RAJIV GANDHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

PETROLEUM ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

OME754-INDUSTRIAL SAFETY
STUDY MATERIAL

IV YEAR/VII SEMESTER
2017R
 OME754- INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Evolution of modern safety concepts – Fire prevention – Mechanical hazards –
Boilers, Pressure vessels, Electrical Exposure.

UNIT II CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Chemical exposure – Toxic materials – Ionizing Radiation and Non-ionizing
Radiation - Industrial Hygiene – Industrial Toxicology.

UNIT III ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

Industrial Health Hazards – Environmental Control – Industrial Noise - Noise
measuring instruments, Control of Noise, Vibration, - Personal Protection.

UNIT IV HAZARD ANALYSIS

System Safety Analysis –Techniques – Fault Tree Analysis (FTA), Failure
Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA), HAZOP analysis and Risk Assessment

UNIT V SAFETY REGULATIONS

Explosions – Disaster management – catastrophe control, hazard control ,Safety
education and training - Factories Act, Safety regulations Product safety – case
studies.

TEXT BOOK:
1. John V.Grimaldi, “Safety Management”, AITB S Publishers, 2003.
REFERENCES:
1. Safety Manual, “EDEL Engineering Consultancy”, 2000.
2. David L.Goetsch, “Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists”, 5th
Edition,Engineers and Managers, Pearson Education Ltd., 2005.
 UNIT I INTRODUCTION

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT

Industrial Safety Management (ISM) could be traced to the period of
Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to
1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and
technology had a profound effect on social, economic and cultural conditions of
the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout
Western Europe, North America, Japan, and eventually the rest o the world
(Anonymous, n.d.). However, Hoppit (2011) posited that Great Britain provided
the legal and cultural foundations that enable entrepreneurs to pioneer the
Industrial Revolution. According to Anonymous (n.d.) the key factors fostering
this environment were;
i. The period of peace and stability which followed the unification of
England and Scotland,
ii. No trade barrier between England and Scotland,
iii. The rule of law (respecting the sanctity of contractors),
iv. A straight forward legal system which allowed the formation of Joint Stock
Companies (Corporations), and
v. A free market (capitalism).
In the 18th century there began a transition in parts of Great Britain’s were
previous manual labour and draft animal based economy towards machine
based manufacturing. It started with the mechanization of the textile industries,
the development of iron making techniques and the increase use of refined coal
(Roger, 1999). Consequently, the critical manufacturing change that marks the
Industrial Revolution is the production of interchangeable parts. Some of the
machines used in the era of Industrial Revolution include;
i. Watt Steam Engine
ii. Spinning Mule
iii. Spinning Jenny
iv. Reverberatory Furnace
v. Savery Engine (the world first commercially useful steam engine)
vi. Newcomen’s Steam Powered Atmospheric Engine
vii. Lathe Machine
viii. Blast Furnace
The introduction of machines change the process of production which
brought various forms of risk in the process of production due to lack of
experience in the use of these machines. According to Umunadi (2010), the
industrial development of motors, conveyors, pumps and appliances came with
risks that are inherent in their use. During the early introduction of machines to
replace the domestic process, various forms of accidents occur which led to the
lost of life and deformation of workers. The fatality rate was very high then.
Golden (1967) in Umunadi (2010) opined that, in the United State of America
(U.S.A.), industries pay a substantial bill each year for the treatment and cure of
workmen disabled by on the job accidents. Moreso, in the United Kingdom,
256,930 accidents of which 479 were fatal was reported to the factory
inspectorate in 1974 and that in the same year in Nigeria, 1,132 accidents and
11 fatalities were notified to the factory inspectorate while 804 accidents, 12 of
which resulted in death were reported in 1975, due to the various accidents,
risks, fatalities, death, lost of properties; and decline in organization’s repute,
associated with industrialization. However, the sharp rise in accident cost that
resulted from compensation laws and tighter employer’s liability initiated the
modern concern with work safety and initiated the long term decline in work
accidents and injuries, large firms in railroading, mining, manufacturing and
elsewhere suddenly became interested in safety. Also, companies began to
guard machines and power sources while machinery makers began to look for
hidden danger at work, and to require that workers wear hard hats and safety
glasses, they also set up safety departments run by engineers and safety
committees that included both workers and managers. In 1913, companies
founded the National Safety Council to pool information. Government agencies
such as the Bureau of Mines and National Bureau of Standards provided
scientific support while universities also researched safety problems for firms
and industries (Aldrich, 1997). Hence, safety education became crucial and
important which lead to the introduction of Industrial Safety Management
(ISM).
Industrial Safety Management (IMS)
Safety is the act of been free from harm and danger. According to
Umunadi (2010) it simply means being safe or completely free form dangerous
situation or situations that can cause havoc, disaster, harm, injury and death. On
the other hand, management is a social or international and economic process
involving a sequence of co-ordinated events (planning, organizing,
coordinating, and controlling) in order to use the available resources to achieve
a desired goals in the fastest and most efficient way. From the foregoing,
Industrial Safety Management (ISM) is all the steps taken by employers,
employees, safety officers, supervisors, and government to ensure safe work or
production process in industries which main objectives is to promote safety,
 practice among employers and employees and to reduce and eliminate risk in
industries.

Personnel in Industrial Safety Management

In the industries, three main personnel are involved in the production
process. These are:
a. The employer: This is the owner of the company.
b. The supervisor: This can be refer to as the foreman in the company.
c. The supervisor: This can be refer to as the foreman in the company.
Responsibilities of the Employer
The employer (owner of the company) have various responsibilities for
effective Industrial Safety Management (ISM) in order to prevent the
occurrence of accident. Some of the responsibilities include the following:
i. Provision of a safe work environment for workers.
ii. Provision of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for workers and
visitors
iii. Provision of the required facilities and machines for production.
iv. Provision of safety training for workers.
v. Ensure proper and constant maintenance of equipments and tools used
during production.
vi. Provision of first aid facilities in the company.
vii. Ensure proper guard of moveable and dangerous parts of machines in the
company.
viii. Enforced strictly safety rules and regulations
b. The Employees; This simply means the workers in the company
Responsibilities of the Employees
The responsibilities of the employees with respect to ISM include;
i. Employees must were PPE (such as safety shoes, hard hat, hand gloves,
eye goggles)
ii. Employees should keep their work environment clean and arrange tools
properly.
iii. Employees should always adhere to the safety rules and regulation of the
company.
iv. Employees should report to the supervisor when they noticed that the
equipment and tools they are using is not safe for the job.
v. Employees should not used equipment and tools for another job outside
what the are meant for.
vi. Employees should not eat while working in the plant.
vii. Employees should report every accident to their supervisor.
 c. The supervisor: This can be refer to as the foreman in the company.

Responsibilities of the supervisor

i. Supervisor must ensure that before the days job begins every workers have
being brief on the days job during pep talk and all hazard associated with
the task are identified.
ii. Supervisor make sure that all the equipment tools for the days job are in
safe condition for used.
iii. Supervisor ensure that workers are performing the task according to
recommended procedures.
iv. Supervisor inform the management of the state of workers, equipment and
tools.
v. Supervisor make sure that workers used the recommended materials and
proportion during production.

The Safety Officer: This is an employee in an industry that is charged with the
responsibilities of preventing accident.
Responsibilities of the Safety Officer
i. Induction of all persons on site
ii. Ensure adequate security on site
iii. Organized pep talk before the days job begins
iv. Organized site safety meetings
v. Record site safety statistics in safety statistics board.
Goals of Industrial Safety Management (ISM)
The following are goals of ISM;
i. ISM helps to reduce and prevent accident.
ii. ISM helps to reduce unprecedented financial cost of compensation and
treatment of disabled workers.
iii. ISM helps to improved the corporate image of the company.
iv. ISM helps to educate workers and employers on the best safety practice
across the world.
v. ISM helps to reduce heavy burden of insurance on the company.
vi. ISM helps to reduce injury, sickness and death caused by accident and
exposure to hazardous substance.

FIRE PREVENTION METHOD:

Discuss Fire prevention and fire protection. Elaborately.(16) (May/June
2013) (Nov/Dec 2007)
(Or)
Discuss the various fire prevention methods to be adopted in a chemical
industry. (16) (Nov/Dec 2015)
(Or)
How the fire occurs in chemical industries? Discuss the fire prevention and
protection methods. (Nov /Dec 2013)
Fire protection measures
Fire protection measures in buildings are those features in the design and use
that play a role in controlling the spread of fire and allowing the occupants to
escape. They can be considered to operate in two separate ways – active and
passive.
(a) Active fire protection measures
Active measures are those that react to the presence of fire or the products
of combustion and initiate actions aimed at extinguishing the fire and ensuring
the escape of the building’s occupants. These measures may have been installed
as a result of the fire risk assessment carried out under the 1997 Regulations or
they may have been a mandatory requirement of the fire authority as a condition
for the issue of a fire certificate. Typical active fire protection measures are
considered below.
(b) Fire detection and alarm systems
Automatic fire detection and alarm systems can range from a simple single
smoke detector in a small office or home to a sophisticated zoned system for a
large office or works complex. Such sophisticated systems, based on a central
control board, can identify the location of a fire, give differential warnings to
adjacent areas and be linked automatically to the local fire brigade.
(c) Emergency lighting
In buildings occupied during the hours of darkness or where the fire escape
route passes through areas that do not have natural lighting, emergency lighting
should be provided. It must be additional to the normal artificial lighting and
come into operation in the event of the failure of the mains supply. It is usually
operated from batteries either within the light fitting or at a central location.
(d) Smoke extraction systems and fire dampers
To prevent the build-up of smoke in larger buildings, separate smoke extraction
systems may be installed. They work independently of the normal ventilation
system and are connected direct with the outside of the building. Their most
common application is in below-ground areas.
(e) Automatic fire extinguishing systems
Automatic fire extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, drenchers or gas
systems operate when the heat of the fire in the region of a detector head
reaches predetermined levels and cause the seal in the detector head to fracture
releasing the extinguishant
(f) Active fire protection and smoke stop doors
Pedestrian and vehicular movement between fire compartments should be
through fire resisting doors which, ideally, should be kept closed except when
allowing passage of people or vehicles.
(g) Staff training and emergency planning
The aim of a fire alarm system is to give warning of a fire and allow the
building’s occupants to escape. To obtain the greatest benefit from this warning,
employees should be trained and practised in evacuation procedures including
assembly and roll call.
(h) Housekeeping
Piles of rubbish and debris in the workplace are one of the most common causes
of fires and high standards of housekeeping are an important.

10 METHODS OF FIRE PREVENTION

1. Install a smoke alarm on every level. Change the batteries at least once a
year. Better yet, grab a pack of whatever batteries your smoke alarm requires at
a warehouse store like Costco or Sam’s Club. Therefore, when they beep to be
changed, your default reaction isn’t to take out the battery but to replace the
battery.
2. Keep anything that’s flammable away from stove, including pot holders,
drapes, paper towels and kitchen towels.
3. Keep clutter away from your heater or furnace. For example, never store
newspapers or family photos around a furnace. One loose spark could start a
large fire in minutes.
4. The number one causes of fire are clothes dryers. The # 1 way to prevent fires
starting is to clean the lint trap after every use.
5. Install carbon monoxide detectors throughout home, especially in bedrooms.
Carbon monoxide is odorless and colorless, and very combustible.
6. Any outdoor cooking such as grilling or deep frying should be done at least
ten feet from the house.
7. Hide any matches and lighters away from children.
8. Never overload an extension cord or outlet. In addition, make sure all cords
don’t contain any frayed wiring.
9. Turn space heaters off when leaving the room or going to bed
10. Always blow candles out. And never use a candle on a Christmas tree. Very
few things burn faster.
 As you can see, many methods of fire prevention cost little money and or
just minutes of your time.Whenever a fire damage claim is filed, whether it’s
home insurance or business insurance, the total monetary damage adds up fast.
Fires cause both direct and indirect (e.g. a couch in a separate room has to be
thrown away due to smoke damage) losses. Therefore, not only will you
experience short-term financial and emotional stress from a fire, the long-term
impacts on the amount you pay for insurance can really add up.

Describe about Firefighting equipment and extinguishing agents used in

Industries.
1. Classification of fire with eg :
The fire is class classified into 4 types
Class A fire: Fire in ordinary combustible materials, such as word, cloth , paper,
rubber & plastics.
Class B Fire: Fire in combustible liquids, gases and greaks Industrial examples
oil , hydrocarbon gases and vapours points and lubricating oil.
Class C fire: Fire involving live electrical equipment such as. Transformers,
switch gears, power cables etc.
Class D fire: Fire in combustible metal such as Mg, Naik etc.
Various materials used in fire extinguishers:
Material & Action to contact fire
a) water-For class A only
b) Co2-For class B and A
c) In organic chemicals, (Borax, sodium, Bicarbonate)-For class B and C
cooling action to stop fire
d) Dry powder (ABC powder, Monnex Powder)-For class D and fire involving
metal like Na, K, mg
e) Foam proteins is fluro protein-For class B fire. Fire is stopped by foming a
cooling Blanket overfire.
Fire Fighting equipment used in fire accident:
The firefighting equipment classified into 2 categories.
1. Manual fire fighting
2. Automatic
a) Manual firefighting equipment:
● Hand appliances like buckets and Blankets.
● Portable fire extinguishers with various extinguishing agents.
● Hose-reels with jet or spray Nozzles.
● Foam making equipment
● Major hose (38-70 mm dia) with jet or spray Nozzles.
 ● Foam, dry powder, Co2 is Halon wheeled appliances
Eg: 90 kg troclay – mounted dry powder dispenser. Special appliances like
foam installation on the roof of storage tanks.
Types of Fire extinguishers:
a) Water extinguishers
b) Pressure for discharge is generated by mixing H2So4 with Na bicarbonate
solution.
a) Water extinguishers are three types,

(i) Soda acid type

(ii) Gas cartridge type
(iii) Stored pressure type

b) Pressure for discharge is generated by mixing H2So4 with Na bicarbonate

solution.
1. Na bicarbonate solution is the bulk of solution inside the extinguisher.
2. Acid is inside small glass capsule held in neck ring of the extinguisher.
3. During operation the glass capsule is fractured by striking the knob of the
extinguisher to produce co2 with water pressure.
4. The jet is directed at the base of the fire.

Explain about the safety considerations with regard to the high pressure
and high temperature operation:
High pressure operation:
Main Hazards of Pressure Equipment:
1. Impact from the blast of an explosive.
2. Impact from the release of High pressure steam, liquid or gases contained in
the equipment.
3. Impact from failed equipments parts.
4. Contact with released steam, liquid or gases.
5. Fire resulting from explosion or fire due to escape of flammable liquid or
gases.
Causes of Failures:
1. Inadequate design or material.
2. Defective manufacture
3. Poor installation
4. Corrosion or fatigue cracking
5. Improper operation
6. System error in operation
7. Malfunction of instrumentation
8. Inadequate repairs
9. Other factor such as weather..etc

Types of Pressure vessels and systems:

1. Boilers and steam heating systems
2. pressurized process plant and piping
3. compressed air systems (fixed and portable)
4. Pressure cookers, autoclaves and retorts
5. Heat exchangers and refrigeration plant
6. Valves, steam traps and filters
7. Pressure gauges and level indicators.
Protection System:
Relief Devices: The most common method of over pressure protection is
through the use of,
1. Safety relief valves
2. Rupture disc
3. Fusible plugs
Safety relief valves:
(i)Set pressure: The pressure at which the relief device begins to activate
ii) Maximum Allowable Working Pressure(MAWP):
It is the maximum gauge pressure permissible at the top of a vessel for a
designated temperature. This is sometimes called the design pressure.
iii) Operating pressure: The gauge pressure during normal service usually 10%
below the MAWP.
iv) Accumulation: The pressure increases over the maximum allowable working
pressure of a vessel during
the relief process. It is expressed as a percentage of MAWP.
v) Over pressure: The pressure increase in the vessel over the set pressure
during the relieving process.
Vacuum Relief / Rupture disc:
1. These devices will break and allow the vessel to keep it under positive
pressure.
2. This devices also used for relieving sudden excess pressure in the system.
Important safety rules to prevent high pressure hazards:
1. Pressure gauges like Bourdon type should be free of air inside the bourdon
tube. Too rapid rise of pressure of fall of pressure must be avoided.
2. Good earthing is essential.
3. Bursting of rupture disc, vessels cause sudden high temperature which may
ignite flammable gases. Sufficient venting height is necessary.
4. Direct fired vessels should not be emptied suddenly.
5. Two safety valves one operating at slightly lower pressure is advantageous in
very high pressure equipments.
6. Rupture discs however good should frequently checked and changed. They
get hardened and may fail to rupture when pressure exceeds normal operating
pressure.
7. High pressure equipments must be confined in special rooms having thick
walls or barricades. The high pressure gases must be quickly ventilated to top-
most point of buildings when any pressure release takes place.
8. Any leak developed may cause fire or explosion. Hence they must be
repaired quickly.
9. Welded equipments operated at low temperatures below 00C should be heat
treated to relieve locked up stresses.
10. Oils should never be used as lubricant when oxygen is compressed.
11. During installing, hydraulic testing at 1.5 times the working pressure should
be carried out.
12. Pressure joints should not be tightened under pressure.13.Safety valves and
rupture discs should be piped to discharge at a place where it can cause no
harm.
14. It is often advisable to have more than one person working in the high
pressure zone.
15.Gas storage systems must never be allowed to mix.
16. Sand dikes, sandy floor must be had surrounding the inflammable liquid
storage tanks.
The term pressure is taken to be any pressure above atmospheric pressure.
Application of high pressure in industries has become common feature.
Pressures upto 1000 atmospheres are now in large scale use in chemical
industries.
Uses of high pressure in industries are classified under the following heads.
1. Production or maintenance of a liquid phase. (eg) liquefaction of air, oxygen,
liquid phase cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons.
2. Storage of gases. Transportation and use of gases in high pressure cylinders.
3. Compaction of powers, briquettes, extrusions and related pressing operation
of solids.
4. Separation of liquids from solids.(eg) pressing of vegetable oils from seeds.
5. Increasing gas solubility in liquids.(eg) scrubbing of gases like CO, CO2 by
liquids.
6. Increase of chemical reaction rates. (eg) petroleum refining operations.
7. Shifting chemical equilibrium.(eg) synthesis of ammonia, methyl alcohol.

High pressure reaction vessels are called autoclaves. They permit storage and
reactions of gases and liquids or both. Autoclaves are operated only in places
such that nobody can be injured if something go wrong with the equipment. The
equipment is equipped with safety valves, pressure gauges, safety vent and
inspection holes well sealed during operation. Personnel concerned with the
operation should be familiar with the contents. Pressure and temperature at
which the equipment is operated and tested, maximum admissible pressure and
temperature, material of construction of the vessel and its working volume.
Gas cylinders are generally used for storing gases under pressure. These
cylinders should be distinguished clearly by coloured band or paints and name
of the gas clearly written. The pressure regulator is also painted in the same
colour. They are handled always vertically and stored in a cool place. The metal
cap is placed in position to prevent injury to the pin valve, When the cylinder is
not in use.
Cylinders with poisonous gases or flammable gases should be kept in
specified places and should be checked for any possible leaks with soap
solution. The cylinder should always be operated through the pressure regulator.
The valve should be opened gradually and slowly.
Important safety rules to prevent high pressure hazards:
1. Pressure gauges should be free of air inside the tube. The gauges should be
installed above eye level. They should not be allowed to corrode.
2. Flammable gases at high pressures on rubbing against the wall of metallic
pipes cause static electricity discharge. Good earthling is essential.
3. Direct fired vessels should not be emptied suddenly. They are cooled by the
fluid running in slow velocities.
4. Two safety valves should be provided with one of them operating at slightly
lower pressures.
5. Bursting of ruptured disc vessels cause sudden high temperatures and may
ignite flammable gases. Sufficient venting is necessary.
6. High pressure equipments should be confined in special rooms having thick
walls. The high pressure gases must be quickly ventilated to the topmost point
of the buildings when any pressure release takes place.
7. Any leak developed may cause explosion or fire. Hence they must be
repaired quickly by slow release of pressure first and then carry out repair
works.
8. Oils should never be used as lubricants when oxygen is stored.
9. Regulator inspection, hydraulic testing at 1.5 times the working pressure
should be carried out.
10. Too rapid rise in pressure should be avoided.
11. Joints should not be tightened under pressure.
12. All high pressure areas should be marked clearly and any unauthorized entry
should be prohibited.

ELECTRICAL EXPOSURE IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

What are electrical risk:
Electrical risks are risks of death, electric shock or other injury caused directly
or indirectly by electricity. The most common electrical risks and causes of
injury are:
• Electric shock causing injury or death. The electric shock may be
received by direct or indirect contact, tracking through or across a
medium, or by arcing. For example, electric shock may result from
indirect contact where a conductive part that is not normally energised
becomes energised due to a fault (e.g. metal toaster body, fence)
• Arcing, explosion or fire causing burns. The injuries are often suffered
because arcing or explosion or both occur when high fault currents are
present
• electric shock from ‘step-and-touch’ potentials
• Toxic gases causing illness or death. Burning and arcing associated with
electrical equipment may released

What is required to manage electrical risk:

A person conducting a business or undertaking must manage risks to health and

safety associated with electrical risks at the workplace.
In order to manage risk under the WHS Regulations, a duty holder must:
• Identify reasonably foreseeable hazards that could give rise to the risk
• Eliminate the risk, so far as is reasonably practicable
• If it is not reasonably practicable to eliminate the risk, minimise the risk so
far as is reasonably practicable by implementing control measures
• Maintain the implemented control measure so that it remains effective
Review, and if necessary revise, all risk control measures so as to maintain, so far as
is reasonably practicable, a work environment that is without risks to health and
safety.

Identify the hazards

Identifying hazards involves finding all of the tasks, situations and sequences
of events that could potentially cause harm.
• Hazards arising from electrical equipment or installations may arise from:
• The design, construction, installation, maintenance and testing of
electrical equipment or electrical installations
• Design change or modification
• Inadequate or inactive electrical protection
Where and how electrical equipment is used. Electrical equipment may be
subject to operating conditions that are likely to result in damage to the
equipment or a reduction in its expected life span. For example, equipment may
be at greater risk of damage if used outdoors or in a factory or workshop
environment.
• Electrical equipment being used in an area in which the atmosphere
presents a risk to health and safety from fire or explosion, for example
confined spaces
• Type of electrical equipment. For example, ‘plug in’ electrical equipment
that may be moved around from site to site, including extension leads, are
particularly liable to damage
• The age of electrical equipment and electrical installations
• Work carried out on or near electrical equipment or electrical
installations, including electric overhead lines or underground electric
services, for example work carried out in a confined space connected to
plant or services.
Exposure to high electromagnetic fields may also present a potential hazard
for workers with some medical conditions, for example pace makers. You
must inform workers and other persons at the workplace of any potential
electromagnetic hazards at the workplace that may affect a medical condition.
You must also manage risks to health and safety arising out of electromagnetic
hazards, including eliminating the risk so far as is reasonably practicable. If
that is not reasonably practicable you must minimize the risk so far as is
reasonably practicable.
 Potential electrical hazards may be identified in a number of different ways
including:
• Talking to workers and observing where and how electrical equipment
is used
• Regularly inspecting and testing electrical equipment and electrical
installations as appropriate
• Reading product labels and manufacturers’ instruction manuals
• Talking to manufacturers, suppliers, industry associations, and health
and safety specialists
• Reviewing incident reports.

The Risk Assessment Program

Assess the risks

• Risk assessment involves considering what could happen if someone is

exposed to a hazard (consequence) and the likelihood of it happening.
• For work on energised electrical equipment, the WHS Regulations
require that a risk assessment be prepared in writing by a competent
person.
The Risk Management Process
A risk assessment can help determine:
• The severity of an electrical risk
• Whether existing control measures are effective
• What action you should take to control an electrical risk
• How urgently the action needs to be taken.
To assess the risk associated with electrical hazards consider:
• What is the potential impact of the hazard? How severe could the
electrical hazard be? For example, direct contact causing
electrocution, fire or explosion causing serious burns or death.
• How many people are exposed to the hazard?
• How likely is the hazard to cause harm? Could it happen at any
time or would it be a rare event?
• How frequently are workers exposed to the hazard?
 Other factors that may affect consequence and likelihood include:
• The conditions under which the electrical equipment is used, for
example wet conditions outdoors or confined spaces
• Work practices and procedures, for example isolation, to carry out
maintenance
• The capability, skill and experience of relevant workers.

Control the risks

Once hazards have been identified and the risks assessed, appropriate
control measures must be put in place.
The ways of controlling risks are ranked from the highest level of
protection and reliability to the lowest. This ranking is known as the hierarchy
of risk control. You must work through this hierarchy to choose the control
that most effectively eliminates or minimises the risk in the circumstances, so
far as is reasonably practicable. This may involve a single control measure or a
combination of two or more different controls.
Elimination
The most effective control measure is to remove the hazard or hazardous
work practice. By designing-in or designing-out certain features, hazards may
be eliminated.
Substitution
Replacing a hazardous process or material with one that is less hazardous
will reduce the hazard, and hence the risk. For example, it may be reasonably
practicable to use extra-low voltage electrical equipment such as a battery-
operated tool rather than a tool that is plugged into mains electricity.
Isolation
Preventing workers from coming into contact with the source of an
electrical hazard will reduce the relevant risks.
Engineering Controls
Use engineering control measures to minimise the risk, for example
installing residual current devices to reduce the risk of receiving a fatal electric
shock.
Administrative Controls
 Administrative controls involve the use of safe work practices to control
the risk, for example establishing exclusion zones, use of permits and warning
signs.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE includes protective eyewear, insulated gloves, hard hats, aprons and
breathing protection. Most forms of PPE are not relevant to minimising
electrical risks in workplaces, except in relation to energised electrical work.
Administrative controls and PPE do nothing to change the hazard itself. They
rely on people behaving as expected and require a high level of supervision.
Exclusive reliance on administrative controls and PPE must only occur where
other measures are not reasonably practicable or as an interim control while
the preferred control measure is being implemented.
You should check that your chosen control measure does not introduce new
hazards.

Review the control measures

The controls that are put in place to protect health and safety must be
reviewed regularly to make sure they work effectively.
A person conducting a business or undertaking must review and as necessary
revise a control measure in the following circumstances:
when the control measure does not control the risk it was implemented to
control so far as is reasonably practicable
before a change at the workplace that is likely to give rise to a new or different
risk to health or safety that the measure may not effectively control
• if a new relevant hazard or risk is identified
• if the results of consultation indicate that a review is necessary
• If a health and safety representative requests a review.
 UNIT-II CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Give a brief account on explosive chemicals. (May/June 2006)

TNT
One of the most commonly known explosive chemicals is trinitrotoluene, or
TNT, is a yellow solid and was first produced as a dye in 1863. It doesn’t explode
spontaneously and is very easy and convenient to handle.

TATP
The chemical tri-cyclic acetone peroxide, TATP belongs to a group of
molecules named peroxides, which contain weak and unstable oxygen-oxygen
bonds, and that are not found in TNT. This means that TATP is a lot less stable and
more prone to spontaneously exploding. It is 80% as strong as TNT. A firm shock
or knock is enough to trigger an explosion.

RDX
RDX is “nitrogen explosive”, its explosive properties are due to the presence
of many nitrogen-nitrogen bonds, rather than oxygen. These bonds are extremely
unstable, since nitrogen atoms always want to come together to produce nitrogen
gas because the triple bond in nitrogen is very strong and stable. And the more
nitrogen-nitrogen bonds a molecules has, like RDX, typically the more explosive it
is.It is often mixed with other chemicals to produce different effects, such as
making it less sensitive and less likely to explode unexpectedly. It is also
commonly used in controlled demolition of buildings.

PETT- PENTAERYTHRITOL TETRANITRATE

One of the most powerful explosive chemicals known to us is PETN, which
contains nitro groups which are similar to that in TNT and the nitroglycerin in
dynamite. But the presence of more of these nitro groups means it explodes with
more power. However, despite its powerful explosions, it’s quite difficult to get
this chemical to detonate alone, and so it is usually used in combination with TNT
or RDX. PETN was used regularly in World War II, to create exploding-
bridgewire detonators that use electric currents for detonation. It is now also used
in the exploding-bridgewire detonators in nuclear weapons
Aziroazide azide
Among the least stable nitrogen-explosives is aziroazide azide which has 14
nitrogen atoms, with most of them bonded to each other in successive, unstable
nitrogen-nitrogen bonds – making them prone to explosion.

Effect of Toxic Chemicals Deatails:

What are “toxic hazards”? (Nov/Dec 2007)

(Or)
What are the harmful effects of chemicals? (Nov/Dec 2008)
(Or) .
Mention 8 dangerous and toxic chemicals. (Nov/Dec 2009)

a. Ethylene glycol
It has a moderate toxicity level, and can be metabolized into the more
dangerous oxalic acid. Ingestion of a large amount of ethylene glycol causes death,
knocking out organ systems systematically over the course of 72 hours. The
treatment is administration of grain ethanol, as the ethanol competes with ethylene
glycol for binding in body.

b. Sodium cyanide
A routine industrial reactant and binds to cytochrome oxidase, a protein in
the mitochondria, and stops the cells from using oxygen.

c. Strychnine

Commonly used as a pesticide to kill large unwanted pests like rodents and
birds and is easy to conceal.

d. Tabun
It is a nerve agent and is known for a fruity odor and can be sprayed as a
mist that causes convulsions and paralysis. Used in the development of deadlier
toxins like ricin and soman
e. VX
Used as a pesticide.
f. Batrachotoxin
The most potent non-peptide based poison known. The molecule is the most
potent nonpeptide poisons known to man, with a lethal dose of 100 micrograms for
a 150pound person. The molecule kills by permanently preventing neurons from
communicating with muscles, and treatments include tetrododoxin from puffer fish
and the other uses sagitoxin from red tide.
g. Sulfur trioxide
Sulfur trioxide is a molecule with the formula SO3. It is the precursor to acid
rain. It reacts violently with water, giving off clouds of highly corrosive sulfuric
acid. This chemical is widely used in certain industrial settings.

h. Dimethyl Mercury
Mercury is toxic in all of its forms, but this organometallic compound is
lethal as it is completely undetectable during inhalation, or crossing into the body
through intact skin. There may be no indication of exposure until you fall over
dead from the neurotoxic effects.

Prevention and control Methods of occupational health safety and hygiene

hazards:

Elimination
Elimination of a specific hazard or hazardous work process, or preventing it
from entering the work place, is the most effective method of control.
Eliminate hazard at the developmental stage
It is important to consider workers health and safety when work processes
are still in the planning stages. For example, when purchasing a machine, safety
should be the first concern but not cost. Machines should confirm to national safety
standards – they should be designed with the correct guard on them to eliminate
the danger of a worker getting caught in the machine while using it. Machines that
are not produced with the proper guards on them may cost less to purchase, but
cost more in terms of accidents, loss of production, compensation, etc.
Unfortunately, many machines that do not meet safety standards are export to
developing countries, causing workers to pay the price with accident, hearing loss
from noise, etc.
Substitution
 Occupational Health Safety and Hygiene ,If a practically dangerous
chemical or work processes cannot be completely eliminated, then it should be
applied with a safer substitute. This could involve, for example, using less
hazardous pesticides such as those based on pyrethrins (prepared from natural
product), which are considered to be less toxic to humans than some other
pesticides. This particular substitution is practiced in some countries because the
substitute chemicals do not leave residues on food and therefore reduced long-term
costs. The substituted materials may cost more to buy and may cause resistance in
insects. So you can see there are many factors to be considered when choosing a
chemical or chemical substitute.
It is not easy to find safer chemical substitute (in fact, no chemical should be
considered completely safe). It is important to review current reports every year on
the chemicals used in the work places so that safe chemicals could be considered
for the future. When looking for safer substitute a less volatile chemical is selected
of a highly volatile one or solid, instead of liquid. Other examples of substitutions
include using:
• Less hazardous instead of toxic ones.
• Detergent plus water cleaning solutions instead of organic solvents
• Freon instead of methyl bromide chloride as a refrigerant
• Leadless glazes in the ceramics industry
• Leadless pigments in paints
• Synthetic grinding wheels (such as aluminum oxide, silicon carboide)
instead of sandstone wheels.

Engineering controls
There are number of common control measures which are calledengineering
control. This includes enclosure, isolation and ventilation.

Enclosure
If a hazardous substance or work process cannot be eliminated or
substituted, then enclosing it so workers are not exposed to the hazard is the next
best method of control. Many hazards can be controlled by partially or totally
enclosing the work process. Highly toxic materials that can be released into the air
should be totallyenclosed, usually by using a mechanical handling device or a
closedglove system that can be operated from the outside.The plant can be
enclosed and workers could perform their dutiesfrom a control room. Enclosing
hazards can minimize possible exposure, but does not eliminate them. For
example, maintenance workers who serve or repair these enclosed areas can be still
exposed. To prevent maintenance workers from being exposed, other protective
measures (such as protective clothing, respirators, proper training, medical
surveillance, etc) must be used as well as safety procedures .Machine guarding is
another form of enclosure that prevent workers coming into contact with dangerous
parts of machines. Workers should receive training on how to use guarded
machine.

Isolation
Isolation can be an effective method of control if a hazardous material can
be moved to a part of work place where fewer people will be exposed, or if a job
can be changed to a shift when fewer people are exposed (such as weekend or
midnight shift). The worker can also be isolated from hazardous job for example
by working in an air-conditioned

Whether it is the job or the worker that is isolated access to the dangerous work
areas should be limited to few people as much as possible to reduce exposures. It is
also important to limit the length of time and the amount substance (s) to which
workers are exposed if they must work in hazardous area. For example, dust
producing work should be isolated from other work areas to prevent other worker
from being exposed. At the same time, workers in the dusty areas must be
protected and restricted to only a short time working in those areas. Remember:
isolating the work process or the worker does not eliminate the hazard which
means workers can still be exposed.

Ventilation
Ventilation in work place can be used for two reasons:
1) To prevent the work environment from being too hot, cold, dry or humid.
2) To prevent contaminates in the air from getting into the area where workers
breathe, Generally there are two categories of ventilation.

1. Local Exhaust Ventilation

Local exhaust Ventilation is considered the classical method of control for
dust, fumes, vapors and other airborne toxic or gaseous pollutants. The ventilation
system captures or contains the contaminants at their source before they escape
into the workroom environment. A typical system contains one or more hoods,
ducts, air cleaners and a fan. Such systems remove but do not dilute like general
exhaust, ventilation although removal may not be 100 percent Occupational Health
Safety and Hygien. This method is very useful especially the chemical or
contaminants that cannot be controlled by substitution, changing the process,
isolation or enclosure. One other major advantage in such system requires less
airflow than dilution ventilation system.

2 General or dilution Ventilation

This adds or removes air from work place to keep the concentrations of an
air contaminant below hazardous level. This system uses natural convection
through open doors or windows, roof ventilators and chimneys, or air movement
produced by fans or blowers. It is recommended to use the general ventilation
system if the following criteria are fulfilled.
1. Small quantities of air contaminants released into the workroom at fairly
uniform rate.
2. Sufficient distance between the worker and the contaminant Occupational
Health Safety and Hygiene to allow sufficient air movement to dilute the
contaminant to a safe level.
3. Only contaminant of low toxicity are being used
4. No need to collect or filter the contaminants before exhaust air is discharged into
the community environment.
5. No corrosion or other damage to equipment from the diluted contaminants in the
workroom area.
Administrative Controls
Administrative controls limits the amounts of time workers spend at hazardous job
locations. Administrative control can be used together with other methods of
control to reduce exposure to hazardous. Some examples of administrative controls
include:
• Changing work schedules, for example two people may be able to work 4
hours each at a job instead of one person working for 8hours at that job.
• Giving workers longer rest periods or shorter work shits to reduce exposure
time
• Moving a hazardous work process so that few people will be exposed
• Changing a work process to a shift when fewer people are working
Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is the least effective method of
Occupational Health Safety and Hygiene 59controlling occupational hazards and
should be used only when other methods cannot control hazards sufficiently. PPE
can be uncomfortable, may decrease work performance and may create new health
and safety hazards. For example, ear protectors can prevent hearing warning
signals, respirators can make it harder to breathe, earplugs may cause infection and
leaky gloves can trap and spread hazardous chemicals against the skin.
Personal protective equipment includes:
1. Safety goggles
2. Face shield and gloves
3. Helmet
2. Dust masks
3. Gloves
4. Protective suits
5. Safety shoes
Plant Sanitation
Workers health, physical and psychological development are associated with
the working and the external environment. The general sanitation of the industry
and the healthful conditions are necessary for conserving health or to ensure the
protection of occupational health safety and hygiene and measuring or providing
the efficiency of the work place. Therefore, an industrial plant should satisfy the
following conditions and facilities.
• The provision of safe potable and adequate water supply.
• Proper collection and disposal of liquid waste.
• The provision of adequate sanitary facilities and other personal services.
• General cleanness and maintenance of industrial establishment of protecting
good housekeeping of the plant.
• Maintaining good ventilation and proper lighting systems.
Water Supply
The provision of safe and adequate water supply is the most important
element in industrial settings.
Water can be used for the following purposes in an industrial plant:
• It may be used as raw material in the production process.
• Used for cooling purposes in the machines
 • Used for cleaning and washing of equipment
• Used by employees to keep their personal hygiene
• Serve as a means for waste disposal in water carrying systems
• For drinking and cooling purposes

Sanitary Facilities
Excreta disposal facilities::
Observation of many plants or industries indicated that latrines and toilets
used by the workers are of a primitive and unsanitary nature or in some cases there
are none at all. In some countries the public health services and labor legislation
lay down regulations concerning sanitary facilities to be provided including the
number for male and female workers.

Washing Facilities:
Adequate, suitable and conveniently accessible washing facilities should be
provided for employees. There should be a supply of running water; in addition
soap and clean towels should be supplied and common towels should be
discouraged as much as possible.
The recommended standards:-
• 1 wash basin for every 15 workers for clean work
• 1 wash basin for every 10 workers doing dirty work
• 1 wash basin for every 5 workers handling poisonous substances or engaged
in handling food stuffs

Refuse disposal
Proper solid waste management starting from the source to generation to the
final disposal site is highly required in industries where different kinds of wastes
are generated. Industrial solid wastes may contain hazardous materials that
required special precaution and procedures. But combustible solid wastes except
poisonous and flammable or explosive materials can be handled in the convenient
manner.
Liquid waste collection and disposal
Industrial liquid wastes if not properly disposed could pollute rivers, lakes,
environment and drinking water supply. Toxic liquid wastes should be diluted,
neutralized and filtered, settled or otherwise chemically treated before being
discharged into stream or river or on open land. Under no circumstances should be
toxic, corrosive, flammable or volatile materials be discharged into public drainage
system.
7. Illumination/lighting
This is the light given by a candle, which has been agreed upon so that it is
approximately uniform. The intensity of illumination is measured by the foot-
candle. This is the illumination given by a source of one candle to an area one foot
Away from the source. For checking illumination, the foot-candle meter is very
useful. Inspectors in determining and measuring illumination at the factory workers
bench can use it. The window glass area of the workroom should be (usually) 15-
20 %of the floor area.
Advantage of good lighting
• Safeguards eye sight
• Reduce accident and hazards
• Saves the workers time and cuts down the amount of spoiled work and therefore
it is economically profitable.

Good Housekeeping and Maintenance

This includes cleanliness of the work place, waste disposal and adequate
washing, adequate toilet, clean eating facilities, and independent cloakroom. Good
housekeeping play a key role in the control of occupational health hazard.
Immediate cleanup of any accidental spill of toxic materials is a very important
control measure. A regular clean up schedule preferably using vacuum cleaners or
using wet methods when vacuum is not available is an effective method of
removing dirt that is probably laden with harmful substances form the work area.
Good housekeeping is essential where solvents are store, handled and used. It is
also very important to provide a cleaning and maintenance schedule to any work
place so that harmful dust may not accumulate on ceilings, pipes, and other objects
within the work area.
How to handle the dangerous and toxic chemicals – explain it with example.

Toxic Chemicals and Toxicity :

Toxic chemical are poisonous to human system which are inhaled or some
times absorbed through skin affecting nervous and circulatory system. Some
examples are TEL, H2 S and NH3.
 The potential hazard will depend upon the inherent toxicity of material and
the duration of exposure.Toxicity is measured by tests on animals, it is expressed
as the lethal dose at which 50% of the test animals are killed.LD 50 is lethal dose
fifty value.

Some LD50 value :

Ms/kg

KCN 10
TEL 35
DDT 150
Table salt 3000

LD50 gives only acute effects.

Handling of Toxic Chemicals :

a. TEL is used for gasoline blending. It is most toxic affecting nervous

and circulatory system.H2S is also extremely to prevent insulation
operators. Its TLV is 20 PPM as minimum allowable concentration.
NH3 :

Irritates skin, throat lungs and eyes. It can causes blindness this gas is fatal
on strong inhalation.Also NH3 is flammable LEL to HELO 15 to 28%.

Control of Toxic Material :

a. Equipment or piping should have welded joints in preference to flanges.

Ionizing and Non-Ionizing Radiation :

Radiation-
Energy emitted from a body or source that is transmitted through an
intervening medium or space and absorbed by another body. Transmission is in the
form of waves but wave/particle duality under quantum physics. Radiation is
classified as being either non-ionizing or ionizing. Non-ionizing radiation is
longer wavelength/lower frequency lower energy. While ionizing radiation is short
wavelength/high frequency higher energy.
Ionizing Radiation
It has sufficient energy to produce ions in matter at the molecular level. If
that matter is a human significant damage can result including damage to DNA and
denaturation of proteins. This is not to say that non-ionizing radiation can’t cause
injury to humans but the injury is generally limited to thermal damage i.e. burns.

There is a great deal of information on the above chart. One of the most interesting
things is that the visible spectrum is essentially the divide between ionizing and
non-ionizing radiation. This makes sense clinically when we think of UV radiation
causing skin cancer.

Types of Non-Ionizing Radiation and Their Clinical Effects-

Referring again to the chart above we can see that Non-Ionizing radiation
comes in the forms of:
1. ELF (extremely low frequency)
2. Radio Frequencies
3. Microwave Frequencies
4. Lasers
5. Infrared
6. Visible Spectrum
7. Ultraviolet
This list is in order of lowest to highest frequency.
ELF
• Power plant or line workers
• Inconclusive evidence of leukemia link

Radiofrequency and Microwave Frequency Exposures:

Occupational Exposures:
• Radar and communications equipment, industrial and commercial
ovens
Other Exposures
• Cell Phones
Clinical Effects-
There is a great deal of controversy regarding potential cancer risks,
particularly with cell phone use. We know that exposure to radio and microwave
frequency sources can cause burns and clinically this is what you are most likely to
see.
LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
Beams of coherent light with single wavelength and frequency ,May be in
the IR, Visible or UV spectrum,Eye is most sensitive to injury from LASER
Four classes by risk of injury:
1. No damage
2. Low chance for damage due to blink
3. Cause injury with direct exposure, Cause injury even when reflected
4. Requires controls to prevent injury
5. Infrared Penetrates superficial layers of the skin, causes thermal injury, potential
for damage to the cornea, iris, lens of the eye Welding, glassmaking, heating and
dehydrating processes
6. Visible Spectrum-400 to 750nm wavelengths.ROYGBIV (Red, Orange, Yellow,
Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet)Possibility of retinal injury from 400-500 nm blue
frequencies
8. Ultraviolet Radiation-200nm to 400 nm
Bridge between Non-Ionizing and Ionizing Radiation
Three regions
• UV-A 315nm-400nm
• UV-B 280nm-315nm
• UV-C ‹280nm
A and B bands produce biologic effects on the skin and the eyes. Photokeratitis,
conjunctivitis, sunburn, photosensitization reactions, skin cancers Majority of
exposures are to outdoor workers, other exposures include welders, people
who work in drying and curing industries and laboratory, kitchen or medical
industries exposed to germicidal ultraviolet
Types of Ionizing Radiation and Their Clinical Effects-
Ionizing radiation is emitted from radioactive atomic structures as high energy
electromagnetic waves (gamma and x-rays) or as actual particles (alpha, beta,
neutrons)
1. Gamma Rays
2. X-Rays
3. Alpha Particles
4. Beta Particles
5. Neutrons
Penetration of Radiation
Gamma Rays, Xrays and Neutrons Penetrate Body Easily, Need lead to
shield for gamma and x-rays, massive shielding for Neutrons Alpha and Beta
Particles are essentially blocked by the skin with Beta Particles penetrating more
deeply with the potential to cause burns. Alpha particles can be stopped by paper,
Beta by plastic Alpha Particles can cause significant damage if taken internally, see
former Soviet Spy
Radiation Measurement
Roentgen (R)-
Describes a radiation field in terms of the amount of ionizations produced in
air, not in common use today.Rad- Conventional unit of absorbed dose of radiation
per unit mass.
Gray (Gy) – 1 Gray=100 Rads
Rem- Absorption measure to whole body or specified organ, takes into account
radiation quality, Rem=rads x quality factor, each type of ionizing radiation has a
different quality factor
Sievert (Sv)- 1SV=100 Rem
Ionizing Radiation Exposure Limits
Occupational- National Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP) annual
exposure 5 rem.Background Exposure for a US resident is 360mrem
Common Occupational Exposures-
• Medicine- Radionuclides, X-Ray
• Nuclear Power Industry 13
• Document Dating
• Food Preservation
• Airplane/Space Flight
• Transportation of Radioactive Material
Four Ionizing Radiation Exposure Categories-
1. Radioactive Contaminates on Intact Skin
2. Local Radiation Injuries
3. Whole Body Exposure
4. Internal Deposition
Acute Radiation Syndrome
Over 100 rad in a single exposure or within 24-48 hours, progressive predictable
series of signs and symptoms developing over a period ranging between a few
hours to several weeks Clinical response and prognosis generally depends on
damage sustained by hematopoietic system.
Lethal dose for 50% of healthy humans is 350 to 450 rad (3.5 to 4.5 Gy)

Prodromal Period- 1 to 6 hours after exposure,Anorexia, Nausea, Vomiting,

Diarrhea,Initial Symptoms subside after a few hours to two days.Ominous signs
include diarrhea, skin erythema, lymphocyte count less than 1000, short or no
latent period.
Latent Period- Variable in duration hours to 30 days
Manifest Illness
Fatigue, GI symptoms, desquamation, deep ulcerations, bone marrow
depression, Stomatitis, hemorrhagic phenomena
Death or Recovery
CBC normalizes in six months to a few years, Clinical recovery within 6
months, persistent fatigue
Long Term Effects
• Chronic Radiodermatitis
• Cataracts
• Sterility
• Prenatal Effects
• Cancer
• Genetic Effects
• Shortened Life Span
Management of Radiation Exposures
1. Radioactive Contaminates on Intact Skin- Wash skin, do not break skin
2. Local Radiation Injuries- Estimate whole body exposure, wound care, nutritional
support, analgesics, infection control, consultation.
3. Whole Body Exposure 100 rem or less- Complete history for record
Advise regarding potential late effects (cancers) Follow as outpatient, counseling
100 rem to 200 rem Complete exposure history radiation source and strength
Consider Lab testing CBC with diff 200 rem to 300 rem.Hospitalize 300 rem or
more Transfer to Tertiary Care Center Supralethal exposure of more than 5000 rem
Supportive care at any hospital will do will die in a few days.
4. Internal Deposition
Reduce Absorption- Binding Agents, Antacids
Expedite Elimination- Cathartics
Organ Saturation- Potassium Iodide
Displacement- Calcium, Iodide Chelation
Industrial Toxicology
Definition
Industrial toxicology is the study of the harmful effects on humans by
chemicals used in the workplace, the products produced by companies, and the
wastes created in manufacturing.
Routes of Exposure
There are four routes by which a substance can enter the body: inhalation, skin (or
eye) absorption, ingestion, and injection.

• Inhalation: For most chemicals in the form of vapors, gases, mists, or

particulates, inhalation is the major route of entry. Once inhaled, chemicals are
either exhaled or deposited in the respiratory tract. If deposited, damage can occur
through direct contact with tissue or the chemical may diffuse into the blood
through the lung-blood interface. Upon contact with tissue in the upper respiratory
tract or lungs, chemicals may cause health effects ranging from simple irritation to
severe tissue destruction. Substances absorbed into the blood are circulated and
distributed to organs that have an affinity for Environmental Health and Safety ·

• Skin (or eye) absorption: Skin (dermal) contact can cause effects that are
relatively innocuous such as redness or mild dermatitis; more severe effects
include destruction of skin tissue or other debilitating conditions. Many chemicals
can also cross the skin barrier and be absorbed into the blood system. Once
absorbed, they may produce systemic damage to internal organs. The eyes are
particularly sensitive to chemicals. Even a short exposure can cause severe effects
to the eyes or the substance can be absorbed through the eyes and be transported to
other parts of the body causing harmful effects.

• Ingestion: Chemicals that inadvertently get into the mouth and are swallowed do
not generally harm the gastrointestinal tract itself unless they are irritating or
corrosive. Chemicals that are insoluble in the fluids of the gastrointestinal tract
(stomach, small, and large intestines) are generally excreted. Others that are
soluble are absorbed through the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. They are then
transported by the blood to internal organs where they can cause damage.

• Injection: Substances may enter the body if the skin is penetrated or punctured
by contaminated objects. Effects can then occur as the substance is circulated in
the blood and deposited in the target organs.
The Dose-Response Relationship
In general, a given amount of a toxic agent will elicit a given type and intensity of
response. The dose-response relationship is a fundamental concept in toxicology
and the basis for measurement of the relative harmfulness of a chemical. A dose-
response relationship is defined as a consistent mathematical and biologically
plausible correlation between the number of individuals responding and a given
dose over an exposure period.

Dose Terms. In toxicology, studies of the dose given to test organisms is

expressed in terms of the quantity administered
• Quantity per unit mass (or weight).
Usually expressed as milligram per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg).
• Quantity per unit area of skin surface.
Usually expressed as milligram per square centimeter (mg/cm2).
• Volume of substance in air per unit volume of air. Usually given as microliters
of vapor or gas per liter of air by volume (ppm). Particulates and gases are also
given as milligrams of material per cubic meter of air (mg/m3).
For example,5 mg/kg/3 D is 5 milligrams of chemical per kilogram of the
subject's body weight administered over a period of three days. For dose to be
meaningful it must be related to the effect it causes.
For example, 50 mg/kg of chemical "X" administered orally to female rats
has no relevancy unless the effect of the dose, say sterility in all test subjects, is
reported.
Dose-Response Curves. A dose-response relationship is represented by a dose-
response curve. The curve is generated by plotting the dose of the chemical versus
the response in the test population. There are a number of ways to present this data.
One of the more common methods for presenting the dose-response curve is shown
in Graph 1.
In this example, the dose is
expressed in "mg/kg" and depicted on the "x" axis. The response is expressed as a
"cumulative percentage" of animals in the test population that exhibits the specific
health effect under study. Values for "cumulative percentage" are indicated on the
"y" axis of the graph. As the dose increases, the percentage of the affected
population increases. Dose-response curves provide valuable information
regarding the potency of the compound. The curves are also used to determine the
dose-response terms that are discussed in the following
Dose-Response Terms.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) defines
a number of general dose-response terms in the "Registry of Toxic Substances"

• Toxic dose low (TDLO):

The lowest dose of a substance introduced by any route, other than
inhalation, over any given period of time, and reported to produce any toxic effect
in humans or to produce tumorigenic or reproductive effects in animals.
• Toxic concentration low (TCLO):
The lowest concentration of a substance in air to which humans or animals
have been exposed for any given period of time that has produced any toxic effect
in humans or produced tumorigenic or reproductive effects in animals.
• Lethal dose low (LDLO):
The lowest dose, other than LD50 of a substance introduced by any route,
other than inhalation, which has been reported to have caused death in humans
or animals.
• Lethal dose fifty (LD50):
A calculated dose of a substance which is expected to cause the death of 50
percent of an entire defined experimental animal population. It is determined from
the exposure to the substance by any route other than inhalation.
• Lethal concentration low (LCLO):
The lowest concentration of a substance in air, other than LC50, which has
been reported to cause death in humans or animals.
• Lethal concentration fifty (LC50):
 A calculated concentration of a substance in air, exposure to which for a
specified length of time is expected to cause the death of 50 percent of an entire
defined experimental animal population.

Health Effects

Human health effects caused by exposure to toxic substances fall into two
categories: short-term and long-term effects. Short-term effects (or acute effects)
have a relatively quick onset (usually minutes to days) after brief exposures to
relatively high concentrations of material (acute exposures). The effect may be
local or systemic. Local effects occur at the site of contact between the toxicant
and the body. This site is usually the skin or eyes, but includes the lungs if irritants
are inhaled or the gastrointestinal tract if corrosives are ingested. Systemic effects
are those that occur if the toxicant has been absorbed into the body from its initial
contact point, transported to other parts of the body, and cause adverse effects in
susceptible organs. Many chemicals can cause both local and systemic effects.

Long-term effects (or chronic effects) are those with a long period of time (years)
between exposure and injury. These effects may occur after apparent recovery
from acute exposure or as a result of repeated exposures to low concentrations of
materials over a period of years (chronic exposure).

Health effects manifested from acute or chronic exposure are dependent upon the
chemical involved and the organ it effects. Most chemicals do not exhibit the same
degree of toxicity for all organs. Usually the major effects of a chemical will be
expressed in one or two organs. These organs are known as target organs which are
more sensitive to that particular chemical than other organs. The organs of the
body and examples of effects due to chemical exposures are listed below.

Respiratory Tract.
The respiratory tract is the only organ system with vital functional elements
in constant, direct contact-with the environment. The lung also has the largest
exposed surface area of any organ on a surface area of 70 to 100 square meters
versus 2 square meters for the skin and 10 square meters for the digestive system.

Skin.
The skin is, in terms of weight, the largest single organ of the body. It
provides a barrier between the environment and other organs (except the lungs and
eyes) and is a defense against many chemicals.
The skin consists of the epidermis (outer layer) and the dermis (inner layer).
In the dermis are sweat glands and ducts, sebaceous glands, connective tissue, fat,
hair follicles, and blood vessels. Hair follicles and sweat glands penetrate both the
epidermis and dermis. Chemicals can penetrate through the sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, or hair follicles.

The ability of skin to absorb foreign substances depends on the properties and
health of the skin and the chemical properties of the substances. Absorption is
enhanced by:
• Breaking top layer of skin by abrasions or cuts.
• Increasing hydration of skin.
• Increasing temperature of skin which causes sweat cells to open up and secrete
sweat, which can dissolve solids.
• Increasing blood flow to skin.
• Increasing concentrations of the substance.
• Increasing contact time of the chemical on the skin.
• Increasing the surface area of affected skin.
• Altering the skin's normal pH of 5.
• Decreasing particle size of substance.
• Adding agents which will damage skin and render it more susceptible to
penetration.
• Adding surface-active agents or organic chemicals. DMSO, for example, can act
as a carrier of the substance.
• Inducing ion movement by an electrical charge.

Eyes. The eyes are affected by the same chemicals that affect skin, but the eyes are
much more sensitive. Many materials can damage the eyes by direct contact:

• Acids: Damage to the eye by acids depends on pH and the protein-combining

capacity of the acid. Unlike alkali burns, the acid burns that are apparent during the
first few hours are a good indicator of the long-term damage to be expected. Some
acids and their properties are:
• sulfuric acid. In addition to its acid properties, it simultaneously removes water
and generates heat.
• picric acid and tannic acid. No difference in damage they produce in entire range
of acidic pHs.
• hydrochloric acid. Severe damage at pH 1, but no effect at pH 3 or greater.
• Alkalies: Damage that appears mild initially but can later lead to ulceration,
perforation, and clouding of the cornea or lens. The pH and length of exposure
have more bearing on the amount of damage than the type of alkali. Some problem
alkalies are:
• sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and potassium hydroxide.
• ammonia penetrates eye tissues more readily than any other alkali; calcium-oxide
(lime) forms clumps when it contacts eye tissue and is very hard to remove.
• Organic solvents: Organic solvents (for example, ethanol, toluene, and acetone)
dissolve fats, cause pain, and dull the cornea. Damage is usually slight unless the
solvent is hot.
• Lacrimators: Lacrimators cause instant tearing at low concentrations. They are
distinguished from other eye irritants (hydrogen chloride and ammonia) because
they induce an instant reaction without damaging tissues. At very high
concentrations lacrimators can cause chemical burns and destroy corneal material.
Examples are chloroacetophenone (tear gas) and mace.

Liver.
Liver injury induced by chemicals has been known as a toxicologic problem
for hundreds of years. It was recognized early that liver injury is not a simple
entity, but that the type of lesion depends on the chemical and duration of
exposure. Three types of response to hepatotoxins can be identified:

• Acute. Cell death from:

• carbon tetrachloride: Solvent, degreaser.
• chloroform: Used in refrigerant manufacture solvent.
• trichloroethylene: Solvent, dry cleaning fluid, degreaser.
• tetrachloroethane: Paint and varnish remover, dry cleaning fluid.
• bromobenzene: Solvent, motor oil additive.
• tannic acid: Ink manufacture, beer and wine clarifier.
• kepone: Pesticide.

• Chronic. Examples include:

• cirrhosis: a progressive fibrotic disease of the liver associated with liver
dysfunction and jaundice. Among agents implicated in cirrhosis cases are carbon
tetrachloride, alcohol, and aflatoxin.
• carcinomas: malignant, growing tissue. For example, vinyl chloride (used in
polyvinyl chloride production) and arsenic (used in pesticides and paints) are
associated with cancers.
 UNIT III -ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL

Explain the assessment, maintenance and replacement of PPE? (Nov/Dec

2012)
'Personal Protective Equipment' means all equipment (including, if required
clothing affording protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn by
a person at work to protect him from one or more risks to his health and safety.
Before selection of PPE an assessment must be undertaken to identify those risks
for which it is required.
a. Assessment of Personal Protective Equipment

When assessing the suitability of PPE for the particular risks involved and
for the circumstances of its use, the following should be taken into consideration:

• The activity involved and the risks for which protection is needed. For
example, safety glasses may be required to protect against the risk of both
chemical splashes and projectiles.
• The physical effort required to do the job, how long the PPE has to be worn,
and the requirements for visibility and communication
• The environment and surrounding conditions, for example the weather if
working outside, temperature, noise, ventilation etc
• The health of the person wearing the PPE. PPE made of certain materials
should not be issued to workers if they are known to cause allergies, for
example latex gloves.
• where more than one item of PPE is required, they are compatible and
continue to offer adequate protection against the risks in question
• information from the PPE manufacturers/suppliers

b. Maintenance/Replacement of Personal Protective Equipment

Where PPE has been issued, this shall be maintained in an efficient state,
efficient working order and in good repair and the member of staff should also
receive appropriate information and training on its’ maintenance, including
ensuring that PPE is examined before issue and use

.
 • Information on maintenance and inspection of the PPE used should be
gained from the manufacturer or supplier and these instructions should be
followed.
• Periodic inspection of PPE should be undertaken to ensure maintenance
schedules are being adhered to.

c. Accommodation for Personal Protective Equipment

• Arrangements should be made so that PPE can be safely stored when not in
use (e.g. lockers, spectacle cases, clothes pegs etc) and the storage facility
shall be sufficient to protect PPE from contamination.
• Usable PPE should be clearly segregated from PPE awaiting repair or
maintenance and any PPE which has become contaminated during use must
be stored separately from ordinary clothing.
• A notification process should be in place for damaged or contaminated
equipment and an identified process for the cleaning of equipment such as
overalls.

d. Information, Instruction and Training

Any member of staff requiring to wear PPE shall be provided with information,
instruction and training which is appropriate to the PPE being worn. A program of
training for each item of PPE to include the followingOperation, adjustment and
limitations of the PPE

• Storage of PPE
• Any factors which may affect the performance of the PPE
• Maintenance schedules
• Identifying defects
The training shall be repeated as appropriate and all records of training/retraining
shall be kept.
e. Use of Personal Protective Equipment
Where Personal Protective Equipment has been issued, steps shall be taken
to ensure it is properly used. This can be achieved by undertaking periodic
inspections to monitor the proper use of PPE.

f. Reporting Loss or Defect

 The organization should ensure that arrangements are in place to allow staff
to report lost or defective PPE and that the PPE is issued with a replacement or the
defect repaired.

Environmental pollution control:

Environmental Pollution control could be analyzed on the pattern of process

control. A closer scrutiny would reveal the analogy between process control &
Environmental Pollution control.
1. The first question clearly falls within the jurisdiction of medical
scientist who could very well identify the main or potential pollutants,
viz, solids liquid and gases which are undesirable to human beings
should be controlled.
2. In order to determine how for to control it is essential to know the
desired limit to tolerance limit.
3. How fast to control these pollutant really depends upon the degree of
undesirable effects and hazards associated with the pollutant.
4. The Question of pollution control really falls in the jurisdiction of
technologist and microbiologist due to increasing order of micro
organism.

The pollution control methods depends on the type of pollutants in effluents

of various chemical complexes, automobile exhausts, boiler effluents etc. Basically
these are controlled at the source it say by the sue of several methods such as
change in raw material , operational changes, modification of process equipments
and using of suitable catalyst to convert pollutant into the products.

There are two basic principles involved in pollution abatement.

1. Dilute and disperse

2. Concentrate and contain

List the summary of industrial wastes, their origin, character and treatment.

S.No. Industry Origin of major Major Major treatment

 producing wastes characteristics and disposal
wastes

Neutralisation
Highly alkaline, chemical
Textiles
coloured, high precipitation
Cooking of fibers,
1. BOD and temp, biological
desizing of fabrics
high suspended treatment, aeration
solids and trickling
filtration

High total solids

Un hairing, Equalisation
hardness, salt
Leather soaking deliming sedimentation and
2. sulfides, chromium
goods and bating of Biological
PH precipitated
hides treatment
lime and BOD

High turbidity Screening

Laundry Washing of
3. alkaline and chemical
trades fabrics
organic solids precipitation

Trimming, cutting High in suspended Screening,

Canned juicing and solids colloidal and lagooning soaking
4.
goods blanching of fruits dissolved organic absorption or
and vegetables matters spray irrigation

Biological
Dilution of whole High in dissolved
treatment by
Dairy milk, separated organic matter
5. trickling
products milk, butter milk mainly protein, fat
filteration,
and ghee and lactose
activated sludge

Brewed Steeping and Recovery

High in dissolved
and pressing grain, concentration and
6. organic solids,
Distilled residue from evaporation
containing nitrogen
beverages distillation of trickling filter
or their fermented
alcohol
 condensated from products
stillage
evaporation

Industrial Health Hazard:

Hazardous waste sites pose a multitude of health and safety concerns, any
one of which could result in serious injury or death. These hazards are a function
of the nature of the site as well as a consequence of the work being performed.
They include:
• Chemical exposure.
• Oxygen deficiency.
• Fires And Explosions D
• Biologic hazards.
• Electrical hazards.
• Heat stress.
• Cold exposure.
• Noise.

Chemical exposure.
Chemical exposures are generally divided into two categories: acute and
chronic. Symptoms resulting from acute exposures usually occur during or shortly
after exposure to a sufficiently high concentration of a contaminant. The
concentration required to produce such effects varies widely from chemical to
chemical. The term "chronic exposure" generally refers to exposures to "low"
concentrations of a contaminant over a long period of time. The "low"
concentrations required to produce symptoms of chronic exposure depend upon the
chemical, the duration of each exposure, and the number of exposures. For a given
contaminant, the symptoms of an acute exposure may be completely different from
those resulting from chronic exposure. For either chronic or acute exposure, the
toxic effect may be temporary and reversible, or may be permanent (disability or
death). Some chemicals may cause obvious symptoms such as burning,
coughing, nausea, tearing eyes, or rashes. Other chemicals may cause health
damage without any such warning signs (this is a particular concern for chronic
exposures to low concentrations). Health effects such as cancer or respiratory
disease may not become manifest for several years or decades after exposure. In
addition, some toxic chemicals may be colorless and/or odorless,
may dull the sense of smell, or may not produce any immediate or obvious
physiological sensations. Thus, a worker's senses or feelings cannot be relied upon
in all cases to warn of potential toxic exposure.
The effects of exposure not only depend on the chemical, its concentration,
route of entry, and duration of exposure, but may also be influenced by personal
factors such as the individual's smoking habits, alcohol consumption, medication
use, nutrition, age, and sex.

Oxygen Deficiency
Oxygen Deficiency
The oxygen content of normal air at sea level is approximately 21 percent.
Physiological effects of oxygen deficiency in humans are readily apparent when
the oxygen concentration in the air decreases to 16 percent. These effects include
impaired attention, judgment and coordination, and increased breathing and heart
rate. Oxygen concentrations lower than 16 percent can result in nausea and
vomiting, brain damage, heart damage, unconsciousness, and death. To take into
account individual physiological responses and errors in measurement,
concentrations of 19.5 percent oxygen or lower are considered to be indicative of
oxygen deficiency.
Oxygen deficiency may result from the displacement of oxygen by another
gas, or the consumption of oxygen by a chemical reaction. Confined spaces or low-
lying areas are particularly vulnerable to oxygen deficiency and should always be
monitored prior to entry. Qualified field personnel should always monitor oxygen
levels and should use atmosphere supplying respiratory equipment when oxygen
concentrations drop below 19.5 percent by volume.

Fires And Explosions D: Fir

There are many potential causes of explosions and fires at hazardous waste
sites:
· Chemical reactions that produce explosion, fire, or heat.
· Ignition of explosive or flammable chemicals.
· Ignition of materials due to oxygen enrichment.
· Agitation of shock- or friction-sensitive compounds.
· Sudden release of materials under pressure.

Explosions and fires may arise spontaneously. However, more commonly,

they result from site activities, such as moving drums, accidentally mixing
incompatible chemicals, or introducing an ignition source (such as a spark from
equipment) into an explosive or flammable environment. At hazardous waste sites,
explosions and fires not only pose the obvious hazards of intense heat, open flame,
smoke inhalation, and flying objects, but may also cause the release of toxic
chemicals into the environment. Such releases can threaten both personnel on site
and members of the general public living or working nearby. To protect against the
hazard: have qualified personnel field monitor for explosive atmospheres and
flammable vapors; keep all potential ignition sources away from an explosive or
flammable environment; use non-sparking, explosion-proof equipment; and follow
safe practices when performing any task that might result in the agitation or release
of chemicals.

Biological Hazard
Wastes from hospitals and research facilities may contain disease-causing
organisms that could infect site personnel. Like chemical hazards, etiologic agents
may be dispersed in the environment via water and wind. Other biologic hazards
that may be present at a hazardous waste site include poisonous plants, insects,
animals, and indigenous pathogens. Protective clothing and respiratory equipment
can help reduce the chances of exposure. Thorough washing of any exposed body
parts and equipment will help protect against infection.

Safety Hazard
Hazardous waste sites may contain numerous safety hazards such as:
· Holes or ditches.
· Precariously positioned objects, such as drums or boards that may fall.
· Sharp objects, such as nails, metal shards, and broken glass.
· Slippery surfaces.
· Steep grades.
· Uneven terrain.
· Unstable surfaces, such as walls that may cave in or flooring that may give way.

Some safety hazards are a function of the work itself. For example, heavy
equipment creates an additional hazard for workers in the vicinity of the operating
equipment. Protective equipment can impair a worker's agility, hearing, and vision,
which can result in an increased risk of an accident. Accidents involving physical
hazards can directly injure workers and can create additional hazards, for example,
increased chemical exposure due to damaged protective equipment, or danger of
explosion caused by the mixing of chemicals. Site personnel should constantly
look out for potential safety hazards, and should immediately inform their
supervisors of any new hazards so that mitigative action can be taken.
Electrical Hazard
Overhead power lines, downed electrical wires, and buried cables all pose a
danger of shock or electrocution if workers contact or sever them during site
operations. Electrical equipment used on site may also pose a hazard to workers.
To help minimize this hazard, low-voltage equipment with ground-fault
interrupters and water-tight, corrosion-resistant connecting cables should be used
on site. In addition, lightning is a hazard during outdoor operations, particularly for
workers handling metal containers or equipment.
To eliminate this hazard, weather conditions should be monitored and work
should be suspended during electrical storms. An additional electrical hazard
involves capacitors that may retain a charge. All such items should be properly
grounded before handling.
Heat Stress
Heat stress is a major hazard, especially for workers wearing protective
clothing. The same protective materials that shield the body from chemical
exposure also limit the dissipation of body heat and moisture. Personal protective
clothing can therefore create a hazardous condition. Depending on the ambient
conditions and the work being performed, heat stress can occur very rapidly --
within as little as 15 minutes. It can pose as great a danger to worker health as
chemical exposure. In its early stages, heat stress can cause rashes, cramps,
discomfort and drowsiness, resulting in impaired functional ability that threatens
the safety of both the individual and coworkers. Continued heat stress can lead to
heat stroke and death. Avoiding overprotection, careful training and frequent
monitoring of personnel who wear protective clothing, judicious scheduling of
work and rest periods, and frequent replacement of fluids can protect against this
hazard.

Cold Exposure
Cold injury (frostbite and hypothermia) and impaired ability to work are
dangers at low temperatures and when the wind-chill factor is low. To guard
against them: wear appropriate clothing; have warm shelter readily available;
carefully schedule work and rest periods, and monitor workers' physical
conditions.

Noise
Work around large equipment often creates excessive noise. The effects of
noise can include:
· Workers being startled, annoyed, or distracted.
· Physical damage to the ear, pain, and temporary and/ or permanent hearing loss.
· Communication interference that may increase potential hazards due to the
inability to warn of danger and the proper safety precautions to be taken.
If employees are subjected to noise exceeding an 8-hour, time-weighted
average sound level of 90 dBA (decibels on the A-weighted scale), feasible
administrative or engineering controls must be utilized. In addition, whenever
employee noise exposures equal or exceed an 8-hour, time weighted average sound
level of 85 dBA, employers must administer a continuing, effective hearing
conservation program as described in OSHA regulation.

Industrial Noise and Its Control:

Noise is therefore a common occupational hazard in a large number of
workplaces such as the iron and steel industry, foundries, saw mills, textile mills,
airports and aircraft maintenance shops,crushing mills, among many others. In
many countries, noise-induced hearing loss is one of the most prevalent
occupational diseases.

Industrial Noise Sources

The most common machines used in the work environment. The sound
pressure level generated depends on the type of the noise source, distance from the
source to the receiver and the nature of the working environment. For a given
machine, the sound pressure levels depend on the part of the total mechanical or
electrical energy that is transformed into acoustical energy.

Sound fields in the workplace are usually complex, due to the participation
of many sources: propagation through air (air-borne noise), propagation through
solids (structure-borne noise), diffraction at the machinery boundaries, reflection
from the floor, wall, ceiling and machinery surface, absorption on the surfaces, etc.
Therefore any noise control measure should be carried out after a source ranking
study, using identification and quantification techniques. The basic mechanism of
noise generation can be due to mechanical noise, fluid noise and/or
electromagnetic noise.

Mechanical Noise
A solid vibrating surface, driven or in contact with a prime mover or linkage,
radiates sound power (W in Watts) proportional to the vibrating area S and the
mean square vibrating velocity

Therefore care must be taken to reduce the vibrating area and/or reduce the
vibration velocity. Reducing the vibrating area can be carried out by separating a
large area into small areas, using a flexible joint. Reduction of the vibration
velocity can be carried out by using damping materials at resonance frequencies
and/or blocking the induced forced vibration. A reduction of the excitation forces
and consequently of the vibration velocity response by a factor of two can provide
a possible sound power reduction of up to 6 dB assuming that the other parameters
are kept constant. Typical examples of solid vibration sources are: eccentric loaded
rotating machines, panel and machine cover vibration which can radiate sound like
a loudspeaker, and impact induced resonant free vibration of a surface.

Fluid Noise
Air turbulence and vortices generate noise, especially at high air flow
velocities. Turbulence can be generated by a moving or rotating solid object, such
as the blade tip of a ventilator fan, by changing high pressure discharge fluid to
low (or atmospheric) pressure, such as a cleaning air jet or by introducing an
obstacle into a high speed fluid flow.
The aerodynamic sound power generated by turbulent flow is proportional to
the 6th to 8th power of the flow velocity (W ∼ U6 to 8), which means that a
doubling of the flow velocity (U) increases the sound power (W) by a factor of 64
to 254 or 18 to 24 dB respectively. Table 5.3 shows the effects of doubling of the
typical velocity together with other primary mechanisms.Therefore care must be
taken to reduce flow velocity, reduce turbulence flow by using diffusers and either
remove obstacles or streamline them. The next few examples show the applications
of these fundamental concepts to machinery noise reductions.

Examples Of Machinery Noise Sources

Noise sources are presented for the most common machines used in
industrial installations. For each case, the mechanism of noise generation is
discussed.
Industrial Gas Jets
Industrial jet noise probably ranks third as a major cause of hearing damage
after that of impact and material handling noise. Air jets are used extensively for
cleaning, for drying and ejecting parts, for power tools, for blowing off compressed
air, for steam valves, pneumatic discharge vents, gas and oil burners, etc. Typical
sound pressure levels at 1 m from a blow-off nozzle can reach 105 dB(A).

Reservoir compressed air pressure is usually in the range of 45 to 105 psi (300 to
700kPa). The air acceleration varies from near zero velocity in the reservoir to
peak velocity at the exit of the nozzle. The flow velocity through the nozzle can
become sonic, i.e. reaches the speed of sound. This results in a high generation of
broad-band noise with the highest values at a frequency band between 2 to 4 kHz.

Ventilator and Exhaust Fans

It is rare not to find one or more ventilators or exhaust fans in each
department of an industrial or manufacturing complex (see Figures 5.2 to 5.3). Fan
and blower noise is the easiest and most straightforward noise problem to solve,
using an absorptive type silencer.

Fans are used to move a large volume of air for ventilation, by bringing in
fresh air from the outside, blowing out dust, vapour or oil mist from an industrial
environment, and for a drying or cooling operation, etc. Industrial fans are usually
low-speed, low-static-pressure and have a large volume flow rate. Ideally, fans
should operate at the maximum efficiency point on the pressure flow curve
characteristic.
Therefore, the choice between axial or centrifugal fans is made by the
manufacturer to satisfy maximum efficiency at a certain static pressure/flow rate.
Three basic noise sources are:
1. Broadband aerodynamic noise generated by the turbulent flow.
2. Discrete tones at the blade passing frequency Fp (Hz) given by,
Fp = (Rotation in RPM x Number of blades/ 60), and the harmonics (2Fp, 3Fp,
etc.).
3. Mechanical noise due to mounting, bearing, balancing, etc.

Compressors
Compressors are usually very noisy machines with high pressure. There are
several types of compressor: rotary positive displacement (lobed impellers on dual
shafts, as shown in Figure 5.4), gear or screw compressors (Figure 5.5),
reciprocating compressors (Figure 5.6) and liquid ring compressors (Figure 5.7)
are the most common.The basic noise sources are caused by trapping a definite
volume of fluid and carrying it around the case to the outlet with higher pressure.
The pressure pulses from compressors are quite severe, and equivalent sound
pressure levels can exceed 105dB(A). The noise generated from compressors is
periodic with discrete tones and harmonics present in the noise spectrum.

Electric Motors
Noise from electrical equipment such as motors and generators is generally a
discrete low frequency, superimposed on a broadband cooling system noise. The
electric motor converts electrical energy to magnetic and then mechanical energy
with the output of a useful torque at the motor shaft. Part of the energy
transformation is converted to heat, causing a rise in rotor, stator and casing
temperature; therefore an electric motor must be supplied with a cooling fan
system.
The cooling fan can be incorporated inside as in the case of an "OPEN"
motor or outside as in the case of a "Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled (TEFC)" motor.
TEFC motors are more widely used, due to their robust construction which can
withstand a dirty environment. OPEN motors are less used due to possible
contamination by the environment. An OPEN motor is sometimes (but not always)
less noisy than a TEFC motor since the noisy fans are incorporated inside. There
are three basic sources involved in the noise generated by electric motors:
1. Broad-band aerodynamic noise generated from the end flow at the inlet/outlet of
the cooling fan. The cooling fan is usually the dominant noise source.
2. Discrete frequency components caused by the blade passing frequencies of the
fan.
3. Mechanical noise caused by bearing, casing vibration, motor balancing shaft
misalignment, and/or motor mounting. Thus careful attention should be given to
the vibration isolation, mounting and maintenance.

Framework Standards for Noise Reduction at Machines

To reduce noise at machines, standards have been drawn up which deal with
the planning and design of low-noise machines (ISO/TR 11688 Parts 1, 2), the
collection and evaluation of emission data (ISO 11689) and noise-related
requirements for noise control devices and materials (silencers, enclosures, noise
absorbers, baffles). The standard ISO/TR 11688-1 gives an overview of the
principles and methods a design engineer needs to design a low-noise machine or
to communicate with an acoustic professional. The following approach is specified
for the design engineer:
1. Specification of the design task (standards, state of the art, requirements for
noise)
2. Concept phase (principles for solving the problem, comparison and selection of
concepts, machine acoustics)
3. Detail design (calculations, detail drafts)
4. Investigations on prototype (measurement, evaluation, measures, comparison
with requirements)
The standard ISO/TR 11688-2 describes the principles and basics of noise
control development for existing and planned machines. Noise control devices and
materials are to be covered as part of the machine, if they are integrated in it, e.g.
enclosures, noise absorbers, partial enclosures, near-machine baffles. The
reduction in emissions is thus expressed to an equal extent in the emission values.

NOISE REDUCTION METHODS:

Damping
Typically used in applications such as chutes, hoppers, panels and tanks,
damping usually uses two noise reduction techniques: layer damping, in which a
layer of bitumastic damping material is stuck to a surface, and constrained layer
damping, which is more rugged and involves construction of a laminate.
Maxideck and Maxiboard from Sound Reduction Systems (SRS) can help
with soundproofing for floors. Maxideck, an acoustic flooring solution, can be
used in kitchens and bathrooms. It offers high levels of airborne and impact
insulation when used on timber. It can be used to comply with the Building
Regulations Approved Document E (2003), is easy to install and is only 28mms
thick.
Maxiboard soundproofing for ceilings and floors can also help meet Part E
Regulations and can be used to form enclosures and independent structures. It
takes screws and nails direct, and is extremely durable, yet only 17mms thick.
Faninstallations
Curiously, when fans operate at peak efficiency, they're at their quietest.
Common noise reduction features are bends close to the fan and dampers. To
cut down on up to 12 dB, ensure at least 2-3 duct diameters of straight duct
between any feature that may disturb the flow and the fan itself.
Ductwork
Typically used in extraction, ventilation and cooling, ductwork involves
openings in walls and enclosures. Instead of fitting silencers, it is often possible
to achieve a 10 - 20 dB reduction in airborne noise from a duct or opening by
lining the last bend in the ductwork with foam or fibreglass, or constructing an
absorbent, lined right-angled bend to fit on the opening.

SRS has two products that can be used. Acoustic Socket and service boxes are
made from two layers of 10mm-thick high-density gypsum-based board and will
ensure the acoustic integrity of any metal or timber-framed separating wall
containing sockets and/or services. Meanwhile, Soundstop 5 is a multi-purpose
acoustic barrier that's ideal for ceiling voids or within partition walls. It reduces
room-to-room noise by up to 46dB.

Fanspeed
In axial or centrifugal flow fans, you can increase noise control simply by
changing control systems or pulley sizes and resetting dampers.

Pneumaticexhausts
Pneumatic exhaust noise can be reduced by up to 30dB by fitting silencers.
For back pressure, fit a larger coupling and silencer; for clogging, you need a
straight-through silencer, while multiple exhausts can be manifolded into a
single, larger diameter pipe.
Pneumaticnozzles
Pneumatic nozzles are often used for cooling, drying and blowing. You can
usually replace the existing nozzles for quiet, high-efficiency units that can
reduce noise by up to 10 dB.
Vibrationisolationpads
Typically used on machine feet, pumps and mezzanine installations, vibration
isolation pads are usually made of rubber or bonded cork and reduce vibration
and noise pollution.

SRS's Acoustilay system is ideal for beneath washing machines. It improves

the sound-insulation performance of timber floors and substantially reduces
impact noise through concrete and timber floors. Acoustilay is simply laid under
most floor finishes and can replace conventional carpet underlay.

Existingmachineguards
In an open set of machine guards, halving the 'gap' open area can reduce
noise pollution by 3 dB. Reducing the openings, such as flexible seals, by 90%
can reduce noise by 10 dB.

Maxiboard with Coustifoam lining is ideal for this. Coustifoam is an

acoustic lining to soffits or walls, or can be laid over the back of open-cell
suspended ceilings. Its flexibility allows it to be easily formed around
penetrations or contours.

Chainandtiming-beltdrives
Quieter timing belts with different tooth profiles aimed at controlling noise
can replace noisy chain drives. A new type of belt for noise-critical applications
uses a chevron tooth pattern that can cut noise by up to 20 dB.
Electricmotors
The electric motors that drive fans and pumps can be replaced by general-
duty motors that are up to 10 dB quieter. These can be phased into the system
over a period of time.
For ore information about noise control techniques, please contact Sound
Reduction Systems or request a quote.
Vibration Control:
Vibration Isolation This method reduces the transmission of vibrational
energy from one system to another. Common vibration isolators are steel springs,
rubber pads or bellows. These devices are available in many shapes and are
capable of isolating masses weighing from a few pounds to thousands of pounds.
An automobile suspension is a good example of damped isolation. Shock absorbers
dissipate energy by pumping a fluid through orifices that offer a predetermined
resistance to highvelocity flow.

Many isolation systems use elastomeric materials to provide both the spring
force and damping. Some rubbers are capable of achieving useful damping at
certain frequencies, although at low frequencies most exhibit loss factors less than
0.2, or roughly 10 percent of critical damping. At resonance, when a system
dissipates the same amount of energy per radian as it stores, it is said to be
critically damped. Loss factor is equal to the percentage of critical damping
divided by 50. One way to compare the behavior of various isolators is to measure
their transmissibility. Typical transmissibility curves, as shown in Figure 6,
compare the vibrational acceleration response of materials used in isolation
applications. As the damping in a material increases, the system amplification
response can be minimized at or near the natural frequency. This can be especially
beneficial in applications such as stepper motors, which must run through a variety
of frequencies, or those applications that frequently go through a start up or
slowdown as part of the operation cycle. In applications with little or no damping,
amplification can reach as high as 23 dB, which would be a magnification factor of
14.2. Uncontrolled resonant motion in a device’s isolation mounts can have results
ranging from acceptable to catastrophic, depending on the operational properties of
the components involved. Undamped mounts have internal resonances that conduct
considerable high-frequency vibrational energy from a device to its support
structure. The large forces developed at and near resonance can easily damage
internal components or even tear a device from its mounting.

Source can be realized by careful planning, thoughtful design, and proper

choice of materials and structures specifically engineered for the task. This
technological state of the art in damping materials and systems is such that it is
possible to design products that operate more quietly, with less vibration and
greater precision, without being necessarily more expensive or difficult to build.
 UNIT IV-HAZARD ANALYSIS

Explain briefly the fault tree analysis in an accident.

Fault tree analysis (FTA) is a top down, deductive failure analysis in which
an undesired state of a system is analyzed using Boolean logic to combine a series
of lower-level events. This analysis method is mainly used in the fields of safety
engineering and reliability engineering to understand how systems can fail, to
identify the best ways to reduce risk or to determine (or get a feeling for) event
rates of a safety accident or a particular system level (functional) failure.

Steps involved in FTA Analysis:

Many different approaches can be used to model a FTA, but the most common and
popular way can be summarized in a few steps

1. Define the undesired event to study

Definition of the undesired event can be very hard to catch, although some
of the events are very easy and obvious to observe. An engineer with a wide
knowledge of the design of the system or a system analyst with an engineering
background is the best person who can help define and number the undesired
events. Undesired events are used then to make the FTA, one event for one FTA;
no two events will be used to make one FTA.
2. Obtain an understanding of the system
Once the undesired event is selected, all causes with probabilities of
affecting the undesired event of 0 or more are studied and analyzed. Getting exact
numbers for the probabilities leading to the event is usually impossible for the
reason that it may be very costly and time consuming to do so. Computer software
is used to study probabilities; this may lead to less costly system analysis.

3. Construct the fault tree

After selecting the undesired event and having analyzed the system so that
we know all the causing effects (and if possible their probabilities) we can now
construct the fault tree. Fault tree is based on AND and OR gates which define the
major characteristics of the fault tree.

4. Evaluate the fault tree

After the fault tree has been assembled for a specific undesired event, it is
evaluated and analyzed for any possible improvement or in other words study the
risk management and find ways for system improvement. This step is as an
introduction for the final step which will be to control the hazards identified. In
short, in this step we identify all possible hazards affecting in a direct or indirect
way the system.

5. Control the hazards identified

This step is very specific and differs largely from one system to another, but
the main point will always be that after identifying the hazards all possible
methods are pursued to decrease the probability of occurrence.

Applications of FTA:
Fault tree analysis can be used to:
• Understand the logic leading to the top event / undesired state.
• Show compliance with the (input) system safety / reliability requirements.
• prioritize the contributors leading to the top event - Creating the Critical
Equipment/Parts/Events lists for different importance measures.
• Monitor and control the safety performance of the complex system (e.g., is a
particular aircraft safe to fly when fuel valve x malfunctions? For how long
is it allowed to fly with the valve malfunction?).
• Minimize and optimize resources.
• Assist in designing a system. The FTA can be used as a design tool that
helps to create (output / lower level) requirements.
• Function as a diagnostic tool to identify and correct causes of the top event.
It can help with the creation of diagnostic manuals / process.

Analysis Of Causes Of Injury To Men In Industries:

Identification and analysis of causes of injury to men and machines:

• Accident and loss statistics are important measures of the effectiveness of
safety programs.
• Many statistical methods are available to characterize accident and loss
performance. These statistics must be used carefully. Like most statistics
they are only averages and do not reflect the potential for single episodes
involving substantial losses. Unfortunately, no single method is capable of
measuring all required aspects. The three systems considered here are

A. OSHA incidence rate,

B. fatal accident rate (FAR), and
C. fatality rate, or deaths per person per year.
 All three methods report the number of accidents and/or fatalities for a fixed
number of workers during a specified period.

OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the
United States Government.
OSHA is responsible for ensuring that workers are provided with a safe
working environment. Table 1-2 contains several OSHA definitions applicable to
accident statistics. The OSHA incidence rate is based on cases per 100 worker
years. A worker year is assumed to contain 2000 hours (50 work weekslyear X 40
hourslweek).

A. The OSHA incidence rate is therefore based on 200,000 hours of worker

exposure to a hazard. The OSHA incidence rate is calculated from the number of
occupational injuries and illnesses and the total number of employee hours worked
during the applicable period. The following equation is used,

An incidence rate can also be based on lost workdays instead of injuries and
illnesses. For this case
 The OSHA incidence rate provides information on all types of work-related
injuries and illnesses, including fatalities. This provides a better representation of
worker accidents than systems based on fatalities alone. For instance, a plant might
experience many small accidents with resulting injuries but no fatalities. On the
other hand, fatality data cannot be extracted from the OSHA incidence rate without
additional information.
B. Fatal accident rate (FAR):
The FAR is used mostly by the British chemical industry. This statistic is used
here because there are some useful and interesting FAR data available in the open
literature. The FAR reports the number of fatalities based on 1000 employees
working their entire lifetime. The employees are assumed to work a total of 50
years. Thus the FAR is based on 10' working hours.

C. Fatality rate:
The last method considered is the fatality rate or deaths per person per year.
This system is independent of the number of hours actually worked and reports
only the number of fatalities expected per person per year. This approach is useful
for performing calculations on the general population, where the number of
exposed hours is poorly defined. The applicable equation is

Both the OSHA incidence rate and the FAR depend on the number of
exposed hours. An employee working a ten-hour shift is at greater total risk than
one working an eight-hour shift. A FAR can be converted to a fatality rate (or vice
versa) if the number of exposed hours is known. The OSHA incidence rate cannot
be readily converted to a FAR or fatality rate because it contains both injury and
fatality information.

Event Tree Analysis (ETA) :

This is a complimentary technique to FTA but defines the consequential

events which flow from the primary ‘initiating’ event. Event trees are used to
investigate the consequences of loss-making events in order to find ways of
mitigating, rather than preventing, losses.

1. Identify the primary event of concern.

2. Identify the controls that are assigned to deal with the primary event such
as automatic safety systems, alarms on operator actions.
3. Construct the event tree beginning with the initiating event and
proceeding through failures of the safety functions.
4. Establish the resulting accident sequences.
5. Identify the critical failures that need to be addressed.

There are a number of ways to construct an event tree. They typically use
Boolean (or binary) logic gates, i.e. a gate that has only two options such as
success/failure, yes/no, on/off. They tend to start on the left with the initiating
event and progress to the right, branching progressively. Each branching point is
called a node. Simple event trees tend to be presented at a system level, glossing
over the detail. The following is a generic example of how they can be drawn.

The diagram shows an initiating event (e.g. fire) and the subsequent
operation or failure of three systems (e.g. fire suppression) which would normally
operate should the event occur. Each system can either operate or not (somewhat
unrealistic, as in some cases, things may partially operate). Because of the
multitude of combinations of success/failure of each system, there are multiple
possible final outcomes (labelled a to h in the diagram).
 The diagram also illustrates the way event trees can be quantified. The
initiating event is typically specified as an expected annual frequency (e.g. 2 times
per year) and the success/failure for each system as a probability.

HAZOP = HAZard and OPerability Study:

Method for identifying (and assessing) problems that may represent risks to
personnel or equipment, or prevent efficient operation.Systematic and qualitative
method based on the use of
➢ Guide words
➢ Multi- disciplinary team effort

TYPES of HAZOPs
Process HAZOP
– The HAZOP technique was originally developed to assess plants and
process systems
Human HAZOP
– A family of more specialized HAZOPs
– More focused on Human Errors than technical failures
Procedure HAZOP
– Review of procedures or operational sequences
 – Sometimes denoted SAFOP - SAFe Operation Study
Software HAZOP
– Identification of possible errors in the development of software

PROCESS HAZOP
• Review of complete process through P& IDs and / or flow diagrams
• Breakdown of the system into segments
• Standardized guide- words / parameters
• Application of guide - words to different process parameters to
identify possible deviations
HUMAN HAZOP
• Based on some form of task analysis
• Other input is procedures, workplace layout schematics, man/
machine interface description
 •Covers a ‘ family’ of specialized HAZOPs:
–Errors associated with design and use of computer- based interfaces
–Errors associated with the use of interlocks
–Function allocation HAZOP: errors associated with determining the
role of the operator in the system.
PROCEDURE HAZOP
• Can be applied to all sequences of operations
• Focus on both human errors and failures of technical systems
• Best suited for detailed assessments, but can also be used for coarse
preliminary assessments
• Flexible approach with respect to use of guide- words
• Standard guide - words of Human HAZOP can be applied to the steps in the
procedure
• In addition a Procedure HAZOP should highlight:
• TIMING/ SEQUENCE: The steps are not performed in the correct sequence

Applications of Procedure HAZOP

• All operations that are potentially hazardous and that are not identical
to operations analyzed before should be subject to a HAZOP
• Examples that should be HAZOPed:
– Start up and shut down procedures
– Purging operations
– Maintenance of critical equipments
– Complex lifting operations
Success Factors
• The `right’ composition of the HAZOP team
• Experienced and contributing team members
• Properly prepared procedures
– Possibly developed using task analysis
– Clear and unambiguous work description
• Experienced HAZOP leader/ chairman
– Familiar with the type of work being analyzed
– Sufficient authority to control the discussion
– Skills as ‘ catalyst’

Planning and preparation

• Ensure that necessary documentation is prepared
• Decide level of detail of the assessment
 – Depending on documentation available
Set time frame
– Depending on level of detail
– can be from a few hours to days and even weeks
Compose the HAZOP team
Send call for meeting, including:
– time and venue
– list of participants &background documentation

HAZOP Team (I)

HAZOP leader/ chairman:
– Independent (i. e., no responsibility for performance of the operations)
– responsible (together with the HAZOP initiator) for planning and
preparation of the HAZOP
– Chairing the HAZOP meeting:
n trigger the discussion using the guide- words
n follow- up progress according to schedule/ agenda
n ensure completeness of the assessment
– Responsible for final reporting
HAZOP secretary
– Preparing HAZOP work- sheets
– Recording the discussion in the HAZOP meeting
– Preparation of draft report
Representatives of all disciplines/ parties involved in the operations
– give input based on their responsibility in the performance of the
operations.Ideally, the HAZOP team should consist of 6- 10 persons
in order to work effectively
HAZOP RECORDING
• The HAZOP meeting is recorded by the HAZOP secretary using work-
sheets, either:
– Filling in paper copies of the work- sheets, or
– Using a PC connected to a projector
HAZOP work- sheets may be somewhat different depending on the scope of
the study - generally the following columns are included:
– Ref. no [Step no.]
– Guide- word
– Deviation
– Potential cause/ source
– Potential consequences
 – Action/ recommendation
– Follow- up - responsibility
HAZOP RESULTS
• Improvement of operations
• reduced risk - better contingency
• more efficient operations
• Improvement of procedures
• logical order
• completeness & General awareness among involved parties
Team building

FALURE MODE & EFFECT ANALYSIS (FMEA)

"Failure modes" means the ways, or modes, in which something might fail.
Failures are any errors or defects, especially ones that affect the customer, and can
be potential or actual.

"Effects analysis" refers to studying the consequences of those failures.

Failures are prioritized according to how serious their consequences are,

how frequently they occur, and how easily they can be detected. The purpose of
the FMEA is to take actions to eliminate or reduce failures, starting with the
highest-priority ones.

Failure modes and effects analysis also documents current knowledge and
actions about the risks of failures, for use in continuous improvement. FMEA is
used during design to prevent failures. Later it’s used for control, before and during
ongoing operation of the process. Ideally, FMEA begins during the earliest
conceptual stages of design and continues throughout the life of the product or
service.

Process Failure Mode and Effects Analysis must be done in a step-wise fashion
since each step builds on the previous one. Here’s an overview of the 10 steps to a
Process FMEA.

STEP 1: Review the process

• Use a process flowchart to identify each process component.

• List each process component in the FMEA table.
 • If it starts feeling like the scope is too big, it probably is. This is a good time
to break the Process Failure Mode and Effects Analysis into more
manageable chunks.

STEP 2: Brainstorm potential failure modes

• Review existing documentation and data for clues about all of the ways each
component can failure.
• The list should be exhaustive – it can be paired down and items can be
combined after this initial list is generated.
• There will likely be several potential failures for each component.

STEP 3: List potential effects of each failure

• The effect is the impact the failure has on the end product or on subsequent
steps in the process.
• There will likely be more than one effect for each failure.

STEP 4: Assign Severity rankings

• Based on the severity of the consequences of failure.

STEP 5: Assign Occurrence rankings

• Rate the severity of each effect using customized ranking scales as a guide.

STEP 6: Assign Detection rankings

• What are the chances the failure will be detected prior to it occuring.

STEP 7: Calculate the RPN

• Severity X Occurrence X Detection

STEP 8: Develop the action plan

• Decide which failures will be worked on based on the Risk Priority

Numbers. Focus on the highest RPNs.
• Define who will do what by when.
STEP 9: Take action

• Implement the improvements identified by your Process Failure Mode and

Effects Analysis team.

STEP 10: Calculate the resulting RPN

• Re-evaluate each of the potential failures once improvements have been

made and determine the impact of the improvements.

Job Safety Analysis and Its Advantage:

1. To identify and locate main source of accidents from actual experience.

2. To disclose the nature and magnitude of accident in a particular equipment or
particular area.
3. To indicate the need for engineering revision by identifying main un safe
condition.
4. To disclose in efficient in operating and maintenance practice.
5. To disclose unsafe acts needing special attention.
6. To disclose principal hazard and unsafe practices.
7. To encourage objective evaluation of safety programme.

Advantages of Job safety analysis

a. It permits a ready comparison of the existing undesirable method and

proposed new method demonstrating the types of hazards.
b. It presents a picture of the effect on production with safety improvement.
c. It shows that properly designed safety features increases productivity
d. It assists in accident investigation
e. It increase safety consciousness
 UNIT-V SAFETY REGULATIONS

The Rules Regarding Workmen’s Compensation:

a) An employer is liable to pay compensation to a workman for personal injury

caused to him by accident as well as any occupational disease contracted by
him.
b) If a worker does something which from its nature is outside the scope of his
employment he is not eligible is not liable to pay compensation.
c) The employer is not liable to pay compensation.
d) If the injury does not result in the total or partial disablement of the
workman for a period exceeding 3 days.
e) If the injury is caused when workman was in influence of alcohol or drugs.
f) If the workman has disobeyed.

Occupational Disease and Workmen’s Compensation Act (1923)

Contracting an occupational disease in downed to be injury by accident and
the employer is liable to pay compensation.

Occupational Hygiene
It is a modern specialization concerned with assessing and controlling
hazards from atmospheric contamination, skin absorption, radiation and noise.
Control of Occupational Hazards
1. Elimination of the injurious substances or sources.
2. Reduction of exposure frequency.
3. Strict control of injurious substances at the point of origin.
4. Precision for washing and general hygiene.

Salient Features of factory act and workers compensation act:

1. The factories Act 1948:

It deals with the provision of good working condition, good house keeping,
cleanliness, sanitation, lightning , ventilation.
2. Plant layout (PL):
 Apart from final. Utility main utilization of space of space and engg. Plant
layout must be considered in terms of employee comfort and productivity. PL
should enhance personal comfort at work area and safety facilities to minimize
accident.
3. Lightning & Illumination:
a. Provide for general brightness
b. Avoid glare
c. Avoid heavy shadows
d. Provide uniform and diffused lightning.
4. Colour:
Colour increases productivity, economy and safety. It reduces accidents,
fatigue, and strain subdued colours such as cream or white is useful. Colour plan
takes in to account the size and shape.
5. Temp & Humidity:
Proper temperature and humidity control, air circulation, air conditioning are
all of prime importance and gives optimum personal comfort.
6. Ventilation:
Good and proper ventilation provides fresh air, remove heat and increases
air circulation. At least 30 ft3 of fresh air is necessary per person per minute.

Case Study On A Chemical Industrial Accident:

The study of case histories provides valuable information to chemical
engineers involved with safety. This information is used to improve procedures to
prevent similar accidents in the future. The seven most cited accidents
(Flixborough, England; Bhopal, India; Seveso, Italy; Pasadena, Texas; Texas City,
Texas; Jacksonville, Florida; and Port Wentworth, Georgia) are presented here. All
these accidents had a significant impact on public perceptions and the chemical
engineering profession that added new emphasis and standards in the practice of
safety. presents case histories in considerably more detail.

The Flixborough accident is perhaps the most documented chemical plant disaster.
The British government insisted on an extensive investigation.
(i) Flixborough, England

The accident at Flixborough, England, occurred on a Saturday in June 1974.

Although it was not reported to any great extent in the United States, it had a major
impact on chemical engineering in the United Kingdom. As a result of the
accident, safety achieved a much higher priority in that country. The Flixborough
Works of Nypro Limited was designed to produce 70,000 tons per year of
caprolactam, a basic raw material for the production of nylon. The process uses
cyclohexane, which has properties similar to gasoline? Under the process
conditions in use at Flixborough (155°C and 7.9 atm), the cyclohexane volatilizes
immediately when depressurized to atmospheric conditions.

The process where the accident occurred consisted of six reactors in series.
In these reactors cyclohexane was oxidized to cyclohexanone and then to
cyclohexanol using injected air in the presence of a catalyst. The liquid reaction
mass was gravity-fed through the series of reactors. Each reactor normally
contained about 20 tons of cyclohexane. Several months before the accident
occurred, reactor 5 in the series was found to be leaking. Inspection showed a
vertical crack in its stainless steel structure. The decision was made to remove the
reactor for repairs. An additional decision was made to continue operating by
connecting reactor 4 directly to reactor 6 in the series. The loss of the reactor
would reduce the yield but would enable continued production because unreacted
cyclohexane is separated and recycled at a later stage. The feed pipes connecting
the reactors were 28 inches in diameter. Because only 20-inch pipe stock was
available at the plant, the connections to reactor 4 and reactor 6 were made using
flexible bellows-type piping, as shown in Figure 1-10. It is hypothesized that the
bypass pipe section ruptured because of inadequate support and overflexing of the
pipe section as a result of internal reactor pressures. Upon rupture of the bypass, an
estimated 30 tons of cyclohexane volatilized and formed a large vapor cloud. The
cloud was ignited by an unknown source an estimated 45 seconds after the release.

The resulting explosion leveled the entire plant facility, including the
administrative offices. Twenty-eight people died, and 36 others were injured.
Eighteen of these fatalities occurred in the main control room when the ceiling
collapsed. Loss of life would have been substantially greater had the accident
occurred on a weekday when the administrative offices were filled with
employees. Damage extended to 1821 nearby houses and 167 shops and factories.
Fifty-three civilians were reported injured. The resulting fire in the plant burned for
over 10 days. This accident could have been prevented by following proper safety
procedures. First, the bypass line was installed without a safety review or adequate
supervision by experienced engineering personnel. The bypass was sketched on the
floor of the machine shop using chalk.

Second, the plant site contained excessively large inventories of dangerous

compounds. This included 330,000 gallons of cyclohexane, 66,000 gallons of
naphtha, 11,000 gallons of toluene, 26,400 gallons of benzene, and 450 gallons of
gasoline. These inventories contributed to the fires after the initial blast. Finally,
the bypass modification was substandard in design. As a rule, any modifications
should be of the same quality as the construction of the remainder of the plant.

Bhopal, India
The Bhopal, India, accident, on December 3, 1984, has received
considerably more attention than the Flixborough accident. This is due to the more
than 2000 civilian casualties that resulted. The Bhopal plant is in the state of
Madhya Pradesh in central India. The plant was partially owned by Union Carbide
and partially owned locally. The nearest civilian inhabitants were 1.5 miles away
when the plant was constructed. Because the plant was the dominant source of
employment in the area, a shantytown eventually grew around the immediate area.

The plant produced pesticides. An intermediate compound in this process is

methyl isocyanate (MIC). MIC is an extremely dangerous compound. It is reactive,
toxic, volatile, and flammable. The maximum exposure concentration of MIC for
workers over an 8-hour period is 0.02 ppm (parts per million). Individuals exposed
to concentrations of MIC vapors above 21 ppm experience severe irritation of the
nose and throat. Death at large concentrations of vapor is due to respiratory
distress.
MIC demonstrates a number of dangerous physical properties. Its boiling
point at atmospheric conditions is 39.1°C, and it has a vapor pressure of
348mmHgat 20°C.Thevapor is about twice as heavy as air, ensuring that the vapors
will stay close to the ground once released. MIC reacts exothermically with water.
Although the reaction rate is slow, with inadequate cooling the temperature will
increase and the MIC will boil. MIC storage tanks are typically refrigerated to
prevent this problem.
 `The unit using the MIC was not operating because of a local labor dispute.
Somehow a storage tank containing a large amount of MIC became contaminated
with water or some other substance. A chemical reaction heated the MIC to a
temperature past its boiling point. The MIC vapors traveled through a pressure
relief system and into a scrubber and flare system installed to consume the MIC in
the event of a release. Unfortunately, the scrubber and flare systems were not
operating, for a variety of reasons. An estimated 25 tons of toxic MIC vapor was
released.

The toxic cloud spread to the adjacent town, killing over 2000 civilians and
injuring an estimated 20,000 more. No plant workers were injured or killed. No
plant equipment was damaged. The exact cause of the contamination of the MIC is
not known. If the accident was caused by a problem with the process, a well-
executed safety review could have identified the problem. The scrubber and flare
system should have been fully operational to prevent the release. Inventories of
dangerous chemicals, particularly intermediates, should also have been minimized.
The reaction scheme used at Bhopal is shown at the top of Figure 1-11 and
includes the dangerous intermediate MIC. An alternative reaction scheme is shown
at the bottom of the figure and involves a less dangerous chloroformate
intermediate. Another solution is to redesign the process to reduce the inventory of
hazardous MIC. One such design produces and consumes the MIC in a highly
localized area of the process, with an inventory of MIC of less than 20 pounds.

(iii) Seveso, Italy

Seveso is a small town of approximately 17,000 inhabitants, 15 miles from Milan,
Italy. The plant was owned by the Icmesa Chemical Company. The product was
hexachlorophene, a bactericide, with trichlorophenol produced as an intermediate.
During normal operation, a small amount of TCDD (2,3,7,8-
tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin) is produced in the reactor as an undesirable side-
product. TCDD is perhaps the most potent toxin known to humans. Animal studies
have shown TCDD to be fatal in doses as small as 10_9 times the body weight.
Because TCDD is also insoluble in water, decontamination is difficult. Nonlethal
doses of TCDD result in chloracne, an acne-like disease that can persist for several
years.
On July 10, 1976, the trichlorophenol reactor went out of control, resulting
in a higher than normal operating temperature and increased production of TCDD.
An estimated 2 kg of TCDD was released through a relief system in a white cloud
over Seveso. A subsequent heavy rain washed the TCDD into the soil.
Approximately 10 square miles were contaminated. Because of poor
communications with local authorities, civilian evacuation was not started until
several days later. By then, over 250 cases of chloracne were reported. Over 600
people were evacuated, and an additional 2000 people were given blood tests. The
most severely contaminated area immediately adjacent to the plant was fenced, the
condition it remains in today.
TCDD is so toxic and persistent that for a smaller but similar release of
TCDD in Duphar, India, in 1963 the plant was finally disassembled brick by brick,
encased in concrete, and dumped into the ocean. Less than 200 g of TCDD was
released, and the contamination was confined to the plant. Of the 50 men assigned
to clean up the release, 4 eventually died from the exposure.
The Seveso and Duphar accidents could have been avoided if proper
containment systems had been used to contain the reactor releases. The proper
application of fundamental engineering safety principles would have prevented the
two accidents. First, by following proper procedures, the initiation steps would
not have occurred. Second, by using proper hazard evaluation procedures, the
hazards could have been identified and corrected before the accidents occurred.
(iv) Pasadena, Texas
A massive explosion in Pasadena, Texas, on October 23, 1989, resulted in
23 fatalities, 314 injuries, and capital losses of over $715 million. This explosion
occurred in a high-density polyethylene plant after the accidental release of 85,000
pounds of a flammable mixture containing ethylene, isobutane, hexane, and
hydrogen. The release formed a large gas cloud instantaneously because the system
was under high pressure and temperature. The cloud was ignited about 2 minutes
after the release by an unidentified ignition source.

The damage resulting from the explosion made it impossible to reconstruct

the actual accident scenario. However, evidence showed that the standard
operating procedures were not appropriately followed.

The release occurred in the polyethylene product takeoff system, as illustrated in

Figure 1-12. Usually the polyethylene particles (product) settle in the settling leg
and are removed through the product takeoff valve. Occasionally, the product
plugs the settling leg, and
the plug is removed by maintenance personnel. The normal—and safe—procedure
includes closing the DEMCO valve, removing the air lines, and locking the valve
in the closed position. Then the product takeoff valve is removed to give access to
the plugged leg.
The accident investigation evidence showed that this safe procedure was not
followed; specifically, the product takeoff valve was removed, the DEMCO valve
was in the open position, and the lockout device was removed. This scenario was a
serious violation of well-established and well-understood procedures and created
the conditions that permitted the release and subsequent explosion. The OSHA
investigation found that
(1) no process hazard analysis had been performed in the polyethylene plant, and
as a result, many serious safety deficiencies were ignored or overlooked;
(2) the single-block (DEMCO) valve on the settling leg was not designed to fail to
a safe closed position when the air failed;
(3) rather than relying on a single-block valve, a double block and bleed valving
arrangement or a blind flange after the single-block valve should have been used;
(4) no provision was made for the development, implementation, and enforcement
of effective permit systems (for example, line opening); and
(5) no permanent combustible gas detection and alarm system was located in the
region of the reactors. Other factors that contributed to the severity of this disaster
were also cited:
(1) Proximity of high-occupancy structures (control rooms) to hazardous operation,
(2) Inadequate separation between buildings, and
(3) Crowded process equipment.

(v) Texas City, Texas

A petroleum refinery had large explosions on March 23, 2005, that killed 15
workers and injured about 180.The explosions were the result of a sudden release
of flammable liquid and vapor from an open vent stack in the refinery’s
isomerization (ISOM) unit. The ISOM unit converts pentane and hexane into
isopentane and isohexane (gasoline additive). The unit works by heating the
pentane and hexane in the presence of a catalyst. This unit includes a splitter tower
and associated process equipment, which is used to prepare the hydrocarbon, feed
of the isomerization reactor.
This accident was during the startup of this ISOM process unit. In this startup,
hydrocarbons were pumped into the splitter tower for three hours without any
liquid being removed and transferred to storage (which should have happened). As
a result, the 164-foot-tall tower was overfilled. The resulting high pressure
activated three pressure relief valves, and the liquid was discharged to a vented
blowdown drum.
The blowdown drum overfilled with hydrocarbons, producing a geyser-like
release from the vented stack. The flammable hydrocarbons pooled on the ground,
releasing vapors that ignited, resulting in multiple explosions and fires.
Many of those killed were working in or around two contractor office trailers
located near a blowdown drum. The CSB investigation identified the following
major findings:
(1) The occupied trailers were sited in an unsafe location (all 15 fatalities occurred
in or around two contractor trailers);
(2) The ISOM unit should not have been started up because there were existing and
known problems that should have been repaired before a startup (known equipment
malfunctions included a level indicator and alarm, and a control valve); and
(3) Previously there were at least four other serious releases of flammables out of
this blowdown drum vent, and even though these serious near-misses revealed the
existing hazard, no effective investigations were conducted nor were appropriate
design changes made (a properly designed flare system would have burned these
effluents to prevent this unsafe release of the flammable liquid and combustible
vapors).

Importance Of Safety Training At Various Levels Of Operations:

Education and training provides employers, managers, supervisors, and

workers with: Knowledge and skills needed to do their work safely and avoid
creating hazards that could place themselves or others at risk.
Awareness and understanding of workplace hazards and how to identify,
report, and control them. Specialized training, when their work involves unique
hazards.
Additional training may be needed depending on the roles assigned to
employers or individual managers, supervisors, and workers. For example,
employers, managers, and supervisors may need specific training to ensure that
they can fulfill their roles in providing leadership, direction, and resources for the
safety and health program. Workers assigned specific roles in the program (e.g.,
incident investigation team members) may need training to ensure their full
participation in those functions.
• Effective training and education can be provided outside a formal classroom
setting. Peer-to-peer
• training, on-the-job training, and worksite demonstrations can be effective in
conveying safety concepts,
 • ensuring understanding of hazards and their controls, and promoting good
work practices.
Action level 1: Provide program awareness training
Action level 2: Train employers, managers and supervisors on their roles in
the program
Action level 3: Train workers on their specific roles in the safety and health
program
Action level 4: Train workers on hazard identification and controls
Action level 1: Provide program awareness training
Managers, supervisors, and workers all need to understand the program's structure,
plans, and procedures. Having this knowledge ensures that everyone can fully
participate in developing, implementing, and improving the program.
How to accomplish it
Provide training to all managers, supervisors, workers, and contractor,
subcontractor, and temporary
agency workers on:
o Safety and health policies, goals, and procedures
o Functions of the safety and health program
o Whom to contact with questions or concerns about the program (including
contact information)
o How to report hazards, injuries, illnesses, and close calls/near misses
o What to do in an emergency
o The employer's responsibilities under the program
o Workers' rights under the Occupational Safety and Health Act
o Provide information on the safety and health hazards of the workplace
and the controls for those hazards.
o Ensure that training is provided in the language(s) and at a literacy
level that all workers can understand.
o Emphasize that the program can only work when everyone is involved
and feels comfortable,discussing concerns; making suggestions; and
reporting injuries, incidents, and hazards.
o Confirm, as part of the training, that all workers have the right to
report injuries, incidents, hazards,and concerns and to fully participate
in the program without fear of retaliation.
Action level 2:
Train employers, managers, and supervisors on their roles in the program
Employers, managers, and supervisors are responsible for workers' safety, yet
sometimes have little training on safety-related concepts and techniques. They may
benefit from specific training that allows them to fulfill their leadership roles in the
program.
How to accomplish it
Reinforce employers, managers, and supervisors' knowledge of their
responsibilities under the Occupational Safety and Health Act and the workers'
rights guaranteed by the Act.
• Train employers, managers, and supervisors on procedures for responding to
workers' reports of injuries, illnesses, and incidents, including ways to avoid
discouraging reporting.
• Instruct employers, managers, and supervisors on fundamental concepts and
techniques for recognizing hazards and methods of controlling them,
including the hierarchy of controls
• Instruct employers, managers, and supervisors on incident investigation
techniques, including root cause analysis.
Action level 3:
Train workers on their specific roles in the safety and health program
Additional training may be needed to ensure that workers can incorporate any
assigned safety and health responsibilities into their daily routines and activities.
How to accomplish it
• Instruct workers on how to report injuries, illnesses, incidents, and concerns.
If a computerized reporting system is used, ensure that all employees have
the basic computer skills and computer access sufficient to submit an
effective report.
• Instruct workers assigned specific roles within the safety and health program
on how they should carry out those responsibilities, including:
o Hazard recognition and controls
o Participation in incident investigations
o Program evaluation and improvement
• Provide opportunities for workers to ask questions and provide feedback
during and after the training.
As the program evolves, institute a more formal process for determining the
training needs of workers responsible for developing, implementing, and
maintaining the program.
Action level 4: Train workers on hazard identification and controls
Providing workers with an understanding of hazard recognition and control and
actively involving them
in the process can help to eliminate hazards before an incident occurs.
How to accomplish it
• Train workers on techniques for identifying hazards, such as job hazard
analysis
 • Train workers so they understand and can recognize the hazards they may
encounter in their own jobs, as well as more general work-related hazards.
• Instruct workers on concepts and techniques for controlling hazards,
including the hierarchy of controls and its importance.
• Train workers on the proper use of work practice and administrative
controls.
• Train workers on when and how to wear required personal protective
equipment.

Provide additional training, as necessary, when a change in facilities,

equipment, processes,materials, or work organization could increase hazards, and
whenever a worker is assigned a new task.

The Roles Of National Safety Council Of India In Process Plant Safety:

a) The primary purpose of the Safety Committee is to promote safety awareness

and reduce the potential for injury/loss throughout XYZ Manufacturing Company.
b) The Safety Committee is to be chaired by the Safety Director and include
representatives from each department (total number of committee members not to
exceed five individuals).
c) Members can be volunteers or appointed. Membership is limited to two terms (1
year each) during any four year period. Meetings are to be scheduled, when
possible, for the same day each month (2nd Tuesday of each month – 2:00 p.m.).
All meetings are to take place in the conference room.
d) Each meeting should have a set agenda and minutes of each meeting recorded.
A copy of the minutes shall be forwarded to the Executive Vice-President within
48 hours of meeting.
e) Each Safety Committee Meeting shall include a review of the prior month’s
minutes as well as a review of the prior month’s injury/illness log and
investigations of losses/claims. Past injuries/claims/losses need to be reviewed for
any patterns or trends.

General function of safety committee

• Identifying work place hazards
• Enforcement of safety rules
• Measuring safetry program
• Reducing frequency /severity of injuries
• Creating safety policy
 • Developing and monitoring safety programs
Specific tasks of the Safety Committee can include:
(1) Conducting self-inspections of the workplace
(2) Review employee reports of hazards
(3) Assist in safety training
(4) Creating safety incentive programs
(5) Publish/distribute safety newsletter
(6) Inspect PPE
(7) Post safety posters/slogans on bulletin board
(8) Identify Light Duty Jobs
The Safety Committee of XYZ Manufacturing Company was formed to promote
safety throughout our organization. The benefits of a Safety Committee are
numerous and XYZ Manufacturing believes that this is a forum for problem
solving. The Safety Committee has an open door policy and welcomes suggestions.

Factories act :
The Factories Act, 1948, has been primarily to provide safety measures and
to promote the health and welfare of the workers employed in factories.
Applicability: This Act applies to factories, or to those industrial establishments,
registered under the State Government, or established by notification in the
Official Gazette. This applies to any premises wherein 10 or more persons were
working on any day in the preceding 12 months, wherein manufacturing process is
being carried on. relating to safety and health of employees:
Labour welfare Act:
Applicability: Tamil Nadu Labour welfare fund act (1973) is for promoting
the welfare of the Labour here within the State of Tamil Nadu. It is applicable to
all factories covered under the Factories Act 1948. The maximum salary limit of
worker for availing benefits through these schemes is Rs.15,000/- p.m.
Labour Welfare Schemes under act:
1.Labour welfare centres which are functioning consists of tailoring section,
pre-schools and reading section.
2.Educational scholarship are awarded to children of workers, and
Educational incentive are given for rank holders in public exam.
3.Book allowance, assistance for computer training, spectacles assistance,
hearing aid assistance.
4.marriage assistance scheme, and funeral expenses
5.T.B. wards, holiday homes, and jeeva illam.
6.Uzhaippavar Ulagam a monthly magazine gives updates.
ESI act :
(
 UNIT – I
PART – A

1. What do you meant by safety consciousness?

Safety consciousness is the awareness of the operator about the existing physical and
chemical hazard in the process area and to use suitable personal protective equipment.

2. What do you meant by effective realization?]

The effective realization is to provide safe and healthy working conditions and to
enlist the active support of all staff in achieving these ends.

3. What are the steps in the organization of training program?

1. Selection of training
2. Conducting the training
3. Training evaluation.

4. What are guidelines of safety communication?

1. To whom we are doing?

2. What we are trying to say?
3. Why we are staying it?

5. What are the Practical way to communicate?

1. Black Board
2. Flip chart
3. Flannel Board
4. Display Board

6. What are the purpose of safety posters?

1. To instruct safe practice

2. To encourage use of safety wear
3. To display suitable safety slogan

7. 80% of communication is achieved by ___________

SEEING

1
8. 20% of communication is achieved by ___________

HEARING

9. What are the methods of communication ?

a) Moving Pictures
b) Still Pictures with written commentary
c) Oral communication
d) Written communication

10. What are the objective of supervisors?

1. Maintaining Quality control

2. ensuring safety of workers and machinery
3. To maintain speed of production

11. What are reason that leads to accidents .1. Due to Psychological

12. Give example for that psychological attitudes

1. Consciously violate safety rule- will leads to accident due to in adequate training

13. What are the guidelines of safety communication?

1. At whom we are aiming?

2. What we are trying to say?
3. Why we are saying it?
4. How and at what cost.

14. What are the benefits from the Psychological approach?

It will derived from influencing the safety attitudes of workers including accident
prones.

15. What are the essentials of training?

To ensure safe and satisfactory job performance trainings is essentials at all level of
production and operation.
16. The employers themselves have recognized the fact that trained workers will
improve _____________ and ___________

2
 Safety and productivity

17. What are cryogenic chemicals example?

Solid Co2, liquid N2, liquid air, effecting skin and body.

18. What are tonic chemicals example?

Acids, halogens and related acid affecting eyes . face and body

19. What are combustible chemicals example?

Petrol, naphtha causing fire and explosion

20. What are the objectives of safety communication?

The object of safety communication is to transfer idea and knowledge from one person
to another so that the message will remain in memory and motivate action.

21. What are the Hazards in paint manufacturing ?

Petroleum solvent (fire, explosion, affecting yes skin and lungs) abrasive materials and
dust (affecting eyes and lungs)

22. Give example for “Prevention is better than cure”

Example 1: A welder does not use protective glasses , His eyes are damaged.

Prevention: He should have used welders goggles and mask.

23. Give two example for unsafe act?

a) Standing under suspended load

b) Horse play
c) Working in insufficient light

24. LNG means?

LNG (liquefied Natural gas)

25. Name 6 different industries hazard prone/

3
 1. LPG Plant, NH3 Plant, H2so4 plant, TNT.

UNIT – II
PART – A
1. Classify Potential Hazard?

Potential Hazard classified as

a. un safe acts (personal)
b. un safe conditions (mechanical)

2. Give example for un safe act, unsafe condition?

Unsafe act:

Cleaning a milling machine without gloves

Cleaning naptha storage tank without respirator.

Unsafe condition:

Unguarded gear of a machine tube on laboratory floor.

3. Job safety Analysis define?

Job safety analysis is related to accident prevention to show whether it requires

strength, skill, quick new, previous experience or training.

4. Highly radioactive material emit radiation from _____________

Ans: Radio isotopes

5. Give examples for Isotopes?

I – 131, CS – 137, Co – 60

6. What is Toxic chemicals?

Toxic chemicals are poisonous to human systems, which are inhaled and sometimes
absorbed thro skin affecting nervous and circulatory system.

7. What are the specific hazards of material handling.

4
 1. Improper lifting and handling of heavy loads
2. Unsafe slinging – best type or wise rope type.

8. What are the general hazards of materials?

1. Sharp edges
2. heat and flame burns
3. acid destroys

9. What are safety aspects of milling machine?

1. clean and un obstructed floor area

2. good lighting focused on the cutter
3. safe removal of swarf.

10. What are safety aspects of welding machine?

1. All flammable material like oil, grease should be removed from the area.
2. No smoking or open flame near work area
3. Gas cylinders should be handled strictly.

11. What are Hazards of heat on human body.

High temperature operation produce heat which reaches the human body by radiation,
conduction and convection.

12. What are Acute Effect?

1. Produces heat stress with abdomen

2. Vomiting
3. Rapid raise of temperature

13. What is chronic effect?

1. Head ache
2. Fatigue
3. loss of concentration and efficiency.

14. Precaution to be taken again Heat?

a. Wear suitable goggles to protect from heat

b. Wear heat shied light colour reflective surface.

5
15. What are the Important protection against High Temperature?

a. Provide Instrumentation and special devices to minimize the flow of flammable.

b. Provide combustible gas monitor with alarm below lower explosive limit.

16. What are the general material Hazards at High Temperature?

1. Oxidizing materials
2. Reacting with water
3. Spontaneous polymerization

17. How to avoid spontaneous polymerization due to high temp?

Use inhibitors, provide cooling, pressure relief and use high temperature alarms.

18. What are the possible Hazard for pressure vessels.

Heat required o obtain high temperature in reactor is often provided by fire heaters.
Thermal stresses and hydrogen embrittlement rupture pipes.

19. What are precautionary measures for pressure vessels.

To fit suitable pressure relief device, set at the design pressure. So that over pressure is
relieved in an control manner.

20. What are process Hazards in a HP reactor?

1. Knowledge of material factor is necessary to allow safety factors in design as well as

operation.
2. Process without chemical reaction careful feed in system and product withdrawl are
required to avoid leakage.

21. In high pressure reactor, what are the systems design includes?

1. Special ventilation and dump system

2. Combustible gas monitors
3. automatic deluge systems
22. What are the Hazards of compressed air?

1. Compressed air gets in to blood vessel theo slain cuts or wound.

2. Compressed air creates noise pollution.
3. Vessel or equipment failure due to high pressure.

6
23. ________ is used for gasoline blending

TEL (Tetra ethy lead)

24. List some LD50 values

ms/kg
KCN 10
DDT 150
Table Salt 3000

25. What do you mean by LD50

Leathal dose fifty.

26. Give some highly tonic material?

Highly toxic material such as phosgene or chlorine.

27. TEC is used for _________

Gasoline blending

28. What are the operating practices while handling toxic materials?

i. Regular medical check up

ii. Regular monitoring of the environment to check exposure levels

29. Expand TCV___________

Threshold limit value.

30. How to control the Toxic materials.

1. Equipment or piping should have welded joints in preference to flange.

2. Disposal through suitable vent scrubbers

UNIT – III
PART – A

1. What is Biotic?

7
 Biotic is the living components of Environment. It consists of all the plant, animals
and micro organism which are present.

2. Give example for physical Environment?

1. PH
2. Temperature
3. Topography
4. Soil type
5. Salinity
6. Relative humidity

3. Define Pollution?

Pollution is the result of the action or presence of a pollutant in a part of the

Environment where it is considered to have deleterious effects.

4. Expand ADI & MPI

ADI – Acceptable daily intake.

MPI – Maximum permissible index.

5. What are the modes of Disposal.

1. Disposal on land.
2. Disposal into public Sewage.
3. Disposal into Inland surface value.

6. BIS _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Bureau of Indian Standards.

7. Function of BIS?

BIS stands for tolerance limit for inland surface. Water subject to pollution.

i. for public water supply.

ii. For recreation and aesthetics
iii. Fish culture.
iv. For irrigation.

8
8. What are the different types of fire extinguishers.

Water extinguisher 3 types.

i) Soda acid type.
ii) Gas cartridge type.
iii) Stored pressure type.

9. What do you meant by filling ratio?

mass of co 2 gas
Filling ratio =
mass of water to fill in
the cylinder at 15 o C

10. Explain Industrial Accident?

Industrial Accident is an unexpected activity resulting in damages to equipment,

human beings and environment caused by unsafe acts by person and unsafe conditions of
equipment and work area.

11. What are the safety precaution for the welder?

Welder’s goggles and mask, gloves, apron and safety shoes.

12. What is Accident Analysis?

Accident analysis is the pre requisite to the selection of effective remedy. Accident
Investigation provides accident records as the basis for required.

13. How to prevent Accident?

Accident prevention method in sequence are safety organization involving plant

personnel, fact finding to investigate Accidents, analysis to determine the cause of accidents.
14. CO2 is stored in a gas-cylinder type extinguisher at atom

60 atm

15. What are the Reason for Industrial Accident

1. Human element
2. Faculty environment

16. What are the various type of fire extinguisher?

9
 Fire fighting extinguisher is classified into two
1. Manual
2. Automatic

17. For class B fire which type of material is used to put off the fire.

i. Foam type
ii. Protein or Fluro protein.

(Hydrolysed solution of waste protein with stabilizers and antifreeze agents)

18. What Met-L-X Powder?

Sodium chloride with additives such as tri calcium phosphate, metal stearate and a
thermo plastic.

19. Give example for class B fire?

Oil, hydrocarbon gases and vapour, paints and Lubricating oil.

20. Classify Fire?

Class A fire
Class B fire
Class C fire
Class D fire.

21. What are the basic Accident Remedies that are following in industries?

1. Engineering Revision
2. Personal Adjustment
3. Instruction.
4. Discipline

22. What are the condition needed for fire?

1. Fire is a chemical reaction between one or more elements to produce heat and light.
2. Sparking of electrical equipment.
3. Open flames
4. Static electricity.

10
23. What are the condition needed for explosion?

a. An explosion is the sudden release of energy causing a pressure ware due to blast.
b. An explosion can occur with out fire such as the failure by over-pressure in a steam
boiler.

24. How to control the occupational Hazards.

a. Elimination of the injurious substance or sources.

b. Reduction of exposure frequency.
c. Strict control of injurious substance at the point of origin.
d. Constant use of personal protection devices.

25. Explain about CO2 extinguishers?

CO2 is stored in a gas cylinder type extinguisher at 60 atm, CO 2 is a high pressure

liquefiable gas at atmospheric temperature the internal pressure depends upon the filling.

mass of co 2 gas
Filling ratio =
mass of water to fill in
the cylinderat 15 o C.

26. -------- kg of Dry powder will be kept in the fire extinguisher.

20 g of co2 / kg of Dry powder

27. What are the hazards of H2SO4

a. The acid mist is strongly irritant to nose throat and lungs.

b. Burns of skin.
c. Intense irritation of the eyes.
d. Causes permanent blackening of the teeth.

28. What are the first aid have to be followed after acid burn?

1. First aid (Speed is important)

2. Eyes wash in eye fountain for at least 10 minutes
3. Skin: Remove all contaminated clothing and wash in shower.

29. What are the sign and symptoms of the Acute poisoning?

11
 Irritation to the mucos membrane of the respiratory tract which may lead to bronchitis
and pulmonary oedeiva.

30. What is the treatment for Acute Poisoning

1. Oxygen therapy and rest.

2. eyes should be irrigated continuously first with water and then with buffered
phosphate solution for 15 minutes.

31. What will cause an accident?

Social environment, fault of the workers and unsafe condition at workplace lead to an
accident causing injury to the worker.

32. What are the problems in asbestos Industries?

A sphyxiant is a chemical (example, co) which gets in to blood stream thro’ skin or
breathing removes O2 from the blood unconsciousness or death in severe cases.

33. While working High temperature oil Industries what are safety precaution to be
taken?

Use goggles, gloves, apron and boots to avoid oil splash.

34. While working High temperature oil Industries what are safety precaution to be
taken for Electrical motors and switches

1. Equipment and area neat and dry

2. No defective plugs, socket.
3. Fire-proof electrical system (no sparks)
4. dust proof with guards.

35. For the moving parts of crushers, conveyors, gear box what king of safety
precaution we have to follow?

1. Sides end ends of conveyors to be securely guarded.

2. Hands and clothing must be kept clear to avoid to applying.
3. crushers work at high pressure impact. So they must have guards and safety
devices.
4. Gear Box (gear wheels) must be covered to avoid running hips.

12
36. In Extraction plant which area is more hazardous?

Hexane Leakage (63oC), Moving parts (conveyors, gearbox), Electrical (motors).

37. One of the most dangerous features of lathe work is

The projection of stock bar from the machine.

38. What are safety measure to be taken while operating Boiler?

1. Suitable boils, Instrumentation, Water level control and safety trip system.

39. Suitable goggles and we can use to protect from steam hazard

gloves and apron.

40. The spray-paint process conducted in a workshop resulted

Inhalation of other workers in different area.

UNIT – IV
PART – A

1. ______________is to be taken incase the turn over is expected to cross Rs.50

Lakhs/annum.

Central Excise registration.

2. What is employees state Insurance?

It is mandatory even for staff of as Casual nature. The E.S.I. Act to day is very
comprehensive.

3. Purpose of Apprentice Act 1961?

This Act provides regulations to impart suitable training to workers to learn safe
working practices and to increase productivity.

4. When was workmen’s compensation act implemented?

1923.

5. Explain employer’s liability Act 1938.

13
This act explains that the employee cannot plead in defence during law suits:

a) If unsafe condition existed in work place.

b) If supervisors was not functioning properly.

6. Benefits of State Insurance Act.

The object of this Act is to introduce social insurance and medical benefits for workers
affected by industrial accidents.

7. Explain Indian explosive Act.

Safe working rules while dealing with explosive manufactures and also using
explosive for various purposes are laid down in this Act.

8. What are responsibility of management, classify it?

Management responsibilities falls in to 3 broad groups

1. Economic
2. Humane
3. Legislative

9. List of Factories safety Act.

Indian Electricity Act 1910

Petroleum Act 1934
Factories Act 1948
Mines Act 1952
Indian Explosive Act 1884

10. Give examples of unsafe Act.

a) Standing under suspended load

b) Horse play
c) Working in insufficient light
d) Starting machinery with out safe guard.

11. Draw the chart of safety organization.

14
 PRESIDENT

EXECUTIVE SAFETY
COMMITTEE

GENERAL MANAGER

OPERATION SAFETY
COMMITTEE

12. What are the operations PLANT SAFETY

of safety committee?
DEPARTMENT

1. Acts on Accident – investigation reports.

2. Periodically checks authorized safety procedures.
3. Approves proposals regarding new construction and installation of equipment.

13. Expand CMDA.

Chief Metropolitan Development Authority.

14. What are Remedies for unsafe Acts?

Unsafe Acts Remedies

Improper attitude: Medical attention psychological
Disregard, lazy, un co-operative, impatient treatment, disciplinary action and
absent – minded, phobia and intolerant Engg. Revision.

15. What are the causes of fire?

1. Smoking
2. Gas cutting and welding
3. Hot lines and surfaces
4. Rubbish burning
5. Unknown causes

15
16. What is accident cost?

In process industry accident cost is direct cost and indirect (Hidden) cost.

17. How to protect our Eyes and Face?

Numerous eye injuries are caused by dust. Flying particles, splashier, and harmful
radiations. It is difficult to cover periodically the various processes in which the worker may
be required to wear goggle.

18. What are the types of personal protective equipment?

Personal Protective equipment may be divided in to two broad groups.

i) Non-respiratory protective equipment
ii) Respiratory protective equipment
19. Classify Hazards.

Hazards can be classified in to 3 main categories.

a) Oxygen Deficiency
b) Gaseous contaminants
c) Particulate contaminants

20. What is the purpose of pressure Hose mask?

This hose mask is similar to suction hose mask except that the air is forced through a
large diameter hose by a hand or motors – operated blower.

21. _____________ Aci purifying Respirator.

Canister gas mask

22. Purpose of Respirator?

They remove toxic gases and vapours and particulate matter from inspired air example
of their used in spray painting work.

23. Sanitary facilities?

Bad and offensive odour gives poor workmanship + lower productivity. They must be
removed by using germicides. Changes in ventilation + general cleanliness. SF include wash
room and toilet facilities drinking water locker room + shower room.

16
24. ESI Benefits.

1. Sickness Benefits
2. Medical Benefits
3. Maturity Benefits
4. Dependable Benefits

25. What are the steps for Accident prevention?

1. Establish reporting procedures of accident

2. Study the accidents rates.
3. Study the people and the department involved in Accident.
4. Study of accident environment.
5. Analyze and tabulate all the facts concerning accidents.
6. Determine the course of action and
7. Assign responsibility of action.

26. What are the Requirement of personal protective equipment?

Requirement of suitable personal protective equipments can be listed as under

i) Nature of hazard
ii) Severity of hazard
iii) Type of contaminant
iv) Concentration of the contaminant.

27. Give example for Chemical Resistant materials ______________ and ___________

Acids and alkalis

28. Classify Air purifying type.

Air Purifying type

Mechanical Chemical Combination of

Filter Filter Mechanical and
Chemical filters

Maintenance Micro
Dust Filter

17
Filter

Canister Chemical Self rescue

Cartridge mask cartridge type
type

29. What are need for vocational guidance?

Vocational guidance is
i) To provide skillful workers
ii) To induce knowledge about safety precaution during their work.
iii) To prepare them for new working condition due to change of job area with safety
orientation.

30. While selecting equipment what are the steps to be followed?

The major steps to be taken in the proper selection of equipment are unit operational
reliability, unit flexibility, with future expansion facility, emergency shut down facility, over
pressure control and over temperature control facilities.

UNIT – V
PART –A

1. What is effective realization?

Effective realization I to provide safe and healthy working condition’s and to enlist the
active support of all staff in achieving these end.

2. What is occupational hazards?

Occupational hazards (such as acids, arsenic, asbestos, CS2, Pb compounds, Hg etc) lead
to occupational diseases such as dermatitis.

3. Personal Protective Equipment?

Personal Protective Equipments are designed to interpose an effective barrier between a

person and harmful objects, chemicals or radiations meant to grand the person.

4. Give example for Poisonous gas?

TEL, H2S and NH3

18
5. What are the major steps to be taken in proper selection of equipment?

Steps taken in the proper selection o equipment are unit operational reliability, unit
flexibility, with future expansion facility, emergency shutdown facility.

6. Need of vocational guidance?

Vocational Guidance is,

i. To provide skillful workers

ii. To induce knowledge about safety precautions, during their work.
iii. To prepare them for men working condition.

7. What is Safety Audit?

Safety Audit refers to industrial safety accountability. It is a systematic critical

examination of an industrial operation in its entirely to identify potential hazards and lends
of risk. This helps calculation of accident cost.
8. The inherent toxicity of a material is measured by _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _

Test on animals

9. LD50 < 1 mg/kg _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Extremely toxic

10.LD50 > 15 mg/kg _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Relatively non-toxie

11. What are the different types of water expelling fire extinguishers.

1. Hand appliance like bucket

2. Portable fire extinguishers
3. Hose-reds with get Nozzle.

12.Importance of ventilation?

i. Ventilation give fresh air supply

ii. It removes contaminants and by air circulation

13.Give examples for TLV

19
CO 100 PPM, CO2 5000 PPM, H2S 20 PPM.

14. What do you meant by CO2 extinguishers?

High pressure CO2 eliminate O2 and acts as fire suppressor used for classes B and C.

15. Give example for Vital Pump.

Liquid ammonia pump in the Urea plant.

16. What are the major sources of equipment deterioration?

i. Vibration (which could be eliminated by deign)

ii. Corrosion (which could be prevented by using better material or protective coating)

17. Elimination of source explain?

A foundry having sand blash equipment lead to performed injuries and occupational
diseases during cleaning.

18. What are corrosive chemicals?

Acids, halogens and related acids affecting eyes, face and body.

19. What are the hazards in NH4NO3 Plant?

Ammonia Nitrate is very sensitive to heat and shock causing explosion constant
exposure to ammonium nitrate interferes with O2 is blood damaging respiratory and nervous
system.

20. Worker’s ignorance may be tolerated while dealing with new equipment.

False

Reason: supply of new equipment I accompanied by operational instruction and training

facility try the supplier. Experienced workers learns to operate new equipment (to avoid
production time loss).

21. Cannister Respirator use?

Canister Respirator (chemical catridge respirator) consists of respirator along with

replaceable chemical catridge for a particular gas service.

20
22. What are the organization that works for the safety of industries?

1. National Safety Council

2. National Fire protection council

23. Explain about Bhopal gas tragedy?

Bhopal gas Tragedy 1984 Union Carbide Plant : leak of methyl isocyanate gas killing
injury many in ma scale.

24. What is dow index?

Dow index is a fire and explosion index. It is a number calculated based on the process
and the properties of the materials. The larger the value of the index, the more hazardous is
the process.
25. What are the Industries which are hazard prone?

H2SO4 plant, NH3 Plant, LPG Plant, TNT Plant, LNG (liquefied Natural gas) Plant, Safety
matches factory.

26. While taking in to account several agents that causes accidents,

The human factor is not less important” most of the accidents are caused potential
hazards, un safe acts (human factor) being part of potential hazard are not les important in
causing accident.

27. What are stages involved in dust explosion?

Dust explosion occurs in 2 stages : a primary explosion which disturbs deposited dust
followed by second severe explosion of the dust thrown in to the atmosphere.

Ex : Sulphur dust or Polymer Powder stored in Silos.

28. Advantages of Preventive maintenance?

1. It results in mini equipment break down.

2. Increases equipment life
3. ensures preventive maintenance

29. In pressure type extinguisher compressed are will be _ ___ _ _ _ _ bar.

5 to 8 bar.

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30. CO2 gas in inside high pressure gas catridge at _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ atm.

12.

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