Lecture 1 :Introduction to the course.

The aim and object of discourse analysis

Reja:
1. Discourse as a critique of structural linguistics
2. The aim and object of discourse analysis
3. Discourse as a method of analysis of oral and written narratives
4. Discourse as social action
5. Discussion on the syllabus of the course (aim and objectives of the course, tasks and
assessment specifications)
Tayanch tushunchalar: discourse analysis (DA), semiotic, communicative event, linguistics,
sign language, education, sociology, anthropology, social work, cognitive psychology, social
psychology, area studies, cultural studies, international relations, human geography,
communication studies, Constructivist approach, discourse analytic.
Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number of
approaches to analyze written, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event.
The objects of discourse analysis (discourse, writing, conversation, communicative event)
are variously defined in terms of coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech, or turns-
at-talk. Contrary to much of traditional linguistics, discourse analysis not only study language
use “beyond the sentence boundary”, but also prefer to analyze “naturally occurring” language
use, not invented examples.
Text linguistics is a closely related field. The essential difference between discourse
analysis and text linguistics is that discourse analysis aims at revealing socio-psychological
characteristics of a person/persons rather than text structure.
Discourse analysis has been taken up in a variety of disciplines in the humanities and
social sciences, including linguistics, education, sociology, anthropology, social work, cognitive
psychology, social psychology, area studies, cultural studies, international relations, human
geography, communication studies and translation studies, each of which is subject to its own
assumptions, dimensions of analysis, and methodologies.

The aim of discourse analysis is to reveal the ontological and epistemological

premises which are embedded in language, and which allows a statement to be
understood as rational or interpreted as meaningful.

Discourse analysis investigates whether – in statements or texts - it is possible to establish

any regularity in the objects which are discussed; the subjects designated as actors; the causal
relations claimed to exist between objects (explanans) and subjects (explanadum); but also the
expected outcome of subjects trying to influence objects; the goal of their action; and finally the
time dimension by which these relations are framed. Discourses thus comprise the underlying
conditions for a statement to be interpreted as meaningful and rational. At the same time,
discourse analysis is the study of rationality and how it is expressed in a particular historical
context.
 Discourse analysis is part of the Constructivist (or Social
Constructivist) approach within the humanities and social sciences. It
assumes that basic assumptions with regard to being, self and the world are
constructed by individuals living in a historical and cultural context which is
produced and reproduced by their speech acts.

There is no mainstream definition of discourse within the social sciences. Neither is there
any generally accepted understanding of what discourse analysis is, or which methods(s) its
practitioners should use. Consequently, it is difficult to give a precise description of what
characterizes discourse analysis. This entry reviews several forms of discourse analysis and their
application to politics. Three approaches are distinguished, all of which are called discourse
analytic`s, but alternate in their approaches to what a discourse is and what the aim of analyzing
discourses is. The first approach is the discourse-analytical, the second is the discourse-
theoretical, and the third is the critical discourse analysis.

Varieties of Discourse Analysis

Analyses of discourse have been carried out within a variety of social science disciplines,
including

linguistics
anthropology

Dis sociology
cou international relations
rse
anal
ysis
communication studies
political science

Although the concept of political discourse has been used for centuries to describe
political debate or deliberation in political theory and philosophy, it is only within the last 40 or
so years that there has been a theoretical and methodological interest in how to study the
relationship between language and political action. This started in the 1960s in Europe as part of
a philosophical renewal of the humanities (including the social sciences) later to be known as
structuralism and post-structuralism, or in more general terms as the Linguistic Turn.
In the 1970s it spread to the USA with studies of how political concepts and political
news play a role in the construction of social problems. Today there are several approaches to
how to understand the role of language in politics. Among these are conceptual histography
(Begriffsgeschichte), the history of political ideas, and the theory of narration. They all differ
from discourse analysis by the fact that their object of study is concepts, narration and ideas and
not discourses. The most important difference among discourse analytical approaches is between
those which seek to understand discourse as a contingent form of knowledge and use discourse
analysis to see how knowledge and the production of knowledge have changed over time; and
those which take for granted that “the world” is a product of how we categorise it through our
statements, and therefore looks upon discourse as a universal type of social action, and use
discourse analysis to establish a general theory of discourse.
Although discourse analytic approaches emphasise the connection between discourse and
power; they differ in how they attach the concept of discourse to other concepts such as
knowledge, ideology, ideas and truth.

Task 1: Definitions of discourse analysis

Below are a number of definitions of the term ‘discourse analysis’. Read each of these
definitions and summarize the main features they list as being characteristic of discourse
analysis.
- Discourse analysis examines how stretches of language, considered in their full textual, social,
and psychological context, become meaning and unified for their users. (Cook, 1989)
- Discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the
contexts in which it is used . . . Discourse analysis is not only concerned with the description and
analysis of spoken interaction . . . discourse analysts are equally interested in the organisation of
written interaction. (McCarthy, 1991)
- Discourse analysis is the analysis of language in use. Better put, it is the study of language at
use in the world, not just to say things, but to do things. (Gee, 2011)
- While some discourse analysts focus on how meaning and structure are signaled in texts,
others,
especially since the early 1990s, have used discourse analysis more critically to examine issue
relating to power, inequality and ideology. (Baker and Ellece, 2011)
- Discourse is language use relative to social, political and cultural formations – it is language
reflecting social order but also language shaping social order, and shaping individuals’
interaction with society. (Jaworski and Coupland, 2006)
- Discourse analysis is not just one approach, but a series of interdisciplinary approaches that can
be used to explore many different social domains in many different types of studies. (Phillips and
Jorgenson, 2002)
SUMMARY

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
 Task 2. Match the correct definitions of given discourse characteristics.

1. Reference a. The process is used to arrive at an

interpretation for utterances or for the
connection between utterances.
2. Presupposition b. According to Lyons (1968) it is the ‘words
refer to things’. Here, the speaker refers by
using vocabulary to refer something with
appropriate expressions. It is an act on the part
of the speaker.
3. Imlicature c. It is “defined in terms of assumptions the
speaker makes about what the hearer is likely to
accept without challenge”. It means, accepting
something without challenge is defined through
the term of assumption.
4. Inference d. This term is used by Grice (1975) account for
what a speaker can imply, suggest or mean, as
distinct from what the speaker literary says.

2 mavzu: Historical background of discourse (structural linguistics)

Reja:
1. History of discourse analysis
2. The main characters in the development of discourse
Tayanch tushunchalar: transformational grammar, linguistic informational content, computer-
aided analysis, talk-in-interaction, structural linguistics

Although the ancient Greeks (among others) had much to say on discourse, some
scholars consider Austria-born Leo Spitzer's Stilstudien (Style Studies) of 1928 the earliest
example of discourse analysis (DA). It was translated into French by Michel Foucault.
However, the term first came into general use following the publication of a series of
papers by Zellig Harris from 1952 reporting on work from which he developed transformational
grammar in the late 1930s. Formal equivalence relations among the sentences of a coherent
discourse are made explicit by using sentence transformations to put the text in a canonical form.
Words and sentences with equivalent information then appear in the same column of an array.
This work progressed over the next four decades (see references) into a science
of sublanguage analysis (Kittredge & Lehrberger 1982), culminating in a demonstration of the
informational structures in texts of a sublanguage of science, that of Immunology, (Harris et al.
1989) and a fully articulated theory of linguistic informational content (Harris 1991). During this
time, however, most linguists ignored such developments in favor of a succession of elaborate
theories of sentence-level syntax and semantics.
In January 1953, a linguist working for the American Bible Society, James A.
Lauriault/Loriot, needed to find answers to some fundamental errors in translating Quechua, in
the Cuzco area of Peru. Following Harris's 1952 publications, he worked over the meaning and
placement of each word in a collection of Quechua legends with a native speaker of Quechua
and was able to formulate discourse rules that transcended the simple sentence structure. He then
applied the process to Shipibo, another language of Eastern Peru. He taught the theory at the
Summer Institute of Linguistics in Norman, Oklahoma, in the summers of 1956 and 1957 and
entered the University of Pennsylvania to study with Harris in the interim year. He tried to
publish a paper Shipibo Paragraph Structure, but it was delayed until 1970 (Loriot & Hollenbach
1970). In the meantime, Kenneth Lee Pike, a professor at University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
taught the theory, and one of his students, Robert E. Longacre developed it in his writings.
Harris's methodology disclosing the correlation of form with meaning was developed into
a system for the computer-aided analysis of natural language by a team led by Naomi
Sager at NYU, which has been applied to a number of sublanguage domains, most notably to
medical informatics. The software for the Medical Language Processor is publicly available
on SourceForge.
In the late 1960s and 1970s, and without reference to this prior work, a variety of other
approaches to a new cross-discipline of DA began to develop in most of the humanities and
social sciences concurrently with, and related to, other disciplines, such
as semiotics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, and pragmatics. Many of these approaches,
especially those influenced by the social sciences, favor a more dynamic study of oral talk-in-
interaction. An example is "conversational analysis", which was influenced by the Sociologist
Harold Garfinkel, the founder of Ethnomethodology.

In Europe, Michel Foucault became one of the key theorists of the subject,
especially of discourse, and wrote The Archaeology of Knowledge.

In this context, the term 'discourse' no longer refers to formal linguistic aspects, but to
institutionalized patterns of knowledge that become manifest in disciplinary structures and
operate by the connection of knowledge and power. Since the 1970s, Foucault's works have had
an increasing impact especially on discourse analysis in the social sciences. Thus, in modern
European social sciences, one can find a wide range of different approaches working with
Foucault's definition of discourse and his theoretical concepts. Apart from the original context in
France, there is, at least since 2005, a broad discussion on socio-scientific discourse analysis in
Germany. Here, for example, the sociologist Reiner Keller developed his widely recognized
'Sociology of Knowledge Approach to Discourse (SKAD)'.[10] Following the sociology of
knowledge by Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann, Keller argues, that our sense of reality in
everyday life and thus the meaning of every object, actions and events are the product of a
permanent, routinized interaction. In this context, SKAD has been developed as a scientific
perspective that is able to understand the processes of 'The Social Construction of Reality' on all
levels of social life by combining Michel Foucault's theories of discourse and power with the
theory of knowledge by Berger/Luckmann. Whereas the latter primarily focus on the constitution
and stabilisation of knowledge on the level of interaction, Foucault's perspective concentrates on
institutional contexts of the production and integration of knowledge, where the subject mainly
appears to be determined by knowledge and power. Therefore, the 'Sociology of Knowledge
Approach to Discourse' can also be seen as an approach to deal with the vividly
discussed micro–macro problem in sociology.
This understanding of discourse and discourse analysis is closely connected to Michel
Foucault and his publications from 1963 to 1971. In this period Foucault studied the history of
language and how words (or language) were placed in relation to things (or what is observable)
at various periods in history. Foucault was concerned with the fact that from the mid-1800s, the
human sciences began to analyse language and to argue that all human actions and social
formations are somehow related to language, or can even be understood as constructed in (or by
the use of) language. For Foucault, then, discourse analysis is not some independent theory or
method, but a way in which the human sciences perceive the world. Foucault shows how
language was turned into an empirical object for scientific studies, and views discourse analysis
as a historically specific manner in which the human sciences relates to reality. Hence for
Foucault, the scientific interest in language is a historical event, the end of the modernity period,
where man stood at the centre of scientific interest, and the start of a new period, where language
became the central object of study. It is in this context that Foucault introduces the concepts of
archives and archaeology in an attempt to portray discourses as historically determined forms of
knowledge which, together with other discourses, enters into a form of institutionalised
rationality (an archive). The archive, in consequence is a historically determined knowledge
horizon, a framework for how ideas are produced and sustained and for how knowledge is
accepted (as being trustworthy) or not. Ideas are created in discursive events, which subsequently
– by historical analysis – can be understood to have added new positions to the archive or to
have transformed already existing positions in the archive. At the same time, the archaeology is
the knowledge we possess about the history of the various forms of knowledge, and of the
limitations and possibilities which exist for creating knowledge and generating ideas.
These limitations and possibilities are not exclusively linguistic. They are also extra-
discursive and institutional. Discourses are supported by institutions and together with various
technologies (for e.g. disciplining or sanctioning) they constitute a historically determined
rationality.

Discourse theory sees all social

In contrast to Foucault discourse theory phenomena as discursive constructions,
aim at developing a universal theory of and assumes that all social
discourses. phenomena can be studied by discourse
analysis.

Discourse theory

It is in this sense that discourse theory

turns social Ernesto Laclau and
phenomena into language, and language Chantal Mouffe are the best examples.
into an object for discourse analysis.

Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe have advanced discourse theory by deconstructing
other theories. First, with inspiration from structuralist linguistics, they emphasise that the
smallest unit in a discourse (langue) is the sign, and that discourses includes a system of signs
characterized by every sign being different from other signs. Second, with inspiration from post-
structuralism, they emphasise that signs are infused meaning through articulation (signifiè) while
the content of signs (significant) is always contingent and never fixed. Finally, with inspiration
from Neo-Marxism, they stress that the articulation is embedded in a political process. In their
definition, discourse is a system of signs which are allocated meaning through articulation. The
articulation on one hand is understood as a conflict between persons whose object is to achieve
political status by imposing a particular taken-for-granted understanding of the world. On the
other hand discourse analysis is used to map or trace this process as a political process.
The task of discourse analysis is to find the nodal points which give other signs their
meaning, and to observe the process through which the allocation of meaning is taking place. In
political theory, for example, “democracy” is a nodal point around which conflicts are constantly
taking place. In contrast to Foucault’s discourse analysis, the concept of ideology (or objectivity)
plays an important role in discourse theory. All discourses are ideological because they appear as
objectivity, the taken-for-granted, and thus conceal alternative realities. Also in contrast to
Foucault the concept of knowledge does not enter into the vocabulary of discourse theory. Where
Foucault can study how knowledge has become an archive with his archaeological (diachronic)
approach, the discourse theoretical (synchronic) approach is analysing how meaning is created
by politics. And finally where Foucault sees institutions as supporting knowledge and therefore
capable of having an independent (non-discursive) status, in discourse theory institutions are
understood as discursive constructions without any extra-discursive status.

Task 1: Watch the video What is Discourse Analysis? (https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=EUeA0PEF_g4) by Educational Foundation and Research and take notes in the worksheet
Lecture Notes.

1.There are three main categories of discourse definitions according to Schiffrin et al. (2003):
(1) ________________________________________________________
(2) _______________________________________________________
(3) _______________________________________________________

2. What is discourse according to Foucault’s sense?

__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

3. According to Gee there are two basic approaches to Discourse Analysis:

(1) _______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________
(2) _______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________

4. Hodges et al. breaks down Discourse Analysis into three different approaches:
(1) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________
(2) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________
(3) _______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
 _________________________

For additional notes:

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Task 2: Revise the lecture about the historical development of Discourse Analysis (DA) given
by your instructor beforehand. Then fill the Hierarchy of DA worksheet with the necessary
information related to people, dates and the types of activities the researchers contributed to
the development of Discourse Analysis.

Year

Person

Activity type

YEAR PERSON ACTIVITY

 3 mavzu: Characteristics of speech and its functions
Reja:
1. What is speech?
2. The main characteristics of speech functions
3. Common speech functions
4. Examples for speech functions

Tayanch tushunchalar: expressive (motor) speech, speech characteristics, loudness, pitch,

intonation, rate of speech, flexibility, rhythm, stress, articulation, intelligibility of speech,
adequate projection, syntax, reflective, phatic, poetic, metalinguistic, directive.

Expressive (or motor) speech is a complex process incorporating many different

components and occurring at different levels. The pronunciation of speech sounds and their
combinations, i.e., the articulatory structure of words, takes place on the basis of phonemic
hearing; however, the articulation of sounds itself plays an active role in the formation of
phonemic hearing. The pronunciation of the sounds of speech calls for precision in motor
activity, which is possible only when impulses of considerable mobility are accurately directed
to their destinations. The pronunciation of words requires a well-established serial organization
of consecutive articulations, with adequate inhibition of previous movements and smooth
transition to those following; these processes must be accompanied by adequate plasticity in
modifying the articulation of a particular sound to conform to its position in the word. The
evolution from pronunciation of a word to pronunciation of a whole phrase, and then of a
whole sentence, requires, in addition, retention of the general scheme of the phrase or sentence
and integrity of the whole of the complex path from the thought to the serially constructed
spoken expression; the importance of such integrity has been recognized by many writers
(Jackson, 1884; Pick, 1913, 1931; etc.). We know that internal speech contributes to this
process (Vygotskii, 1934, 1956), although the exact nature of its participation has not been
adequately studied.

NORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH

1) QUALITY OF VOICE: speaker’s speech is considered to be normal and good when it
possess good quality of voice, means pleasant and intelligible. Number of harmonics noise ratio
should be 15.
2) PITCH: Pitch is the psychological co-relate of frequency. Speaker should use his optimum
pitch where output is maximum with less vocal efforts. That means he should not deviate from
his optimum speech. Pitch should not be too high, too low or monotonous or stereotype.
3) LOUDNESS: the speaker’s loudness should be normal i.e. in range of 40-80 dB. Loudness
should not be micro phonic or macro phonic.
4) INTONATION: Intonation means variation of pitch or fluctuation of pitch during delivery
of speech. Speech is considered having good characteristics when there is proper use of
intonation or inflexion (tone). This means speaker should not have limited pitch in his speech or
should not be monotonous. Normal adult person should have pitch range one and a half octave in
males or 2 in females.
5) RATE OF SPEECH: It refers to the number of words or syllables uttered in a particular
time period. Speakers rate of speech should be 140 words/minute & 300 syllables/minute or 2.5
words/second & 7syllables/second. Being too fast may result in omission of syllable and
articulation may not be similar.
6) RHYTHM: It refers to easy and smooth flow of speech or continuity of speech. A good
speaker’s easy flow of speech can be observed during his delivery of speech that means he
should not have any struggle or effortful speech neither he repeats, hesitates, pauses nor stops in
syllables. Stuttering can’t maintain rhythm.
7) STRESS: It refers to extra pressure given on particular syllable during speech. Speaker is
considered to have good speech if he doesn’t lay stress on making us clear his speech.
8) ARTICULATION: The process of production of single speech sound is called Articulation.
Speaker should have proper utterances of speech sound. Intelligibility of speech depends on
proper articulation.
9) INTELLIGIBILITY OF SPEECH: High intelligibility posses’ good speech.
10) FLEXIBILITY: It is one of the most important characteristic of speech. Speech should be
flexible depending on situations. Flexibility of speech depends on the manner how it is said.
11) POSITIVE FEEDBACK: Speaker should have positive feedback from the listeners like
clapping. Then the speech is considered to have good characteristics of speech.
12) ADEQUATE PROJECTION: The voice should be loud enough to reach the listeners.
Speaker’s voice becomes more louder when there is no noise in the room. Hearing impaired
children speak with soft voice because they can’t perceive their own voice in the environment.
13) CORRECT PRONUNCIATION: Speaker should have correct pronunciation in normal
speech. If the articulation is not proper as per the phoneme of that word then it is not called
correct pronunciation.
14) SEMANTIC SOUNDNESS: The appropriate words are selected and arranged in proper
manner to convey the meaning of what speaker speaks. According to the context, speaker puts all
the words together to express idea for listeners. While expressing, speaker follows the linguistic
rules to frame sentences in correct manner to make the listeners understand.
15) ANIMATION: When an individual speaks, he represents some kinds of body language with
gestures to convey meaning. Like instead of saying ‘NO’ people shake their head.
16) CONTEXT: Individual should speak to the topic i.e. related to subject. He should not
deviate from his topic.
17) SYNTAX: Individual should use syntactic rules of language while speaking.
Common Speech Functions

Functions of speech are different ways of communicating. The differences among the
speech functions have to do with the intention of the communication. Different intention or goal
leads to the use of a different function of speech. There are many different functions if speech
but we will look at the six that are listed below.

Referential

Directive Expressive

Phatic Poetic Metalinguistic

Referential
Referential speech provides information. For example, a person might share the time with
someone (“It’s five o’clock”). Referential speech can often provide information to a question
(“what time is it?”).
Directive
Directives or commands that try to get someone to do something. Examples include “turn
left” or “sit down”. The context of a directive is one in which something needs or should be
done. As such, one person tries to make one or more other persons do something. Even children
say directives towards their parents (“give me the ball”).
Expressive
Expressive speech shares a person’s feelings. An example would be “I feel happy
today!”. Expressive communication can at times provide clear evidence of how someone is
doing.
Phatic
Phatic speech is closely related to expressive speech. However, the main difference is that
phatic speech is focused on the well-being of others while expressive speech focuses on the
feelings of the person speaking.
An example of phatic speech is saying “how are you?”. This is clearly a question but it is
focusing on how the person is doing. Another phrase might be “I hope you get well soon.” Again
the focus on is on the welfare of someone else.
Poetic
Poetic speech is speech that is highly aesthetic. Songs and poetry are examples of
language that is poetic in nature. An example would be the famous nursery rhyme “Roses are
red, violets are blue…..). Poetic speech often has a powerful emotional effect as well.
Metalinguistic
 Metalinguistic speech is communication about language. For example, this entire blog
post would be considered by many to be metalinguistic because I a talking about language and
not really using language as described in the other functions of speech.
Exceptions
There are many more categories than the ones presented. In addition, the categories
presented are not mutually exclusive. Many phrases can be correctly classified into many
different categories. For example, if someone says “I love you” you could argue that it’s
expressive, poetic, and or even phatic. What is missing is the context in which such a statement
is made.
The ways in which we communicated have been briefly explained here. Understanding
how people communicate will help others to better understand those around us and improve our
style of communicating.
Examples of Speech Functions for Sociolinguistics
Conveying Information and Expressing Social Relationships
Expressive(express
speaker'sfeelings--I
feelgreattoday.)

Phatic(languagefor
solidarityand Directive (getothersto
empathy--Yo, bro. Put dothings--C leanup
'erthere) yourroom .)

Metalinguistic(comments R eferential(provide
onlanguage--N ounscan inform ation--Theapples
bem assorcount.) areonthetable.)

Task 1: complete the given brain storm diagram.

 loudness
articulation

speech
characteristics
pitch

Summary of speech fuctions:

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
 4 mavzu: Characteristics of writing and its genres
(scientific, newspaper article and fiction)
Reja:
1. The description of writing
2. Features of written language
3. Advantages of written discourse
4. Disadvantages of written discourse
5. Levels of written language
6. Genres of writing

Tayanch tushunchalar: pre-modified noun, transactional and interactional function, para-

linguistic expressions, clause relations, rhetoric, culture.
Written language is the secondary form of a language. It is visible, written or printed and
hence more permanent. "Writing" is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet,
punctuation and spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form. Generally, we
write using a pen/pencil (handwriting) or a keyboard (typing). With a pen/pencil we usually
write on a surface such as paper or whiteboard. A keyboard is normally attached to a typewriter,
computer or mobile device. Voice recognition programs allow those who can't see or use their
hands to have their thoughts transcribed.
According to Wikipedia Encyclopedia writing is a medium of human communication that
represents language and emotion with signs and symbols. In most languages, writing is a
complement to speech or spoken language. Writing is not a language, but a tool used to make
languages be read. Within a language system, writing relies on many of the same structures as
speech, such as vocabulary, grammar, and semantics, with the added dependency of a system of
signs or symbols. The result of writing is called text, and the recipient of text is called a reader.
Motivations for writing include publication, storytelling, correspondence, record
keeping and diary. Writing has been instrumental in keeping history, maintaining culture,
dissemination of knowledge through the media and the formation of legal systems.
As human societies emerged, the development of writing was driven by pragmatic
exigencies such as exchanging information, maintaining financial accounts, codifying laws and
recording history. Around the 4th millennium BCE, the complexity of trade and administration
in Mesopotamia outgrew human memory, and writing became a more dependable method of
recording and presenting transactions in a permanent form. In both ancient
Egypt and Mesoamerica, writing may have evolved through calendric and a political necessity
for recording historical and environmental events.
To write clearly it is essential to understand the basic system of a language. In English
this includes knowledge of grammar, punctuation and sentence structure. Vocabulary is also
necessary, as is correct spelling and formatting.
A writer may write for personal enjoyment or use, or for an audience of one person or
more. The audience may be known (targeted) or unknown. Taking notes for study purposes is an
example of writing for one's self. Blogging publicly is an example of writing for an unknown
audience. A letter to a friend is an example of writing for a targeted audience. As with speaking,
it is important to consider your audience when writing. There are many different styles of
writing, from informal to formal.

Features of Written Language:

1. Written language is more structured.
2. In written language, heavily pre-modified noun phrases are quite common, for example-a man
who turned into a human torch ten days ago after snoozing in his locked car while smoking has
pipe has died in hospital.
3. Written language sentences are generally structured in subject.
4. The use of passive is found in written language.
5. In written language, vocabulary for example-a lot of; thing, nice, do, stuff etc. is not taken
generally.
6. In written language, the some syntactic form is not repeated.

Advantages of Written Language:

1. Written language is the secondary form of language.
2. As written language is strictly governed by grammatical rules, non-native users are usually
more aware of the rules of written language.
3. We can express our feelings, ideas, emotions, sentiments, and so forth more freely in spoken
language because the reader cannot show direct and immediate reaction.
4. It may be checked, changed or reformulated if necessary grammatically and pragmatically.
5. It performs both transactional and interactional functions of language.

Disadvantages of Written Language:

1. It fails to establish and maintain direct role of relationships with the reader.
2. In written language there is no proximity between the writer and reader.
3. Written language does not take place in some context of situations. So it is not supported by
extra linguistics elements including all is the surrounded.
4. Written language does not contain interactive markers and planning filler and thus makes the
communication less effective.
5. It misses the para-linguistic expression and immediate reaction of the situation. So its effect is
slow.

Written language works in some levels:

1. Speech and writing: Both spoken and written discourses are dependent on their immediate
contexts to a greater or lesser degree. The idea that writing is in some way ‘free standing’
whereas speech is more closely tied to its context, has come under attack as an
oversimplification of discourse analysts.
2. Units in written discourse: The sentence is more obvious as a grammatical unit in writing
although certainly not in all kinds of writing: signs and notices, small ads, notes, forms, tickets,
cheques, all contain frequent examples of ‘non-sentences.’
3. Clause relations: The units of written discourse rather than always being co-existence with
sentences (though they sometimes are) were best seen as functional segments (of anything from
phrasal to paragraph length) which could be related to one another by a finite set of cognitive
relations, such as cause-consequence instrument, achievement, and matching relations such as
contrasting and equivalence.
4. Culture and rhetoric: The area of cross-cultural rhetoric studies has spawned a vast literature
of its own and a somewhat confusing one. On the other hand, linguists claim to have evidence of
textual patterns in other languages not found in English writing. On the other hand, there is
disagreement over whether these patterns are transferred and cause interference when the learner
writes in English.
5. Discourse and the reader: Discourse and reading in fact follows consistently from what we
have learnt. We cannot explain discourse patterning at the macro-level without paying due
attention to the role of grammar and lexis. By the same token, we cannot foster good reading
without considering global and local reading skills.
Writing genres

Writing genres (commonly known, more narrowly, as literary genres) are determined
by narrative technique, tone, content, and sometimes length. The most general genres are
narrative (fiction), scientific and journalism (newspaper).

Most aspiring writers begin with the writing genres they most love to read, which is a
sound strategy (an example of "write what you know"). However, we all have a tendency to
ignore certain genres, either because they weren't taught in school or simply because we were too
busy reading our favourites.
Yet, exploring genres you haven't tried before can lead to pleasant surprises. You may,
for instance find yourself gaining new respect for a genre you previously overlooked, or even
falling in love with it. You may decide to expand your writing to include other genres. And
sometimes you may even have a life-changing creative breakthrough. For example, a person may
have spent a frustrating few years trying to write literary fiction, only to discover their true
calling and talent lies in writing steamy romance, children's chapter books, or crime thrillers.
At the very least, familiarizing yourself with other genres, and reading at least a few
shining examples of each genre, can expand your understanding of storytelling techniques. You
may find that importing elements from other writing genres into your current work-in-progress
breathes new life into it. It can help you put a new twist on the genre you are currently working
in.
Writing a cross-genre or genre blend story can also expand the potential readership of
your novel by attracting different types of readers. Cross genre stories are quite popular today,
and the number of possible combinations of genres is nearly infinite.
Of course, it takes time to become familiar with the conventions of multiple genres, and
the expectations of different readerships. But the articles below are intended to give you a
starting point -- to suggest about which genres you might like to explore first.
The classic major genres of literature are:
 Tragedy
 Tragic comedy
 Fantasy
 Mythology
 Adventure
 Mystery
Other major book genres include
 Science fiction
 Drama
 Romance
 Action / Adventure
 Satire
 Horror
 fiction

Genre
categories
non-
fiction

A genre may fall under one of two categories: fiction and non-fiction. Any genre can be
either a work of fiction (nonfactual descriptions and events invented by the author) or a work of
nonfiction (a communication in which descriptions and events are understood to be factual).
Common genres:
Subsets of genres, known as common genres, have developed from the archetypes of genres in
written expression.
 Classic – fiction that has become part of an accepted literary canon, widely taught in schools
 Comics/Graphic novel – comic magazine or book based on a sequence of pictures (often
hand drawn) and few words.
 Crime/detective – fiction about a crime, how the criminal gets caught, and the repercussions
of the crime
 Fable – legendary, supernatural tale demonstrating a useful truth
 Fairy tale – story about fairies or other magical creatures
 Fan fiction – fiction written by a fan of, and featuring characters from, a particular TV series,
movie, or book. Usually takes place on platforms, such as Fanfiction.net or Wattpad
 Fantasy – fiction in a unreal setting that often includes magic, magical creatures, or the
supernatural
 Folklore – the songs, stories, myths, and proverbs of a people or "folk" as handed down by
word of mouth
 Historical fiction – story with fictional characters and events in an historical setting
 Horror – fiction in which events evoke a feeling of dread and sometimes fear in both the
characters and the reader
 Humor – usually a fiction full of fun, fancy, and excitement, meant to entertain and
sometimes cause intended laughter; but can be contained in all genres
 Legend – story, sometimes of a national or folk hero, that has a basis in fact but also includes
imaginative material
 Magical realism – story where magical or unreal elements play a natural part in an otherwise
realistic environment
 Meta fiction (also known as romantic irony in the context of Romantic works of literature) –
uses self-reference to draw attention to itself as a work of art while exposing the "truth" of a
story
 Mystery – fiction dealing with the solution of a crime or the revealing of secrets
 Mythology – legend or traditional narrative, often based in part on historical events, that
reveals human behavior and natural phenomena by its symbolism; often pertaining to the
actions of the gods
 Mythopoeia – fiction in which characters from religious mythology, traditional myths,
folklore and/or history are recast into a re-imagined realm created by the author
 Picture book – picture storybook is a book with very little words and a lot of pictures; picture
stories are usually for children
 Realistic fiction – story that is true to life
 Science fiction – story based on the impact of actual, imagined, or potential science, often set
in the future or on other planets
 Short story – fiction of great brevity, usually supports no subplots
 Suspense/thriller – fiction about harm about to befall a person or group and the attempts
made to evade the harm
 Tall tale – humorous story with blatant exaggerations, such as swaggering heroes who do the
impossible with nonchalance
 Western – fiction set in the American Old West frontier and typically in the late eighteenth
to late nineteenth century
Common genres: non-fiction
 Biography – a narrative of a person's life; when the author is also the main sub, this is
an autobiography.
 Essay – a short literary composition that reflects the author's outlook or point.
 Owner's manual (also Instruction manual, User's guide) – an instructional book or booklet
that is supplied with consumer products such as vehicles, home appliances, firearms, toys
and computer peripherals
 Journalism – reporting on news and current events
 Lab Report – a report of an experiment
 Memoir – factual story that focuses on a significant relationship between the writer and a
person, place, or object; reads like a short novel
 Narrative nonfiction/personal narrative – factual information about a significant event
presented in a format that tells a story
 Reference book – such as a dictionary, thesaurus, encyclopedia, almanac, or atlas
 Self-help book – information with the intention of instructing readers on solving personal
problems.
 Speech – public address or discourse
 Textbook – authoritative and detailed factual description of a topic.
 The trouble with asking, "What is genre fiction?" is that all fiction is really genre fiction, in
the sense that very few stories are entirely unique. Even when a unique story comes along, it
doesn't stay unique for long. Other authors quickly hop on the band wagon and start writing
similar stories.
 Just about every story (including the one you may be writing now) may be grouped with
others that share similar traits, which is how genres are identified.
 Genres are a useful short-cut for readers. Once you find a story you like, looking for others
in the same genre is often the easiest way to find your next great read.
 Genres also provide a way for publishers to market books. Once a readership for a particular
genre is identified, publishers will start producing books in the same genre they can sell to
that readership.
The term "journalism genres" refers to various journalism styles, fields or
separate genres, in writing accounts of events.
Newspapers and periodicals often contain features (see Feature style) written by
journalists, many of whom specialize in this form of in-depth journalistic writing.
 Feature articles are usually longer forms of writing; more attention is paid to style than in
straight news reports. Mostly they are combined with photographs, drawings or other "art." They
may also be highlighted by typographic effects or colors.
Writing features can be more demanding than writing straight news stories, because while
a journalist must apply the same amount of effort to accurately gather and report the facts of the
story, he or she must also find a creative and interesting way to write it. The lead (or first two
paragraphs of the story) must grab the reader's attention and yet accurately embody the ideas of
the article.
In the last half of the 20th Century, the line between straight news reporting and feature
writing became blurred. Journalists and publications today experiment with different approaches
to writing. Tom Wolfe, Gay Talese, Hunter S. Thompson are some of these examples. Urban and
alternative weekly newspapers go even further in blurring the distinction, and many magazines
include more features than straight news.
Some television news shows experimented with alternative formats, and many TV shows
that claimed to be news shows were not considered such by traditional critics, because their
content and methods do not adhere to accepted journalistic standards. National Public Radio, on
the other hand, is considered a good example of mixing straight news reporting, features, and
combinations of the two, usually meeting standards of high quality. Other US public radio news
organizations have achieved similar results. A majority of newspapers still maintain a clear
distinction between news and features, as do most television and radio news organizations.
Science fiction (often shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction,
typically dealing with imaginative concepts such as
advanced science and technology, spaceflight, time travel, and extraterrestrial life. Science
fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has
been called a "literature of ideas".
"Science fiction" is difficult to define, as it includes a wide range
of subgenres and themes. James Blish wrote: "Wells used the term originally to cover what we
would today call ‘hard’ science fiction, in which a conscientious attempt to be faithful to already
known facts (as of the date of writing) was the substrate on which the story was to be built, and if
the story was also to contain a miracle, it ought at least not to contain a whole arsenal of them."
Isaac Asimov said: "Science fiction can be defined as that branch of literature which
deals with the reaction of human beings to changes in science and technology." According
to Robert A. Heinlein, "a handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read: realistic
speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world,
past and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific
method."
Lester Rey wrote, "Even the devoted aficionado - or fan - has a hard time trying to
explain what science fiction is", and that the reason for there not being a "full satisfactory
definition" is that "there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction." Author and
editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying "science fiction is what we point to when
we say it", while author Mark C. Glassy argues that the definition of science fiction is like the
definition of pornography: you do not know what it is, but you know it when you see it.

Task 1: Fill in the table with the main characteristics of spoken and written discourse
 Differences between spoken and written language

Spoken language Written language

Task 2: Write your answer to the given questions.

1. What are the main characteristics of writing

2. What are the most popular writing genres of modern life?

_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

5-mavzu: Text types and units of written discourse

Reja:
1. The explanation of text types
2. The main types of written texts

Tayanch tushunchalar: narrative, procedure, recount, description, explanation, exposition

Text types are any pieces of writing that you read or create. This can be anything from
novels, newspaper reports and textbooks to recipes, movie reviews and game instructions. A text
type scaffold is a simple framework that helps you to construct and create a piece of writing.
There are nine different text types that you will use at school. Each one has its own purpose,
structure and uses specific language features.
The text type scaffolds included in this diary are designed to help you to create your own
piece of writing. Each of the scaffolds will contain the following information.

Purpose This explains when and why you might

use a particular text type.

Language Features Different text types demand particular

use of language. This information lists
the type of words that you should be
using in constructing the text. You should
read the glossary at the end of this section
to clarify your understanding of terms
used.

Structure Each piece of writing has a number of

parts. Each part of the writing has a
specific role in the entire piece. This
section of the scaffold gives the outline
and order of the parts of a text. A very
short and simple example accompanies
each explanation to assist you in
understanding the expectations of the text
type.

NARRATIVE
PURPOSE

To entertain, instruct or inform the reader by telling a story

E.g. Visual Arts - Write a narrative about a painting
HSIE - Write a narrative about the life of the peasants in Medieval Europe
English - Write a narrative featuring a hero and a villain

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing a narrative you should:

• Use verbs
• Use time connectives to show order
• Use descriptive language
• Use proper nouns (e.g. Character Names)

STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Orientation Gives the reader It was a dark and stormy

information about who night, two figures dressed
was involved, what in black walked swiftly
happened, where it along the road. The village
happened and when it clock struck midnight.
occured.

Body A series of paragraphs that Suddenly they were bathed

move through three stages: in a bright light. Coming
1. Complication from directly above...
2. Series of events that Their first reaction was...
move to a climax Then...
3. Resolution or temporary After their experiences...
resolution

Coda (optional) Tells how the characters These two men would
have changed and exactly never be the same again...
what they learnt from the
experience.

RECOUNT
PURPOSE

To retell events in chronological order. Recounts can be literary or factual.

E.g. English - My Weekend English - My Dragon Adventure
History - Life in Ancient Egypt

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing a recount you should:

• Use the past tense
• Use descriptive words
• Use proper nouns
• Use technical language (where appropriate)
• Use time connectives to show the sequence of events (firstly.... secondly.....)

STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Orientation Gives the reader On Saturday, my brother

 information about who and I went to the movies at
was involved, what Bankstown...
happened, where it
happened and when it
occurred.

Body A series of paragraphs that The day started when we

retell the events in rang the movies...
chronological order. You Dad drove us to
should start a new Bankstown and we met....
paragraph for each event
or aspect of the event.

Reorientation Gives your personal I didn't like the movie but

comment about the events my older brother really
that you have retold. enjoyed it because...
Overall.....

DISCUSSION
PURPOSE

To present information about different sides of an issue or topic.

E.g. Science - Should scientists use animals to test cosmetics?

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing a discussion you should:

• Use words that show cause and effect
• Use persuasive language
• Use modality

STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Opening Statement Presents the main If you believe that we

argument and provides should protect animals...
background information Scientists claim that...
on the topic or issue. Whereas
Outlines the different Environmentalists argue
viewpoints that will be that...
used.

Body A series of paragraphs that Animals are bred

outline the arguments for specifically for
and against, including experimentation...
evidence for different That these animals are
 points of view. kept poorly in cages is the
The arguments should be argument of...
supported by evidence Scientists need to devise...
such as examples and/or
quotes.

Reinforcement The summing up of all the In short we cannot satisfy

arguments and viewpoints both animal lobbyists and
presented in the scientists wishes.....
discussion.
The writer may offer a
recommendation in favour
of one side.

PROCEDURE
PURPOSE

To give instructions and inform people about how to do something through a series of
steps.
E.g. Maths - Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying and Dividing Fractions.
Geography - Locating information in an Atlas
PD/H/PE - How to play softball

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing a procedure you should:

• Use imperatives/commands
• Use technical language
• Use words and phrases to specify time, place, participants etc.

STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Opening Statement State the goal or aim of the To locate Sydney on a map
activity. of Australia and copy its
position onto a blank map

Equipment List the materials and/or - Atlas - Ruler

equipment required. - World map - Pen

Method List the steps required to 1. Look at index pages of

complete the goal in an atlas
chronological order. and locate Sydney,
You should use numbers Australia.
to indicate each new 2. .......
instruction.
RESPONSE
PURPOSE

To summarise, analyse and evaluate an artistic work.

E.g. Visual Arts - Write a response to the success of your artwork.
Music - Review a Top 20 CD

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing a Response you should:

• Use descriptive language • Use modality • Use words that show cause and effect •
Use technical language
• Use present tense • Use persuasive language

STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Context Gives background This is the impressive

information about the release
artistic work being
discussed

Description A series of paragraphs After replacing...

describing elements of the Arrangements by...
artistic work This album explores....

Concluding Statement A paragraph which This is a good purchase

summarises the writers and an outstanding
opinion, and ends with the example of this group's
writers final judgement work.
and/or recommendation

EXPLANATION
PURPOSE

To tell how or why things occur.

E.g. Music - Explain the importance of rhythm in music
Mathematics - Explain the difference between prime and composite numbers
Geography - Explain why we should conserve the Great Barrier Reef

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing an explanation you should:

• Use the simple, present tense • Use words showing cause and effect
• Use the passive voice • Use technical language
STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Identifying Statement A general statement Rhythm is...

identifying the topic to be
explained.

Explanation Sequence A series of paragraphs that Rhythm is...

explain how and why Regular rhythm suggests...
things happen. Rhythm in nature...
This is usually achieved by
discussing cause and effect
and using time
connectives.

Concluding Statement A paragraph which Rhythm is written down in

summarises the music...
explanation.

DESCRIPTION
PURPOSE

To describe the characteristic features of a person, an object, an image or a place.

E.g. Maths - To describe the types and features of angles.
ESL - To describe yourself, your family and your community

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing a description you should:

• Use descriptive language
• Use technical language
• Use the present tense

STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Opening Statement General statement or Angles can be seen in two-

definition to identify the dimensional and three-
person or thing being dimensional shapes...
described.

Body A series of paragraphs that A triangle has three sides

describe the characteristic and three angles...
features of the person or Quadrilaterals have four
thing. sides and four angles...
Polygons have many sides
 and the same number of
angles...

Concluding Comment A statement that An angle is made of two

summarises the description arms, which meet at a
(where applicable) point called the vertex.

EXPOSITION
PURPOSE

To persuade a reader for or against a particular point of view.

E.g. Geography - We need to plant more trees in Australia
Visual Arts - Art is overpriced in Australia
PD/H/PE - Junk food should be banned from all school canteens

LANGUAGE FEATURES

When writing an exposition you should:

• Use words that link arguments • Use time connectives
• Use technical language • Use words showing cause and effect

STRUCTURE

COMPONENT EXPLANATION EXAMPLE

Thesis Presents the writer's point The Australian Continent

of view about a topic or is suffering from...
issue.

Body A series of paragraphs that The Aboriginal inhabitants

outline and justify the of Australia...
arguments that support the Since the European
overall position of the invasion...
writer. Because Australia was
The arguments should be such a harsh country...
supported by evidence In addition...
such as examples and/or
quotes.

Reinforcement The summing up of the The quickest, the cheapest

argument. The writer may and easiest way to
offer a solultion or rectify....
alternative to the topic of
issue.

Task 1. Match the purposes of various text types with their examples. Write your answers in the
table below.
 PURPOSES OF TEXT TYPES

Purposes Examples

1. A.
to entertain - something read for pleasure or • Newspaper editorials
enjoyment, can also imagination / exploration. • Adverts and posters
All types of fiction, some non-fiction. • Charity leaflets
• Magazine covers
• Letters, especially junk mail
2. B.
to instruct – tells how something should be • “How it works” books
done through a series of sequenced steps. • DIY and gardening books
• Leaflets telling how to do something
• Letters answering a query or
complaint
3. C.
to inform – giving the facts about something. • Travel books and features
• “For sale” ad in newspaper
classifieds
• Diaries
• Report of a local event in newspaper
• Some letters or postcards
4. D.
to explain – how or why something happens • Newspaper reports (especially
e.g. processes involved about natural broadsheets)
phenomena, how something works. • Encyclopedias
• Letters from schools (about a trip)
• Government publications (such as a
safety in the home leaflet)
5. E.
to describe – actual places, events or objects. • Short stories and novels
• Plays
• Autobiographies and biographies
• Poems
• Jokes, quizzes, horoscopes
6. F.
to persuade – present arguments and • Instructions with flat pack furniture
information from different viewpoint, to • Directions to a place
change or influence the reader’s way of • Recipes
thinking. • Safety notices
• Dosage label on prescription
medicines
Answers:

1 2 3 4 5 6

Task 2
Read the information about the terms form, source, audience and purpose for having clear
understanding about the purpose of a text.

All texts are written for a reason – the writer will have an aim or
purpose, for example to inform the reader or to persuade the reader.
Often, texts have more than one purpose.
Texts also have an intended audience – the people (or person)
that the writer hopes will read the text.
Good writers have a specific audience in mind when they write a
text. Texts such as a newspaper article or a TV guide have a wide
audience, normally described as “the general public”. Other texts are
written for specific groups such as children or people with special
interests and hobbies. Some texts, such as an informal letter or a
note, are written for just one or two readers.
To work out the audience look at the way a text is written. Think
about:
• the vocabulary and sentence length – both can give you clues to
the age and skills of the audience; they also give you clues about the
specialist knowledge of the reader.
• how the writer addresses the reader – again the language,
grammar and sentence structure will often give clues to the
relationship between the writer and the reader how well they know
each other; for example, does the text address you directly, or is it
written in impersonal or more formal language.
You can often work out the audience just by reading the little or
main headings of a text. The format of a text also gives you clues – for
example pictures and large clear font in a children’s story book.
Sometimes you will need to read a text in detail in order to work out
the audience.
Identifying the purpose and audience of a text will help you to
understand it better. This understanding of how texts work will also
help you improve your writing skills.
When you read a text the first thing you notice is its form. For
Task 3example, is it a book, a leaflet, a web page?
Analyze a text taken from an authentic material (magazine, journal, periodical etc.) Then write
down all your findings in the given table.

№ What is it? (form) Where is it from? What is it for? Who is it written

(source) Why was it for?
written? (purpose) (audience)