iA .
1
6. (a) Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x−3
. Show that f is an injective function.
(b) Show that the function f : R → R+ defined by f (x) = (x − 1)2 is surjective.

7. For the function f : R 7→ R define f (x) = x2 + 3.

(a) State the image.

(b) Show that f is neither injective nor surjective.
(c) Find a restriction g of f which is bijective and has the same image as f .
(d) Find g −1 .
x
8. Given that f : x 7→ , x ̸= −2, find in similar form
x+2
(a) f 2

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3
(b) f
(c) f 4 and deduce an expression for f 5 . In each case, obtain the domain.

9. Prove that for any functions h : W −→ X, g : X −→ Y and f : Y −→ Z, where W ,

X, Y and Z are sets, (f ◦ g) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h).

10. Let X and Y be sets and f : X −→ Y a function. Prove that f is one-to-one if and
only if f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B) for all subsets A, B of X.

11. For the given functions f and g, find the following composite functions and their
domains.

i. f ◦ g
ii. g ◦ f
iii. f ◦ f
iv. g ◦ g
x−5 x+2
(a) f (x) = ; g(x) =
x+1 x−3
x+3
(b) f (x) = 6x − 3; g(x) =
6
√
(c) f (x) = x; f (x) = 2x + 3

12. The roots of the quadratic equation x2 + px + q = 0 are α and β. Find in terms of p
and q, the quadratic equation whose roots are a3 − pa2 and β 3 − pβ 2 .

13. If the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 differ by 1, show that they are
a−b a−b
and − , and prove that b2 = a(a + 4c).
2a 2a
14. The roots of 2x2 − x − 3 = 0 are α and β. Find the equations whose roots are
α+1 β+1
(a) , (e)α2 , β 2
β+1 α+1 1 1
(b) α3 , β 3 (f)1 − , 1 −
α β α β
(c) , (g)α − β, β − α
β α 1 1
(d)α + 2, β + 2 (h) ,
α β
15. Let a be the remainder when a polynomial f (x) is divided by (x − a). Let b be a
remainder when f (x) is divided by (x − β)(β ̸= α). Find the remainder when f (x) is
divided by (x − α)(x − β) in terms of a, b, α, and β

16. The equation 3x3 + 6x2 − 4x + 7 has roots α, β, γ. Find the equations with roots
1 1 1
(a) , ,
α β γ
(b) β + γ, γ + α, α + β

17. Find the relationship between a, b and c such that the equations x2 − ax + b = 0 and
ax2 + x − c = 0 have a common root.

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 6 FUNCTIONS
18. Solve the following equations given that each has a repeated root.

(a) 12x3 − 52x2 + 35x + 50 = 0

(b) 18x3 + 21x2 − 52x + 20 = 0

19. If 3x2 − x + k is never negative, what is the minimum possible value of k?

20. Find the values of a for which the expression (2a + 3)x2 − 6x + 4 − a is a perfect square.

21. For what value of k is 9x2 + kx + 16 a perfect square.

22. Find a if x2 − 5x + a = 0 has equal roots.

23. (a) Find the greatest value of 3 + 4x − 2x2 .

(b) Find the greatest value of 3x2 − 4x + 2 and hence deduce the greatest value of
4
.
3x2 − 4x + 2
24. If the minimum value of x2 + 2x + k is 3, find the values of k.

25. Solve the following inequalities and show the results on a number line.
1−x
(a) 2 −
3
(b) |1 − 3x| > 1
2x − 1 1
(c) ≤
3 6
x+1 x−1
(d) − ≤1
2 3
26. Prove that if x2 > k(x + 1) for all real x then −4 < k < 0.

27. By completing the square or otherwise, prove that the inequality x2 − 2px + q > 0
holds for all values of x if and only if q > p2 .

28. Express the following in partial fractions.

2x + 1 x2 + 2x + 18
(a) 3 (b)
x −1 x(x2 + 3)2
2
x −7 3x2 + 2x − 9
(c) (d)
(x − 2)(x + 1) (x2 − 1)2
2
8x + 13x + 6 5x2 + 2
(e) (f)
(x + 2)(2x + 1)(3x + 2) (3x + 1)(x + 1)2
4
2x − 17x − 1 3x3 + x + 1
(g) (h)
(x − 2)(x2 + 5) (x − 2)(x + 1)3
2
2(x − 2x − 1) −2x − 1
(i) 3 2
(j) 2
x −x −x+1 (x − 3x + 2)(x2 − x + 3)
2x + 1 3
(k) 3 (l) 2
x −1 x (x + 2)

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2
3x + 1
29. Use the substitution y = x + 1 to express in the form
(x + 1)3

A B C
+ 2
+ .
x + 1 (x + 1) (x + 1)3

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