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Evolution 1

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23 views19 pages

Evolution 1

Uploaded by

tanishkasawanttalaulikar2919
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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EVOLUTION

• Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on


earth.
• Universe is 20 billion years old.
•Huge clusters of galaxies forms the universe.
•Big bang theory explains the origin of universe.
•Earth is in the solar system of milky way galaxy.
•Age of earth – 4.5 billion years old.
•Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia
covered the earths surface.
•UV rays broke the water into hydrogen and oxygen, lighter
hydrogen escaped.
•Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth.
• In 1953 S.L.Miller created earths atmospheric conditions
containing methane, ammonia, high temp etc. in a
laboratory scale.
• He created electric discharge in a closed flask containing
methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water vapour at 800
degree celsius.
• He observed formation of amino acids.
• The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till
about 2000 million years ago.
• These were probably single spores.
• Charles darwin based on his observations concluded that
existing life forms share similarities not only among
themselves but also with life forms that existed millions of
years ago.
• There had been extinction of many life forms and new life
arose at different periods.
• The characteristics which enable some to survive better in
natural conditions would outbreed others which cannot
survive.
• The population which survives is called called Fitness of
population.
• Refers to reproductive fitness and leave more progeny than
others.
• These will survive more and will be selected by nature.
• This theory is called Natural selection
• In 1850 before industrialization there were white winged
moths on trees but in 1920 there were more melanized
moths or dark winged moths.

• Before industrialization the tree trunks were covered by


white coloured lichen and in that white background white
moth survived.

• But after industrialization because of soot and smoke tree


trunks became dark and white moths were easily spotted by
predators. Under these conditions only dark winged moth
survived.
• However in rural areas the count of melanic moths was low.
Evidences of Evolution
Paleotological
• Fossils are remains of hard parts of life forms found in rocks.
• A study of fossil in different sedimentary layers indicates the
geological period in which they existed.
• The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life
forms are restricted to certain geological life spans.
• Hence new life forms have arisen at different times in the history
of earth. This is called paleontological evidence.

• Morphological and Anatomical


• Homologous organs–organs with same structure but perform
different function. Ex: Forelimbs of Bats, Cheetah and Humans.
This is divergent evolution.
• Analogous organs –organs with different structure but perform
same function. Ex: Wings of butterfly and bird. This is
convergent evolution.
• Biochemical
• Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given
function among diverse organisms gives clues to common
ancestory.
• These biochemical similarities point to the same shared
ancestory as structural similarities among diverse organisms.

• Anthropogenic
• Excess use of herbicide, pesticide has resulted in selection of
resistant varities.
• Resistance towards antibiotics against disease causing
microorganism.
• Adaptive Radiation
• When Charles Darwin went to Galapagos island he
observed small black bird called as Darwin’s Finches which
amazed him.
• There were many varieties of finches in the same island.
• Some were seed eating while some were insectivorous.
• This process of evolution of different species in a given
geographical area starting from a point and radiating to
other areas of geography is called Adaptive Radiation.
• When more than one adaptive radiation occurs in an
isolated geographical area , it is called as convergent
evolution.
• Another example is placental mammals in Australia each of
which appears similar to corresponding marsupial.
• Modern Synthetic theory of evolution
• The modern synthetic theory of evolution portrays
evolution as biological variations in a population that lead
to the emergence of a new species.
• The modern synthetic theory of evolution explains
evolution as gene variants in a population that result in the
establishment of a new species.
• It explains how genetic variations, breeding, geographical
isolation, and natural selection all play a role in evolution.
Mechanism of Evolution
• Darwin implied that natural selection was a mechanism of
evolution because those species that fit better in an
environment will procreate more.
• The mechanism of evolution tries to answer how variation
and speciation amongst living beings occur
• While Gregor Mendel, a mathematician, and biologist,
believed that inheritable factors influenced the phenotype,
Darwin ignored these findings.
• Hugo de Vries believed that it is mutation which causes
evolution and not the minor variations (heritable) that
Darwin talked about.
• Evolution for Darwin was gradual while deVries believed
mutation caused speciation and hence called it saltation
(single step large mutation).
Hardy – Weinberg Principle.
• For a given population the frequency of occurrence of
alleles of a particular gene on a specific locus can be
calculated.
• This frequency is usually fixed and remains the same
throughout different generations.
• Hardy- Weinberg principle expressed the same using
algebraic equation.
• It states that allelic frequencies are constant in a population
and they are constant from generation to generation.
• The gene pool remains constant and is called genetic
equilibrium.
• This principle is represented as
• (p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
• In a diploid, p and q represent the frequency of allele A and
allele a.
• The frequency of AA individuals in a population is simply
p2.
• Similarly of aa is q2 , of Aa 2pq. Hence, p 2+2pq+q2=1.
This is a binomial expansion of (p+q)2
• Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium.
• These are gene migration or gene flow, genetic drift,
mutation, genetic recombination and natural selection.
• When migration of a section of population to another place
and population occurs, gene frequencies change in the
original as well as in the new population. New genes/alleles
are added to the new population and these are lost from the
old population.
• There would be a gene flow if this gene migration, happens
multiple times.
• If the same change occurs by chance, it is called genetic
drift.
• Sometimes the change in allele frequency is so different in
the new sample of population that they become a different
species. The original drifted population becomes founders
and the effect is called founder effect.

• Variation due to mutation or variation due to


recombination during gametogenesis, or due to gene flow or
genetic drift results in changed frequency of genes and
alleles in future generation.
• Natural selection can lead to
• stabilisation (in which more individuals acquire mean
character value),
• directional change (more individuals acquire features other
than the mean character value)
• disruption (more individuals acquire peripheral character
value at both ends of the distribution curve)
Evolution of man
• About 15 mya, primates called Dryopithecus and
Ramapithecus were existing. They were hairy and walked
like gorillas and chimpanzees.
• Ramapithecus was more man-like while Dryopithecus was
more ape-like.
• Few fossils of man-like bones have been discovered in
Ethiopia and Tanzania. These revealed hominid features
leading to the belief that about 3-4 mya, man-like primates
walked in eastern Africa. They were probably not taller
than 4 feet but walked up right.
• Two mya, Australopithecines probably lived in East
African grasslands. Evidence shows they hunted with stone
weapons but essentially ate fruit.
• The first human-like being the hominid and was called
Homo habilis. The brain capacities were between 650-800cc.
They probably did not eat meat.
• Homo erectus about 1.5 mya. Homo erectus had a large
brain around 900cc. Homo erectus probably ate meat.
• The Neanderthal man with a brain size of 1400cc lived in
near east and central Asia between 1,00,000- 40,000 years
back. They used hides to protect their body and buried
their dead.
• During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern
Homo sapiens arose.

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