Lecture 8:

Sequences & Summations

Section 2.4
Section Summary
● Sequences.
○ Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic
Progression
● Recurrence Relations
○ Example: Fibonacci Sequence
● Summations
Functions
Definition : Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from
A to B, denoted f : A → B is an assignment of each element
of A to exactly one element of B. We write f(a) = b if b is
the unique element of B assigned by the function f to the
element a of A.
Students Grades
A
● Functions are sometimes Carl
B
called mappings or
Sandeep
transformations. C

Williams D

Scott F
Functions
Given a function f : A → B :
● We say f maps A to B or
f is a mapping from A to B.
● A is called the domain of f.
● B is called the codomain of f.
● If f (a) = b,
○ then b is called the image of a under f.
○ a is called the preimage of b.
● The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f.
We denote it by f (A ).
Sequences
● Sequences are ordered lists of elements.
○ 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 (finite)
○ 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, ……. (infinite)

Definition : A sequence is a function from a subset of the integers

(usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …} or {1, 2, 3, 4, …} ) to a set S.

● The notation an is used to denote the image of the integer n.

We can think of an as the equivalent of f(n) where f is a function
from {0, 1, 2, …} to S. We call an a term of the sequence.
Sequences
Example : Consider the sequence where
Geometric Progression
Definition : A geometric progression is a sequence of the form:

where the initial term a and the common ratio r are real numbers.
Examples :
1. Let a = 1 and r = −1. Then:

2. Let a = 2 and r = 5. Then:

3. Let a = 6 and r = 1/3. Then:

Arithmetic Progression
Definition : A arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form:

where the initial term a and the common difference d are real numbers.
Examples :
1. Let a = −1 and d = 4:

2. Let a = 7 and d = −3:

3. Let a = 1 and d = 2:
Recurrence Relations
Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is an
equation that expresses an in terms of one or more of the
previous terms of the sequence , namely, a0, a1, …, an-1, for
all integers n with n ≥ n0, where n0 is a nonnegative integer.

● A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation if its

terms satisfy the recurrence relation.
● The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms that
precede the first term where the recurrence relation takes
effect.
Recurrence Relations
Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,…. and suppose that a0 = 2.
What are a1 , a2 and a3?
[Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.]

Solution : We see from the recurrence relation that

a1 = a 0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a3 = 8 + 3 = 11
Recurrence Relations
Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
an = an-1 – an-2 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5.
What are a2 and a3?
[Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. ]

Solution : We see from the recurrence relation that

a2 = a 1 – a 0 = 5 – 3 = 2
a3 = a2 – a1 = 2 – 5 = –3
Fibonacci Sequence
Definition : We define the Fibonacci sequence,
f0 , f1 , f2, … , by:
● Initial Conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
● Recurrence Relation: fn = fn-1 + fn-2
Example : Find f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 and f6 .
Answer:
f2 = f1 + f0 = 1 + 0 = 1 ,
f 3 = f2 + f1 = 1 + 1 = 2 ,
f4 = f3 + f2 = 2 + 1 = 3 ,
f 5 = f4 + f3 = 3 + 2 = 5 ,
f6 = f5 + f4 = 5 + 3 = 8 .
Solving Recurrence Relations
● Finding a formula for the n th term of the sequence
generated by a recurrence relation is called solving the
recurrence relation .
● Such a formula is called a closed formula.
● Various methods for solving recurrence relations will be
covered in next lectures (Chapter 8) where recurrence
relations will be studied in greater depth.
● For now, we illustrate by example the method of iteration
in which we need to guess the formula. The guess can be
proved correct by the method of induction.
Iterative Solution Example
Method 1: Working upward, forward substitution
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an-1 + 3
for n = 2, 3, 4, …. and suppose that a1 = 2.
a2 = 2 + 3
a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 2
a4 = (2 + 2 ∙ 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.
an = an-1 + 3 = (2 + 3 ∙ ( n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n – 1)
Iterative Solution Example
Method 2: Working downward, backward substitution
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an = an-1 + 3
for n = 2, 3, 4, …. and suppose that a1 = 2.
an = an-1 + 3
= (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an-2 + 3 ∙ 2
= (an-3 + 3)+ 3 ∙ 2 = an-3 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.
= a2 + 3(n – 2) = (a 1 + 3) + 3( n – 2) = 2 + 3(n – 1)
Real World Application
Example : Suppose that a person deposits $10,000.00 in a
savings account at a bank yielding 11% per year with
interest compounded annually. How much will be in the
account after 30 years?
Solution:
Let Pn denote the amount in the account after n years.
Then, Pn satisfies the following recurrence relation:
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000.

Continued on next slide ⇒

Real World Application
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000
Solving the recurrence with Forward Substitution:
P1 = (1.11)P0
P2 = (1.11)P1 = (1.11)2P0
P3 = (1.11)P2 = (1.11)3P0
:
Pn = (1.11)Pn-1 = (1.11)nP0 = (1.11)n 10,000
Since, Pn = (1.11)n 10,000 , P30 = (1.11)30 10,000 = $228,992.97.
Identifying Integer Sequences
● Given a few terms of a sequence, try to identify the
sequence. Conjecture a formula, recurrence relation, or
some other rule.
● Some questions to ask?
○ Are there repeated terms of the same value?
○ Can you obtain a term from the previous term by adding
an amount or multiplying by an amount?
○ Can you obtain a term by combining the previous
terms in some way?
○ Are there cycles among the terms?
○ Do the terms match those of a well known sequence?
Identifying Integer Sequences
Find formulae for the sequences with the following first five terms:
Example 1 : 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, ….
Solution: Note that the denominators are powers of 2.
The sequence with an = 1/2n is a possible match.
This is a geometric progression with a = 1 and r = 1/2.
Example 2 : 1,3,5,7,9
Solution: Note that each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous
term. A possible formula is an = 2n + 1.
This is an arithmetic progression with a =1 and d = 2.
Example 3 : 1, –1, 1, –1,1
Solution: The terms alternate between 1 and -1.
A possible sequence is an = (−1)n .
This is a geometric progression with a = 1 and r = −1.
Useful Sequences
Guessing Sequences
Example : Conjecture a simple formula for an if the first 10
terms of the sequence {an} are
1, 7, 25, 79, 241, 727, 2185, 6559, 19681, 59047.

Solution : Note the ratio of each term to the previous

approximates 3. So now compare with the sequence 3n .
{3n} = 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, 6561, 19683, 59049, ...
We notice that the nth term is 2 less than the corresponding
power of 3. So a good conjecture is that an = 3n − 2.
Summations
● Sum of the terms from the sequence
● The notations:

or, or,

represents

● The variable j is called the index of summation.

It runs through all the integers starting with its lower limit, m and
ending with its upper limit, n.
Summations
● More generally for a set S:

● Examples :
Summations Examples
1. What is the value of ?
Solution:

2. What is the value of ?

Solution:
Summation of Series Formula
Sums of terms of geometric progressions

Proof: Let To compute Sn , first multiply both sides of the

equality by r and then manipulate the resulting sum:

Continued on next slide ⇒

Summation of Series Formula
From previous slide.

Shifting the index of summation with k = j + 1.

Removing k = n + 1 term and

adding k = 0 term.

Substituting S for summation formula

if r ≠1 if r = 1
Some Useful Summation Formulae
for Arithmetic Series,

We can
prove these
by
induction,
also.

Proof requires
calculus