STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY REVIEWER

What is a Random Experiment?

A Random experiment is an action or process that leads to one several possible
outcomes.

Examples: Sample Space:

Tossing a coin {Heads, Tails}
Casting a dice {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Drawing a card from a standard deck of cards Drawing a card from a
standard deck of cards

Random Variable
Is a numerical quantity that represents the outcome of an experiment. It is usually
denoted by an uppercase letter of the English alphabet. It is a mapping of the random
outcome to a number.

Examples:
Q = the number of times the coin turns up a head in five trials of tossing it
S = The total running time of a track and field athlete
T = the number of points of an MVP player

Sample Space
A collection of all possible events usually denoted by the letter “S”. The elements in the
sample space are called sample points.

Steps on how to determine the random variables on any events or

experiments:

1. Determine the sample space. Assign letters that will represent each outcome.
2. Count the number of the value of the random variable (capital letter assigned).

Example 1:
Suppose a coin is tossed twice. Let X be the number of heads that occur. Determine the
possible values of a random variable X.
Step 1: List the sample space of the experiment.
H - Head S = {HH, HT ,TH ,TT}
T - Tail
Step 2: Count the number of heads that occur.

Outcomes of the Experiment Number of Heads

HH 2

HT 1

TH 1

TT 0

The number of the occurrence of the heads are 0,1, and 2.

Step 3: Construct frequency distribution table of values of the random variable.

Number of Heads Occurrence of Heads (x) Frequency

2 HH 1

1 HT, TH 2

0 TT 1

Total: 4

Step 4: Construct the probability distribution of the random variable X by getting

the probability of the random variable..

Number of Heads Frequency Probability (x)

2 1 1/4

1 2 1/2

0 1 1/4

Total: 4 1
Types of Random Variable
1. Discrete Random Variable
Is a random variable associated with numerical values or a set of possible
outcomes that are countable or whole numbers only. Countable or listable values
that take on one specific value (whole/counting numbers, finite)
2. Continuous Random Variable
Is a random variable where the observed numerical values are in a continuous
scale. This can take on non-integers as this can take on any of the numbers
contained within the number line. (only accurate as the decimal places)

Probability Mass Function of Discrete random variable X

Number of Heads 0 1 2

Probability of (x) 1/4 1/4 1/2

A probability mass function (PMF) is a function over the sample space of a discrete
random variable X which gives the probability that X is equal to a certain value.
f(x)=P[X=x] ; f ( x ) = P [ X = x ] .

Quanti and Quali

Good data allows organizations to establish baselines, benchmarks, and goals to keep
moving forward.

Data allows you to measure. You will establish baselines, find benchmarks, and set
performance goals.

Purpose of Statistics
It is more than collecting and organizing data. It is about analyzing and displaying
information coherently so others can:
- Observe Patterns
- Determine Relationships
- Draw inferences or conclusions about what is seen
Statistics is to gather, organize, analyze, and interpret data. It is the art and science of
designing studies and analyzing the data that the studies produce
An element (individual) is a specific subject or object about the information collected.
An element is sometimes referred to as a unit, case or member and may represent
people, animals, or things.

A variable is any measurable or observable characteristic of an element and can take

different values for different elements.

Data are the actual observations or measures of a variable.

Data set is the collection of observations of one or more variables sometimes data is
referred to as values.

Inference means we draw measured conclusions based on the data.

Descriptive Statistics summarizes collected data using graphs, charts, number lines,
averages, and percentages. Summarizes what we are seeing.

- Frequency
Distribution
- Measures of
Central
Tendency
DESCRIPTIVE

- Variability (Range,
STATISTIC SD, Variance)
S - Convey
information

INFERENTIAL

- Regression Analysis
- Hypothesis Testing
- Confidence Interval
- Infer conclusions,
predictions
Categorical and Quantitative Data
Data are the measurable or observable characteristics of a group of objects or people
and classified by the type of value or variable that it represents.

Types of Data:
1. Categorical Data
2. Quantitative Data
Categorical Data
- values that describe some characteristics of the element.
- It is also known as Qualitative Data, It has values that are verbal descriptions.

Ex.
- Gender
- Race
- Year in school (Grades school, Junior High, Senior High)
- Type of car you drive
- Favorite color

Quantitative Data
- Data that takes on numerical values as in a count or measure and is used to
measure averages and ranges.
Ex.
- # of accidents in a year
- # of students in a class
- # of pets owned
- # of cars in a parking lot
- #shoe size

Discrete
- Countable or listable values that take on one specific value(whole/counting
numbers, and finite).
Ex.
- Income
- Height
- Weight
- Time
- Hours worked

Continuous
- Data can assume infinitely many possible values in the domain or interval (only
accurate as the decimal places).

Data
- Univariate Data (one-variable) describes a single characteristic of a data set or
population.
- Bivariate Data (two-variables) – describes two characteristics for each subject.
- Multivariate Data (many variables) – describes many characteristics for each
subject.
Frequency Table

- A method of organizing raw data in a compact

form by displaying a series of scores in
ascending or descending order, together with
their frequencies – the number of times each
score occurs in the respective data.

Pie Chart

- It is divided into slices to illustrate numerical

proportion.

Bar Graph

- It presents categorical data with rectangular

bars with heights or lengths.
- The bars can be plotted vertically or
horizontally.

Other forms of Data:

LOCATION OF DISTRIBUTION

Percentage - It is a means of comparing quantities.

THE PERCENTAGE IS ANY PROPORTION OR SHARE CONCERNING A WHOLE.

Percentile - used to display position or rank

THE PERCENTILE IS DIVIDING EACH VALUE BY 100. ONE BEING PART OF A
WHOLE.

Frequency Distribution Table

 - Count the number of raw data/values (n)
- Find the number of classes (use the 2k-rule)
- Divide the range by the # of classes (class interval)

MEASURES OF CENTER

Mean
- Arithmetic mean
- The average of the expected value that measures the central value of a data set.
- - It is found by adding all of the data values and dividing it by the number of
values
Sample Mean
- The average of the values collected
Population Mean
- The average of all the values in the population.

Median
- The middle term, or number in a data set ranked in ascending order.
- It separates the lower half of the data set from the upper half.
Odd data set - The median is the middle number.
Even data set - The median is the average of the two middle terms.

Mode
- The value that occurs most frequently in the data set and is considered the most
popular number or term.

Range
 - The difference between the maximum value and the minimum value.

Interquartile
- The difference of Q3 and Q1
- Represents if the outlier is strong or mild.
- IQR = Q3 – Q1
Q1 = median of lower portion of the data set
Q3 = median of upper portion of data set

In statistics, a quartile is a type of quantile which divides the number of data points into
four parts, or quarters, of more-or-less equal size. The data must be ordered from
smallest to largest to compute quartiles; as such, quartiles are a form of order statistic

To find the values for quartiles, simply find the median (Quartile 2), the median of
the Quartile 1(lower half), and the median of Quartile 3 (upper half).
Outliers
- are those values that do not seem to fit the rest of the dataset.

We need to find the “fences” or those numbers that enclose the data and indicate the
acceptable range for our data set.

Box and Whisker Plot

GROUPED DATA CALCULATION

Variance and Standard Deviation
- are measures that indicate how
much the values of the set of
data deviate or spread out from
the mean. They show your data
is close to the mean or fluctuates
a lot.