QUESTIONS FOR THE STATE FINAL

EXAMINATION IN ENGLISH FOR A

BACHELOR’S DEGREE

1. Methods Of English Language Teaching

Topic 1. Methods of English Language Teaching (MELT) as a discipline

Aims, content, and principles of teaching a FL.

Aims and Principles of Foreign Language Teaching

It is a common knowledge that there are lots of languages in the world, and some of them fall
into the category of international languages or languages of wider communication groups,
such as English; French, German, Spanish, Russian, Italian and Arabic.
English language is very important nowadays. More and more people need English to attend
universities and colleges, because now we have an opportunity to get higher education abroad.
New ideas in science and medicine happen so quickly that it is impossible to translate
everything into different languages. Most articles are published in English. English is the
language of international communication in many areas of life: trade, air and sea transport,
tourism and sport. Ukraine is establishing closer economic, political, scientific, and cultural
relations with various peoples of the world. International relations are extended and strength-
ened through the exchange of scientific, technical, and cultural information. In this situation
foreign language teaching is a matter of state significance.
In modern society language is used in two ways: directly or orally, and indirectly or in written
form. Thus we distinguish oral language and written language. Direct communication implies
a speaker and a hearer, indirect communication implies a writer and a reader. Hence the
practical aims in teaching a foreign language are four in number: hearing, speaking, reading,
and writing.
Aims are the first and most important consideration in any teaching. Hence the teacher should
know exactly what his pupils are expected to achieve in learning his subject, what changes he
can bring about in his pupils at the end of the course, at the end of the year, term, month,
week, and each particular lesson, he should know the aims and objectives of foreign language
teaching. The changes the teacher must bring about in his pupils may be threefold: practical
—pupils acquire habits and skills in using a foreign language; educational — they
develop their mental abilities and intelligence in the process of learning the foreign
language; сultural — pupils extend their knowledge of the world in which they live.
Therefore there are three aims, at least, which should be achieved in foreign language
teaching: practical, educational, and cultural.

Practical aims. The foreign language as a subject differs from other subjects of the school
curriculum. Whereas the teaching, for instance, of history is mostly connected with the
imparting of historical laws and facts which pupils are to learn and the teaching of the mother
tongue leads to the mastery of the language as a system (which is already used for exchanging
thoughts and feelings) so that pupils will be able to use it more effectively in oral and written
language, the teaching of a foreign language should result in the pupil's gaining one more
code for receiving and conveying information; that is, in acquiring a second language for the
same purpose as the native language: to use it as a means of communication.
The nature of the language should also be taken into consideration in determining the aims of
language teaching. Learning a living language implies using the language of sounds, that is,
speaking. Scientific research gives a more profound insight into the problem. It is not so much
the ability to speak that is meant here but rather the oral treatment; in other words, the
language of sounds, not of graphic signs (which is usually the case when a dead language is
studied) should serve as basic means of teaching.
The length of the course, the frequency of the lessons, the size of groups should also be taken
into consideration in adopting practical aims. The amount of time for language learning is one
of the most decisive factors in mastering and maintaining language proficiency since learners
need practice. The more time is available for pupils' practice in the target language, the better
results can be achieved. Moreover, for the formation of speech habits frequency of lessons is a
more essential condition than the length of the course. It is not necessary to prove (it has
already been proved) that intensive courses are more effective than extensive ones, for
example, six periods a week for three years are more effective for language learning than
three periods a week for six years.
In foreign language learning all forms of work must be in close interrelation, otherwise it is
impossible to master the language. However, attention should be given mainly to practice in
hearing, speaking, and reading. Thus pupils must achieve a level in their knowledge of the
language which will enable them to further develop it at an institute or in their practical work.
The achievement of practical aims in foreign language teaching makes possible the
achievement of educational and cultural aims.
Educational aims. Learning a foreign language is of great educational value. Through a new
language we can gain an insight into the way in which words express thoughts, and so achieve
greater clarity and precision in our own communications. Even at the most elementary level
learning a foreign language teaches the cognizance of meaning, furnishes a term of
comparison that gives us an insight into the quality of language. When learning a foreign
language the pupil understands better how language functions and this brings him to a greater
awareness of the functioning of his own language.
Since language is connected with thinking, through foreign language study we can develop
the pupil's intellect. Teaching a foreign language helps the teacher develop the pupils'
voluntary and involuntary memory, his imaginative abilities, and will power. Indeed, in
learning a new language the pupil should memorize words, idioms, sentence patterns,
structures, and keep them in long-term memory ready to be used whenever he needs them in
auding, speaking, reading, and writing. Teaching a foreign language under conditions when
this is the only foreign language environment, is practically impossible without appealing to
pupils’ imagination. The lack of real communication forces the teacher to create imaginary
situations for pupils, to speak about making each pupil determine his language behaviour as if
he were in such situations.
Teaching a foreign language contributes to the linguistic education of the pupil, the latter
extends his knowledge of phonic, graphic, structural, and semantic aspects of language
through contrastive analysis of language phenomena. In teaching a foreign language the
teacher is called upon to inculcate in pupils the scientific outlook, to prepare the young people
for an active participation in production and other types of useful activities.

Teachers of foreign languages make their contribution to the education of pupils, to their
ideological education. Their role in the upbringing of the younger generation cannot be
overestimated.
Cultural aims. Learning a foreign language makes the pupil acquainted with the life, customs
and traditions of the people whose language he studies through visual material (such as post
cards with the views of towns, countryside, and people; filmstrips, for example, "Great
Britain", "What Tourists Can See in London", "Disney Land" films) and reading material
dealing with the countries where the target language is spoken. Foreign language teaching
should promote puipls' general educational and cultural growth by increasing their knowledge
about foreign countries, and by acquainting them with progressive traditions of the people
whose language they study. Through learning a foreign language the pupil gains a deeper
insight into the nature and functioning of language as a social phenomenon.
It should be said that practical, educational, and cultural aims are intimately related and form
an inseparable unity. The leading role belongs to practical aims, for the others can only be
achieved through the practical command of the foreign language. But to achieve any aim it is
necessary to remember about the Methods of teaching. Methods of foreign language teaching
is understood as a body of scientifically tested theory concerning the teaching of foreign
languages in educational institutions. It covers three main problems as: content of teaching, i.
e. what to teach to attain the aims; methods and techniques of teaching, i. e. how to teach a
foreign language to attain the aims in the most effective way to meet modern requirements.

Periods of development of ELT.

The development of the Models of Engaged Learning and Teaching (MELT) can be
understood through several distinct periods, each characterized by unique advancements and
focuses.
The Origins and Early Development period laid the foundation for MELT by defining its
core concepts and principles. During this time, there was a strong emphasis on understanding
the ways students learn and structuring teaching methods to support this learning effectively.
This period saw the creation of foundational frameworks such as the Research Skill
Development (RSD), which articulated the fundamental ideas of MELT.
Following this was the Expansion and Adaptation period, where MELT frameworks were
adapted to suit various educational contexts and disciplines. For instance, Monash University
developed a Digital Skills Development framework based on MELT principles, tailored for
the digital age. Additionally, the Work Skill Development (WSD) framework emerged to help
students articulate their employability skills during internships and co-op placements. This
period highlighted the adaptability of MELT in addressing different educational needs.
In the Interdisciplinary Applications period, MELT frameworks were increasingly utilized
across different disciplines. This included their application in transdisciplinary contexts like
addiction studies and climate change, where MELT's flexibility facilitated fluid conversations
and collaboration across fields. MELT-informed rubrics became instrumental in structuring
assessments and learning activities in these diverse areas, demonstrating the model's broad
applicability.
The Advanced Research and Higher Education period saw MELT frameworks being
employed in higher education, particularly for postgraduate research and early career
researchers. The RSD7 framework, which outlines seven levels of research skill development,
became an essential tool for doctoral students and researchers to assess and enhance their
research capabilities. This period focused on promoting sophisticated thinking and
autonomous learning at higher educational levels, further expanding MELT's reach and
utility.
Lastly, the Beyond Traditional Educational Settings period marked the adaptation of
MELT frameworks for contexts outside traditional education, such as the Peer Assisted Study
Scheme (PASS) and other support structures. These adaptations showcased the versatility and
applicability of MELT principles in various learning and support environments. One notable
example is the Pillars in Evaluation (PIE) model, which introduced new parameters like
'dynamism' to emphasize fluidity in learning.
Overall, the evolution of MELT from a conceptual framework into a versatile set of tools and
models has supported engaged learning and teaching across a wide range of contexts and
disciplines. Each period of development has contributed to refining and expanding MELT's
application, making it a robust framework for fostering sophisticated thinking and effective
learning.
Traditional approaches to language teaching.
Traditional approaches to language teaching have shaped the way languages are learned and
taught for many years. These methods are deeply rooted in classical education, emphasizing
grammar, translation, and rote learning. Here's a detailed look at some of the most prominent
traditional approaches:
1. Grammar-Translation Method:
The Grammar-Translation Method is one of the oldest and most traditional approaches to
language teaching. Originating from the teaching of classical languages like Latin and Greek,
this method focuses on the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the translation of sentences
between the target language and the native language. Students spend a significant amount of
time memorizing vocabulary lists, conjugating verbs, and translating literary texts. The
primary goal is to develop reading and writing skills rather than speaking or listening abilities.
This method is characterized by a teacher-centered classroom where instruction is primarily
delivered in the students' native language.
2. Direct Method:
 In response to the limitations of the Grammar-Translation Method, the Direct Method
emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This method emphasizes direct engagement
with the target language, with no translation involved. Lessons are conducted entirely in the
target language, and students learn through listening and speaking. The focus is on everyday
vocabulary and sentences, promoting natural language acquisition similar to how one learns
their first language. Grammar is taught inductively, meaning students infer rules from
language usage rather than learning them explicitly. The Direct Method prioritizes oral
communication, with an emphasis on correct pronunciation and spontaneous use of the
language.
3. Audio-Lingual Method:
Developed in the mid-20th century, particularly during World War II, the Audio-Lingual
Method was influenced by behaviorist theories of learning. This approach relies heavily on
repetition and drills to instill language patterns. Language learning is seen as a process of
habit formation, and students engage in extensive listening and speaking exercises, including
mimicry and memorization of set phrases. Grammar is taught through patterns and dialogues
rather than rules. The teacher models the language, and students repeat it until it becomes
automatic. The Audio-Lingual Method emphasizes accuracy and aims to reduce errors
through continuous practice.
4. Structural Approach:
The Structural Approach, closely related to the Audio-Lingual Method, focuses on teaching
the basic structures of the language. It breaks down language into its component parts, such as
phonemes, morphemes, and syntax, and teaches these systematically. This method is
analytical, with a strong emphasis on mastering sentence patterns and grammatical structures.
Like the Audio-Lingual Method, it relies on repetition and drills but with a more structured
and systematic presentation of language elements. The Structural Approach aims to develop a
solid grammatical foundation that supports further language learning.
5. Situational Language Teaching:
Situational Language Teaching, also known as the Oral Approach, was developed in the
United Kingdom during the 1930s to 1960s. This method emphasizes teaching language
through meaningful contexts and real-life situations. Language structures are presented and
practiced within specific contexts, such as shopping, dining, or traveling. This approach
integrates the teaching of vocabulary, grammar, and functions within these situations. Lessons
often involve role-plays and simulations to create a realistic language learning environment.
The goal is to make language learning more practical and relevant to the students' needs.
These traditional approaches to language teaching have laid the groundwork for modern
methodologies. While some of these methods have fallen out of favor due to their limitations,
they have also provided valuable insights and techniques that continue to influence
contemporary language teaching practices. Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses,
and effective language instruction often involves integrating elements from multiple methods
to address the diverse needs of learners.
 Contemporary approaches to language teaching.
Contemporary language teaching has evolved significantly to meet the needs of learners in today's
diverse and technology-driven world. Modern approaches focus on practical communication skills,
learner engagement, and integrating language with real-life contexts.
One of the most popular methods is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). This approach
emphasizes using the language in real-life situations rather than just learning grammar rules. Activities
like conversations, role-plays, and group discussions help learners use the language naturally and
effectively.
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is another approach where learners complete meaningful
tasks using the target language. These tasks can range from planning a trip to solving a problem,
which helps learners practice language skills in a practical context. This method promotes active
learning and encourages students to use the language creatively.
In Content-Based Instruction (CBI), language learning is combined with studying academic subjects
or topics of interest. For example, students might learn English while studying history or science. This
way, they improve their language skills while gaining knowledge in other areas.
Project-Based Learning (PBL) is a hands-on approach where students work on projects that require
them to use the language to research, create, and present their findings. Projects can be on any topic
and help learners develop critical thinking and collaboration skills along with their language abilities.
The use of technology in language learning is also a significant trend. Technology-Enhanced
Language Learning (TELL) involves using digital tools like language learning apps, online
resources, and multimedia to make learning more interactive and accessible. This can include
activities like watching videos in the target language or using apps to practice vocabulary and
grammar.
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is an approach where students learn a subject,
such as math or art, through a foreign language. This helps them improve their language skills while
also gaining knowledge in another academic area. It's particularly popular in bilingual education
settings.
Overall, contemporary language teaching methods focus on making learning engaging, practical, and
relevant to real life. They encourage students to use the language actively and in various contexts,
making learning more effective and enjoyable.

5. Traditional and contemporary approaches to language teaching

As the brief exploration of the history of language has pointed out, knowledge of a language comes
from the acquisition of that language system, along with all its components: phonetics, grammar and
vocabulary. With Latin being reduced to a dead language, social evolution and the various challenges
in education brought forward languages like French and German, which consisted of complex forms
and functions. The linguists of the nineteenth century (Claude Marcel and Francois Gouin) anticipated
the countless changes that would impact teaching and learning and developed their theories on the
workings of cognitive activity of students and their intellectual potential. Thus, considering the
freedom of teaching and the great number of methods, there are numerous ideas that can contribute to
effective acquisition of language by students and motivate them in this process.
The concept of method refers to the actual manner of teaching. Richards and Rodgers, in their book
Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching define the term method as being an overall plan for
the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based
upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one approach,
there can be many methods… This comes to emphasise that the approach represents the level at which
all the assumptions and beliefs regarding language learning are mentioned, whereas method stands for
the level at which theory is put into practice, where the actual choices about the skills to be taught are
made.
So, it is necessary to have a review of the most significant approaches in the development of teaching
English methodology in recent history so as to have a better understanding of the development of
language teaching in general, and grammar teaching in particular.
The most commonly used traditional method of teaching is undoubtedly The Direct Method. It is the
method most of us are familiar with, as countless middle-aged people nowadays recall being taught in
the manner of a ‘military drill’, which is not as far-fetched an idea as it seems. It was first developed in
France and Germany at the turn of the twentieth century to assist soldiers on the war front to
effectively communicate in a second language.
The Direct Method of teaching English, which is also known as the Natural Method, underlines the
idea that only the target language should be used when teaching a new language that the students are
trying to learn. Its main focus is improving oral communication and it is taught by means of repetitive
drilling. The inductive method is used when teaching grammar and students are left to pick up the
rules from the teacher’s oral presentation.
Nevertheless, the abundance of methods used in teaching languages requires a more thorough analysis.
Here are the most commonly-uesd methods that have shaped the manner in which languages are
taught all over the world, as presented by Jim Scrivener in his book Learning Teaching:
a. The Grammar-Translation Method
The Grammar Translation Method is one of the more traditional methods, which dates back to the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, offering an insight into the grammatical rules in the process
of translating from the second to the native language. It is still the predominant method of language
learning in some cultures.
The use of this method relies on students spending a lot of time reading texts, translating them, doing
exercises and tests. The position of grammar in a lesson using the Grammar Translation Method can
be described as follows: long elaborate explanations of the complexities of grammar are given;
grammar provides the set of rules for joining words together, and instruction focuses on the form and
inflection of words; little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as grammar meant
for analysis.
In addition, as Brown stated in his book Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy ‚ in the case of using this method long and detailed explanations of the intricacies of
grammatical rules and forms are supplied for students to memorize and apply the syntactic rules to
other examples.
The conclusion that can be drawn from this is that grammar maintains an important position.
However, its contribution to language learning has been limited, since the focus is not on speaking and
listening in real-life situations, but on the language system itself, failing to generate the engaging
nature in a grammar lessons. In spite of its wide use in some parts of the world nowadays, it is
necessary to find new methods that provide innovations in language teaching.
b. The Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual Method first appeared in the 1940s and the leading method in foreign language
teaching in the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to fill the gaps left by the Direct Method. Its techniques
and activities continue to have a strong effect in many classrooms. It mainly focuses on listening to
model dialogues, followed by drills and repetition, without the active involvement of the teacher.
The Audio-lingual Method, like the Direct Method, is an oral-based approach. It was equally based on
linguistic and psychological theory, one of its main premises being the scientific descriptive analysis
of a wide assortment of languages. At the same time, according to Skinner, in the Audio-Lingual
Method, grammar is most important for the student; the teacher drills grammar, the student must
repeat grammar patterns after the teacher.
With all its popularity, this method did not promote communicative ability as it paid more attention to
learning by heart and drilling, while disregarding the role of context and real-world usage in language
learning in general and in grammar in particular.
Thus, as a result of Noam Chomsky’s theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, the
Audio-Lingual Method is in rare cases the choice of teaching method today.
c. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or Communicative Approach
Developed in the 1970s, mainly as a reaction to the formal, dull and repetitive exercises used under the
Audio-lingual Method, Communicative language teaching (CLT), also referred to as “communicative
approach’’, is an approach that most contemporary teachers would subscribe to as it focuses on
interaction both as a means and as an end in the process of learning a language. The core belief in
using this method is that learners will naturally acquire the language so long as they take part in
meaningful communication. As Larsen-Freeman point out, in Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT), grammar is taught as a means to help learners convey their intended meaning appropriately.
The teaching of grammar can be managed either deductively or inductively but focuses on meanings
and functions of forms in situational context and the roles of the interlocutors.
In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), the teacher does not spend as much time on the
structures of the language. He uses more time to encourage the learners to use the language. It
frequently happens that communication activities such as games and puzzles, which are usually carried
out in pairs or group, are recommended in teaching with little or no correction or intervention during
the activity.
We can therefore conclude that grammar can be taught both inductively and deductively in
Communicative Language Teaching. It is fact that some learners acquire new knowledge when they
are provided with the context and then are presented with the grammar rules afterwards while others
require the rule in order to comprehend the reasoning behind for the new grammatical structure. Its
effectiveness comes down to the point of grammar that the teacher chooses to present.
d. Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR (Total Physical Response) is a method devised by Dr. James Asher, using physical movement to
react to verbal input in order to reduce student inhibitions and lower their affective filter. It allows
students to instantly react to language without spending too much time thinking what to say. This
helps in the case of shyer students and reduces their anxiety and stress. It is highly useful and
recommended in the case of beginner and lower-level students. This method is oriented towards a
grammar-based view of language. Asher states that most of the grammatical structure of the target
language and hundreds of vocabulary items can be learnt from the skilful use of the imperative by the
instructor.
In terms of grammar usage, TPR encourages learners to use grammar in their every-day lives, helping
them gain the basic knowledge of a foreign language.
From all the above-mentioned methods, we can observe that throughout the history of language
teaching, the ways in which teachers have approached the teaching of foreign languages have been
subjected to enormous changes. Each method has its own sets of strengths and weaknesses, providing
a ‘recipe’ for various practical classroom ideas and procedures. Using the right method in the right
situation depends on various aspects related to the type, level and number of students in a classroom,
at a particular time. Considering the content and the purpose of the lesson, teachers may choose to
combine methods in a lesson as long as they meet the requirements of that class and are affective in
their grammar teaching.
A great number of teachers nowadays would admit that they do not follow one particular method.
While the methods themselves are useful in different situations, teachers prefer adapting them to their
particular classroom situations. An integration of methods is a more likely scenario to be encountered
in a modern language classroom.

Topic 2. Learners’
English language
skills and content of
EFL

Teaching grammar and language functions.

Teaching grammar and language functions is an essential part of language education, aiming to equip
learners with the skills needed to understand and effectively use a language. Grammar instruction
involves imparting knowledge of the rules governing sentence structure, syntax, morphology, and
punctuation. This knowledge enables students to construct accurate sentences, comprehend complex
texts, and articulate ideas clearly.
Two main approaches to teaching grammar are explicit and implicit instruction. Explicit instruction
involves directly teaching grammar rules through explanation and practice, while implicit instruction
emphasizes learning through exposure to correct language usage in context. Various techniques, such
as drills and exercises, interactive activities, and contextual learning, are employed to reinforce
grammar concepts.
Challenges in teaching grammar include ensuring students grasp abstract rules and strike a balance
between teaching rules and promoting natural language use.
Teaching language functions focuses on the purposes for which language is used in communication,
such as requesting, apologizing, advising, or narrating. It aims to enable students to use language
appropriately in different social contexts. Approaches to teaching language functions include the
functional and communicative approaches, which emphasize teaching language based on
communicative goals and real-life communication, respectively. Techniques such as role-playing,
dialogues, and task-based learning facilitate the acquisition of language functions.
Challenges in teaching language functions include teaching appropriate language use across cultures
and contexts and helping students transfer classroom learning to real-world communication.
In summary, teaching grammar and language functions involves striking a balance between imparting
language rules and fostering practical communication skills. Grammar instruction lays the groundwork
by teaching rules, while language function teaching focuses on applying language in social contexts.

Principles of teaching grammar.

The principles of teaching grammar encompass a set of guiding beliefs and strategies aimed at
effectively imparting grammatical knowledge to learners. Here are some key principles:

1. Contextual Relevance: Grammar instruction should be embedded within meaningful contexts

relevant to learners' lives and communication needs. This helps learners understand the practical
application of grammar rules.
2. Scaffolded Learning: Start with simpler concepts and gradually build upon them to more complex
ones. Provide scaffolding, such as examples, exercises, and feedback, to support learners as they
progress.
3. Interactive Engagement: Engage learners actively in the learning process through interactive
activities, discussions, and collaborative tasks. This fosters engagement and deeper understanding.
4. Integration with Skills: Integrate grammar instruction with other language skills, such as speaking,
listening, reading, and writing. This helps learners see the interconnectedness of language components
and reinforces learning.
5. Authentic Language Use: Provide opportunities for learners to use grammar in authentic, real-life
situations. This enhances their ability to apply grammar rules in meaningful contexts.
6. Differentiated Instruction: Recognize and accommodate diverse learning styles, preferences, and
proficiency levels. Offer varied instructional approaches and materials to cater to individual learner
needs.
7. Form-Focused and Meaning-Focused Instruction: Strike a balance between form-focused
instruction (emphasizing accuracy) and meaning-focused instruction (emphasizing communication).
Both are essential for language development.
8. Feedback and Error Correction: Provide timely and constructive feedback on learners'
grammatical errors to facilitate improvement. Error correction should be done sensitively to maintain
learners' motivation and confidence.
9. Cultural Sensitivity: Consider cultural differences in language use and norms when teaching
grammar. Help learners understand how cultural context influences language structure and usage.
10. Learner-Centered Approach: Tailor instruction to the interests, needs, and goals of the learners.
Foster learner autonomy and self-directed learning by involving them in goal-setting and decision-
making processes.
By adhering to these principles, educators can create effective and engaging grammar instruction that
supports learners' language acquisition and proficiency development.

Presenting and explaining grammar.

Presenting and explaining grammar is essential in language education, as without grammar, words
lack real meaning or sense. To speak a language proficiently and express ourselves effectively, we
need a solid understanding of grammar. By teaching grammar, we not only provide students with the
means to communicate but also meet their expectations of learning a foreign language.
There are two main approaches to teaching grammar: deductive and inductive. In the deductive
approach, the rule is presented directly to students, while in the inductive approach, students discover
the rule themselves through guided activities. Both approaches have their advantages and
disadvantages, with the deductive approach often being more time-saving, especially for lower-level
students, while the inductive approach encourages independent learning and is beneficial for students
with some prior knowledge of the language.
One common lesson structure for teaching grammar is the Presentation, Practice, and Production
(PPP) model. In the presentation stage, the teacher introduces the new language in a meaningful
context, using techniques such as storytelling, realia, or miming to engage students. For example,
when teaching the second conditional, the teacher might present a scenario and elicit the target
language from students.
During the practice stage, students engage in controlled activities to reinforce their understanding of
the grammar. Activities may include gap-fill exercises, sentence transformations, or picture dictations.
For instance, students might match sentence halves to form complete conditional sentences.
In the production stage, students have the opportunity to use the target language more freely in
communicative activities. These activities could include role-plays, interviews, or problem-solving
tasks. For example, students might ask each other questions using the second conditional to
personalize the language and make it more meaningful.
Throughout the lesson, it's essential for teachers to monitor students' progress and provide feedback on
their language use. Additionally, teachers should consider factors such as the relevance of the
language, potential difficulties students may encounter, and how to make the lesson enjoyable and
memorable.
While the PPP model is one effective way to plan a grammar lesson, other models such as Test, Teach,
Test (TTT), Authentic use, Restricted use, Clarification and focus (ARC), and Engage, Study, Activate
(ESA) can also be used depending on the lesson objectives, class dynamics, and student preferences.
Ultimately, the goal is to choose a model that best supports students' learning and language
acquisition.

Teaching vocabulary and related skills.

Teaching vocabulary and related skills is a fundamental aspect of language education that involves
helping learners acquire and use words effectively in various contexts. This topic encompasses
strategies and techniques aimed at expanding learners' vocabulary knowledge, enhancing their
understanding of word meanings, and developing related skills such as reading, writing, listening, and
speaking.
When teaching vocabulary, educators aim to facilitate learners' ability to comprehend and produce
words accurately and appropriately in different situations. This involves introducing new words in
context, providing opportunities for meaningful practice, and fostering strategies for vocabulary
retention and expansion.
Key components of teaching vocabulary and related skills include:
1. Word Meaning and Context: Educators introduce new words within meaningful contexts to help
learners understand their meanings and usage. Providing examples, definitions, and illustrations
enhances comprehension and retention.

2. Word Formation and Word Families: Teaching word formation rules, prefixes, suffixes, and root
words enables learners to decipher the meanings of unfamiliar words and build their vocabulary
systematically. Exploring word families helps learners recognize related words and understand their
connections.
3. Vocabulary Expansion Strategies: Educators employ various strategies such as mnemonic
devices, semantic mapping, and contextual clues to help learners expand their vocabulary repertoire.
Encouraging extensive reading, exposure to authentic materials, and engagement with multimedia
resources also contributes to vocabulary development.
4. Active Engagement and Practice: Engaging learners in interactive activities, games, and exercises
promotes active engagement with vocabulary learning. Practice activities such as vocabulary games,
quizzes, and role-plays reinforce word usage and retention.
5. Integration with Language Skills: Integrating vocabulary instruction with other language skills
such as reading, writing, listening, and speaking enhances learners' overall language proficiency.
Vocabulary is taught and practiced in authentic communicative contexts, enabling learners to apply
newly acquired words in meaningful ways.
6. Assessment and Feedback: Assessing learners' vocabulary knowledge and skills through various
means such as quizzes, tests, and performance tasks helps educators monitor progress and tailor
instruction to meet individual needs. Providing constructive feedback and opportunities for reflection
support continuous vocabulary development.
7. Cultural and Sociolinguistic Awareness: Exploring the cultural and sociolinguistic aspects of
vocabulary usage enhances learners' understanding of language in context. Recognizing cultural
nuances and variations in word meanings and usage promotes effective communication in diverse
settings.
In summary, teaching vocabulary and related skills involves a multifaceted approach aimed at
fostering learners' vocabulary acquisition, comprehension, and usage. By incorporating meaningful
contexts, active engagement, integration with language skills, and assessment strategies, educators can
empower learners to expand their vocabulary knowledge and become proficient communicators in the
target language.
Learning a new word involves several interconnected skills that contribute to its acquisition,
comprehension, and retention. These skills include:
1. Listening: Listening skills are essential for encountering new words in spoken language contexts.
Learners need to hear words pronounced accurately and in context to understand their meanings and
usage.
2. Reading: Reading skills enable learners to encounter new words in written texts. Contextual clues,
such as surrounding words, sentences, or paragraphs, help learners infer the meanings of unfamiliar
words encountered in reading materials.
3. Speaking: Speaking skills involve using new words in oral communication. Learners practice
pronouncing and using words in conversations, discussions, and presentations to reinforce their
understanding and fluency.
4. Writing: Writing skills involve incorporating new words into written communication. Learners use
new words in sentences, paragraphs, essays, and other written assignments to express their ideas
effectively.
5. Memory and Recall: Memory and recall skills are crucial for retaining new words in long-term
memory. Techniques such as repetition, mnemonics, visualization, and association help learners
encode, store, and retrieve new vocabulary effectively.
6. Contextual Understanding: Understanding the context in which a word is used helps learners
grasp its meaning and usage more accurately. Contextual understanding involves recognizing patterns,
collocations, idiomatic expressions, and cultural nuances associated with words.
7. Critical Thinking: Critical thinking skills enable learners to analyze and evaluate word meanings
and usage critically. Learners consider factors such as word connotations, denotations, synonyms,
antonyms, and word relationships to deepen their understanding of vocabulary.
8. Metacognition: Metacognitive skills involve learners' awareness and control of their own learning
processes. Reflecting on vocabulary learning strategies, monitoring comprehension, and adjusting
learning approaches based on feedback contribute to effective word acquisition.
9. Cultural and Sociolinguistic Awareness: Cultural and sociolinguistic awareness involves
understanding how language reflects cultural values, norms, and social conventions. Learners
recognize how word meanings and usage may vary across different contexts, cultures, and social
settings.
Overall, learning a new word is a multifaceted process that engages various language skills, cognitive
processes, and sociocultural factors. By developing and integrating these interconnected skills,
learners can enhance their vocabulary acquisition, comprehension, and usage in meaningful ways.

Vocabulary knowledge. Related theories.

Vocabulary knowledge refers to a person's understanding of words, including their meanings, forms,
and usage in language. It plays a crucial role in language comprehension, communication, and overall
language proficiency. Several theories have been proposed to explain how vocabulary is acquired and
organized in the mind:
1. Behaviorist Theory: This theory, proposed by B.F. Skinner, suggests that vocabulary learning
occurs through reinforcement and repetition. According to behaviorists, learners acquire new words
through exposure to them in meaningful contexts and reinforcement of correct usage.
2. Cognitive Theory: Cognitive psychologists view vocabulary acquisition as a mental process
involving memory, attention, and cognitive processes. This theory emphasizes the role of schema
theory, which suggests that new words are connected to existing knowledge structures or mental
frameworks in the brain. As learners encounter new words, they assimilate them into their existing
cognitive framework, facilitating retention and understanding.
3. Constructivist Theory: Constructivists believe that learners actively construct their understanding
of words based on their experiences and interactions with the environment. According to this theory,
vocabulary learning is a dynamic process influenced by learners' prior knowledge, social interactions,
and meaningful experiences. Learners actively engage with language input, make connections, and
construct meaning through interaction with texts, peers, and teachers.
4. Connectionist Theory: Connectionist models, also known as neural network models, propose that
vocabulary knowledge is organized in the brain as interconnected networks of neurons. According to
connectionist theory, vocabulary acquisition involves the strengthening and activation of neural
connections between words and their meanings through repeated exposure and usage. As learners
encounter words in various contexts, these connections are reinforced, leading to more robust
vocabulary knowledge.
5. Social Interactionist Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of social interactions in vocabulary
learning. Social interactionists argue that language development occurs through meaningful
interactions with others in social contexts. Vocabulary acquisition is facilitated through conversations,
storytelling, and collaborative activities where learners negotiate meaning and receive feedback from
peers and more knowledgeable others.
6. Dual Coding Theory: Dual coding theory proposes that words are represented in the mind through
both verbal and non-verbal codes. According to this theory, vocabulary learning is enhanced when
words are associated with visual images or mental representations. Dual coding allows learners to
access word meanings through multiple channels, facilitating comprehension and retention.
Overall, these theories offer different perspectives on how vocabulary knowledge is acquired,
organized, and used in language learning. While some theories emphasize the role of environmental
input and reinforcement, others highlight the importance of cognitive processes, social interactions,
and neural networks in vocabulary acquisition. Understanding these theories can inform teaching
practices and help educators design effective strategies for vocabulary instruction.

Teaching pronunciation of English.

Teaching pronunciation is a long-term goal that takes patience and practice. Many ESL/EFL students
feel frustrated when they see they cannot eliminate their accents so easily. In fact, it is quite hard to get
rid of one’s accent when you are an adult.
The focus of a pronunciation class should be on reducing their accent so that their pronunciation will
not affect comprehensibility. The areas of pronunciation teachers should focus on are vowel and
consonant sounds, word, and sentence stress, linking sounds, and intonation. Other features that are
important to work on are the elimination of sounds (elision) and combination or blending of sounds
(assimilation).
To analyze which areas are problematic, teachers should assess the students’ pronunciation first. Some
techniques that can be used to identify which areas give them the most trouble are having the students
read a paragraph aloud and, without interrupting them, take notes of the obvious pronunciation
problems. Or, have the students role-play or have a simple discussion on a topic they will feel
comfortable talking about, so that there is no focus on structure, vocabulary, or grammar at this point,
and keep a mental note of the problematic areas. Teachers can also record the students’ speech and
analyze it.
Once the pronunciation problems have been identified, teachers need to give students practice.
Practice should go from the most structured drills to free and spontaneous conversations.
Mechanical Activities
Following is a list of steps that could be used in a pronunciation class that will focus on the
recognition and production of a sound (vowel or consonant).
1. Individual Sounds
Always start off by concentrating on the individual sounds. Get the students to pronounce the sound
after you. Make sure that when teaching vowels, for example, you show your students the position of
the tongue, the lips, and also the length of the vowel:
A. The tongue: the horizontal position of the tongue (front, central, or back) and the height (high,
mid, or low position)
B. The lips: spread, neutral or rounded
C. Length: long or short vowels
If the problematic sound is a consonant, show your students the three main features of a consonant
sound:
A. Place of articulation: This refers to the place where the organs of speech meet in the oral cavity.
For example, in a bilabial sound the lips are together to produce /m/; or for a labiodental consonant
like /f/, the upper teeth articulate with the lower lip.
B. Manner of articulation: This refers to how the air comes out of the oral or nasal cavity. For
example, to produce a plosive consonant like /p/, the air coming from the lungs is stopped at the lips
and then released with a puff; for a fricative sound like /f/, the air flows continuously through the gap
between the teeth and the lower lips.
C. Voicing: The vibration of the vocal folds. Consonants can be voiced (the vocal folds
vibrate) or voiceless (the vocal folds are drawn apart and the air comes out freely without producing
any vibration).
2. Practice: Listen And Repeat
A. Make a list of words with the problematic sound. Read out the words or play a tape. Get the
students to repeat each word. Then get the students to produce the words on the list one by one.
B. Ask the students to suggest words that contain the sound they are practicing. This activity
encourages students’ participation and makes your lesson less teacher-centered.
3. Hear The Difference? Minimal Pairs
This type of activity is very good for giving the students practice in auditory discrimination.
A. Make a list of minimal pairs. Read out the list so that you train your students to hear the difference
between two sounds. For example ‘cat’ / æ / – ‘cut’ /ʌ /.
B. Choose one word on the list and have your students recognize the word. Ask your students to circle
the word they hear.
C. As learners make the most progress when they can monitor their own pronunciation and sound
discrimination abilities, pair the students up and have them choose words on the list. Their partners
will have to circle the sound they hear.
Spontaneous Conversation
Following is a list of teaching pronunciation activities that will take the ESL/EFL learner from
mechanical practice to using and producing the sound in free and spontaneous conversations.
1. Hear the difference? Simple sentences
A. After practicing the individual sounds and the sounds in words, think of minimal pair words
containing the problematic sound and create contrasting sentences. Example: ‘I have a cat’ and ‘I have
a cut’. Read one of the sentences and get the students to underline the sentence they hear.
I have a cat. I have a cut.
B. Have the students read each sentence. This exercise should go from slow to fast to give them
practice in fluency as well.
C. Pair the students up and have them read the sentences they have chosen from the list while their
partners circle the sentences they hear.
2. Identifying Sounds
A. Write sentences containing words with the problematic sound. Get the students to read the
sentences and underline all the words that contain the sound they have been practicing in that lesson.
B. Make sure that they get them right. Some words are tricky.
C. Have the students read each sentence paying particular attention to the sounds but avoiding
unnatural speech. Have them start slow first but encourage them to say the sentence faster each time.
This is also a good opportunity to work on sentence stress and linking sounds.
3. Role-Play or Discussion
This is the stage where students should be able to use the sounds they have been practicing in natural
conversation.
A. Give your students a situation and roles to play. Group them and let them organize their ideas
before they perform their role-play in front of the class.
B. Give the students a list of questions or topics to talk about.
It is advisable to record their conversations or discussions so that they can check their progress.
4-Games: Pair Work / Group Work
Game-like activities are good for consolidating the sounds students have learned as well as integrating
pronunciation into other skills such as speaking, listening, reading and writing. They are also useful
for reviewing some grammar topics as well as vocabulary and spelling.
5- Funny sentences
Have students work in pairs or groups and write funny sentences including the sound(s) they have
been practicing. Give students a time limit for this activity. The group that comes up with the longest
list of correct sentences is the winner. After the game, identify the sounds in each word.

Developing communicative competence: related theories and pedagogical implicatios.

Developing communicative competence in English involves various strategies and pedagogical
approaches aimed at enhancing students' ability to effectively use the language in real-life
communication situations. These strategies are based on recent studies in the field of teaching English
as a foreign or second language.
Oral Conversations and Dialogues: Classroom interaction in pairs or groups is vital for EFL learners
to practice English and gain exposure to the language. Teachers should encourage students to engage
in English conversations and collaborative activities, which help build confidence and reduce language
anxiety. This approach, supported by research, fosters communicative competence by providing ample
opportunities for language practice and exposure.
Teacher-Student Interaction: Teachers play a crucial role in facilitating language learning by
creating an interactive and motivating classroom atmosphere. Research suggests that classrooms with
more teacher-student interaction produce competent English speakers. Therefore, teachers should
interact with every student, fostering a democratic environment that encourages active participation
and communication.
Using Literature: Literary texts, including drama, short stories, and novels, are valuable resources for
developing communicative competence. They provide authentic language input and insights into
English culture. Storytelling activities allow students to practice communication skills while
enhancing linguistic competence and cultural understanding.
Simulation and Role-play Activities: Role-play activities simulate real-life communication scenarios,
promoting communicative competence and cultural awareness. Studies have shown that such activities
are more effective than formal instruction in enhancing language skills and confidence.
Computer-Assisted Classroom Activities: Integrating technology into English language teaching
enhances students' communicative competence by providing access to various English programs,
recordings, and videos. Computer-assisted activities offer exposure to native English speakers and
facilitate interactive learning experiences.
Reading English News and Watching English Media: Encouraging students to read English news,
watch English films, and engage with English media outside the classroom exposes them to diverse
language contexts and vocabulary. Such activities support language acquisition and maintain students'
connection with English beyond formal instruction.
Utilizing Social Media: Social media platforms offer opportunities for students to engage in group
discussions, share voice recordings, and interact with English speakers. These platforms provide a
low-pressure environment for language practice and learning, fostering linguistic competence and
reducing anxiety.
In conclusion, developing communicative competence in English involves a multifaceted approach
that encompasses various language skills and cultural aspects. By incorporating communicative
language teaching methods, modern technologies, and cooperative learning activities, educators can
effectively enhance students' ability to use English for meaningful communication in real-world
contexts.

Teaching the productive skills: Writing. Approaches to the teaching of writing

Teaching writing is all about helping students learn how to express themselves through written words.
There are different approaches teachers use to teach writing effectively.
One approach is the process approach, which focuses on the steps involved in writing. These steps
include brainstorming ideas, putting those ideas into a draft, revising the draft to make it better, editing
for mistakes, and finally publishing the finished piece. This approach helps students see that writing is
not just about getting the words down, but also about refining and improving their work.
Another approach is the product approach, which is more about the final result of the writing. In this
approach, students are given models or examples to follow, and the emphasis is on making sure the
writing is correct and accurate. While this approach can be helpful for learning grammar and spelling,
it sometimes lacks the creativity and personal expression that the process approach encourages.
A third approach is the genre approach, which focuses on different types of writing, like stories,
essays, or letters. By studying these different genres, students learn the specific conventions and
structures associated with each one. This helps them understand how to write effectively for different
purposes and audiences.
To learn writing well, students need to develop a range of skills. They need to learn how to spell
accurately, so that their writing is easy to understand. They also need to work on their handwriting,
making sure that their letters are neat and legible. And of course, they need to learn how to compose
their thoughts into coherent sentences and paragraphs.
Teaching writing is not just about teaching these skills in isolation. It's also about helping students see
how they can use writing in their everyday lives. This means giving them authentic tasks that reflect
real-world writing situations, like writing emails or reports. It also means encouraging peer feedback
and collaboration, so that students can learn from each other and improve together.
Overall, teaching writing is about helping students become confident and proficient writers. By using a
variety of approaches and focusing on important skills like spelling, handwriting, and composition,
teachers can help students develop the tools they need to express themselves effectively through
writing.
 Teaching the receptive skills: Reading. Current views, definitions, theories, principles
etc.
Teaching reading is about helping students understand and interpret written text. Nowadays, there are
various views and theories about how to teach reading effectively.
One important idea is the interactive model of reading, which suggests that reading is an active
process involving both the text and the reader. According to this model, readers use their background
knowledge and experiences to make sense of what they're reading. They might ask questions, make
predictions, or connect the text to their own lives.
Another key concept is comprehension, which is the ability to understand and make meaning from a
text. Comprehension involves several skills, such as understanding vocabulary, identifying main ideas,
and making inferences. Teachers help students develop these skills through activities like
summarizing, predicting, and asking questions.
When pupils read a text, they use various strategies to understand it. One strategy is translating the
text in their minds. This means they might mentally convert the words on the page into meaning in
their own language. Another strategy is monitoring comprehension, which involves checking
understanding as they read and adjusting their reading strategies if needed.
Getting the right information from a text requires active engagement. Students need to pay attention
to details, make connections between ideas, and evaluate the information they're reading. Teachers can
help students develop these skills by providing scaffolded support, such as graphic organizers or
guided questions.
Overall, teaching reading involves helping students become skilled and confident readers. By
emphasizing comprehension, teaching effective reading strategies, and promoting active engagement
with text, teachers can help students unlock the meaning and enjoyment of reading.

Teaching the receptive skills: Listening. Current views, definitions, theories, principles
etc.
Teaching listening is all about helping students understand and interpret spoken language. There are
different ideas and theories about how to teach listening effectively.
One important concept is active listening, which means paying close attention to what is being said
and trying to understand it. Active listening involves not just hearing the words, but also
understanding the meaning behind them. Teachers help students develop active listening skills by
providing engaging audio materials and guiding them through activities that require careful listening
and comprehension.
Understanding a foreign word requires several skills. First, students need to be able to recognize the
word when they hear it. This means they should be familiar with its pronunciation and sound patterns.
Second, they need to decode the word, which involves understanding its meaning based on context
clues or prior knowledge. Finally, they need to interpret the word, which means understanding how it
fits into the overall message or conversation.
When students hear spoken language, they use various strategies to understand and process it. One
strategy is prediction, where they use context clues to anticipate what will be said next. Another
strategy is visualization, where they create mental images to help them understand the meaning of the
words. Students may also use background knowledge to make connections and infer meaning from
what they hear.
Translating and understanding after hearing involves mental processing. Students listen to the spoken
language, decode the words and sentences, and then translate them into their own language in their
minds. They also try to understand the meaning behind the words by connecting them to their own
experiences or knowledge. Teachers can help students improve their listening and comprehension
skills by providing opportunities for practice, giving clear instructions, and providing feedback on
their performance.
Overall, teaching listening involves helping students become active and engaged listeners. By
providing meaningful listening activities, teaching effective listening strategies, and promoting active
participation, teachers can help students develop the skills they need to understand and interpret
spoken language effectively.

Topic 3. Planning

Lesson planning and a lesson plan.

Lesson planning is a crucial part of teaching, helping teachers organize their thoughts and activities to
ensure effective learning. When it comes to planning a lesson, there are several key considerations to
keep in mind.
Starting with the basics, teachers need to decide on a topic for the lesson. Depending on the teaching
context, this may be predetermined, or teachers may have the flexibility to choose based on student
interests. If unsure, teachers can always ask students for input or conduct a class vote to decide on
topics.

Once a topic is chosen, teachers must determine the order of tasks within the lesson. It's essential to
start with tasks that introduce and reinforce vocabulary related to the topic, gradually building up to
more complex activities. Visual materials, such as photos or newspaper articles, can enhance the
presentation of the topic and engage students further.
However, even with careful planning, unexpected situations can arise. If teachers find they are running
out of time, they can prioritize essential activities and adjust their pacing. Flexibility is key, as some
activities may exceed expectations while others may require less time than anticipated. Encouraging
students to summarize what they've learned at the end of the lesson helps reinforce key concepts and
aids in retention.
In the event that students breeze through planned activities and run out of material, teachers can
engage them in vocabulary revision, discussion questions, role-plays, or games related to the topic.
This ensures that students remain engaged and continue learning even if the original lesson plan is
completed ahead of schedule.
The structure of the lesson and the choice of methods and approaches depend on various factors,
including the level and interests of the students, as well as the learning objectives of the lesson. For
example, a lesson for beginner students may focus more on vocabulary building and simple language
tasks, while a lesson for advanced students may incorporate more complex discussions and critical
thinking activities.
Reflection is also an essential part of the lesson planning process. After each class, teachers should
take time to evaluate how the lesson went, what worked well, and what could be improved. This
reflective practice helps teachers refine their lesson planning skills and adapt their approach to better
meet the needs of their students over time.

Foreign language curriculum and syllabus design.

Syllabus design and kinds of syllabuses.
The design of a foreign language curriculum and syllabus involves carefully planning what to teach
and how to teach it. This includes deciding on the subject matter (what to talk about) and linguistic
matter (how to talk about it) that make up teaching.
There are different types of language teaching syllabi, ranging from more linguistic-focused to more
content-focused approaches. The choice of syllabus depends on the underlying theory of language
teaching and learning, as well as the specific needs and context of the learners.
Six main types of syllabi are commonly used:
1. Structural (formal) syllabus: Focuses on the grammatical and lexical forms of the language.
2. Notional/functional syllabus: Emphasizes the functions and notions expressed in language use.
3. Situational syllabus: Teaches language in the context of real or imaginary situations.
4. Skill-based syllabus: Groups linguistic competencies into specific language skills, such as listening
or writing.
5. Task-based syllabus: Involves completing purposeful tasks using the language.
6. Content-based syllabus: Teaches language through the content or subject matter being studied.
In practice, syllabi often combine multiple types, tailored to the specific needs of the learners and the
teaching context. The integration of different types of syllabi requires careful planning and
consideration of resources and constraints.
Designing a practical language teaching syllabus involves several steps:
1. Defining desired outcomes for students.
2. Ranking syllabus types based on their likelihood of achieving desired outcomes.
3. Evaluating available resources, including expertise and materials.
4. Ranking syllabi relative to available resources.
5. Adjusting rankings based on resource constraints.
6. Determining dominant and secondary syllabus types.
7. Planning combinations or integrations of syllabus types.
8. Translating decisions into actual teaching units.
By following these steps and considering various factors, language educators can develop effective
and appropriate syllabi for their teaching programs.
 Topic 4. Testing and
Assessment

Testing, assessment and evaluation.

Evaluation involves making judgments about the effectiveness of educational systems or programs.
For instance, if a school district wants to evaluate the effectiveness of its new math curriculum, they
might gather data on student performance, conduct surveys of teachers and parents, and analyze
classroom observations. Based on this information, they can determine whether the curriculum is
meeting its goals and make decisions about its continued use or potential modifications.
Assessment focuses on collecting information about individual students' performance. For example, a
teacher might assess students' understanding of a topic by giving them a quiz, observing their
participation in class discussions, and reviewing their homework assignments. By gathering and
organizing this information, the teacher can understand each student's strengths and weaknesses and
tailor instruction accordingly.
Testing is a specific method of assessment that measures students' knowledge or skills. For instance, a
language teacher might administer a proficiency test to assess students' ability to communicate in the
target language. The test could include tasks like reading comprehension, writing essays, and engaging
in spoken conversation. By evaluating students' performance on these tasks, the teacher can determine
their language proficiency level.

Testing and types of tests.

Testing involves using various methods or tools to measure students' knowledge or abilities. Here are
examples of different types of tests:
1. Placement Tests: These tests are designed to assess students' skills or knowledge to determine the
appropriate level or section of a course or curriculum. For instance, a language school might
administer a placement test to new students to place them into beginner, intermediate, or advanced
classes based on their language proficiency.
2. Diagnostic Tests: Diagnostic tests help teachers identify students' strengths and weaknesses in
specific areas. For example, a math teacher might give a diagnostic test at the beginning of the school
year to assess students' understanding of foundational math concepts. This information can guide
instructional planning and intervention strategies.
3. Proficiency Tests: Proficiency tests measure students' overall proficiency or competency in a
particular subject or skill. For instance, language proficiency tests assess students' ability to
understand, speak, read, and write in a target language at different proficiency levels (e.g., A1, A2, B1,
etc., according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages).
4. Achievement Tests: These tests evaluate students' learning outcomes or achievement after
instruction in a specific subject or course. For example, at the end of a unit on history, a teacher might
administer an achievement test to assess students' understanding of key concepts, events, and historical
figures covered in the unit.
Each type of test serves a different purpose and provides valuable information for educators to make
decisions about instruction, placement, intervention, and student progress.

Error correction. Underlying theory, types of errors, sources etc.

Error correction is a crucial aspect of language teaching, rooted in the theory of second language
acquisition (SLA). According to SLA principles, learners benefit from corrective feedback to notice
and rectify their mistakes, thereby enhancing language accuracy and fluency.
In language teaching, errors manifest in various forms. Grammatical errors entail incorrect application
of grammar rules, while lexical errors involve vocabulary misuse. Pronunciation errors arise from
mispronouncing sounds or stress patterns. Discourse errors relate to coherence and cohesion issues in
longer stretches of speech or writing. Interference errors occur due to the influence of the learner's
native language on their target language production.
These errors stem from diverse sources. Interlanguage, the evolving language system of learners, often
contains errors as they progress towards proficiency. Errors may also arise from the influence of the
learner's first language (L1), known as negative transfer or interference. Additionally, limited exposure
to comprehensible input, lack of practice, and overgeneralization of grammar rules contribute to error
occurrence. Learners may also prioritize communication over accuracy, employing communication
strategies that lead to errors.
To address errors effectively, teachers employ various correction strategies. Explicit correction
involves directly pointing out errors and providing correct forms, while recast entails reformulating
learners' erroneous utterances without explicit error identification. Prompting involves asking leading
questions or providing hints to facilitate self-correction. Peer correction fosters collaborative learning,
as learners correct each other's errors in group activities. Delayed correction allows for error correction
during a later feedback stage, balancing fluency focus during initial communication tasks.
In summary, error correction in language teaching aims to provide timely and targeted feedback
tailored to learners' proficiency levels and language learning objectives. By creating a supportive and
communicative learning environment, teachers help learners recognize and rectify errors, facilitating
language development and proficiency.

Error correction. Correcting mistakes in oral work.

In language teaching, correcting mistakes in oral work is vital for learners to improve their speaking
skills. Feedback plays a crucial role in this process. When learners make mistakes during oral
activities, providing them with feedback helps them recognize and correct errors, leading to better
language accuracy and fluency.
Feedback serves several important purposes in error correction during oral work. First, it helps
learners become aware of their mistakes. By pointing out errors in pronunciation, grammar, or
vocabulary usage, teachers guide learners to identify areas needing improvement. This awareness is
essential for learners to monitor and self-correct their language production in future interactions.
Moreover, feedback provides learners with corrective input. When teachers offer the correct form or
pronunciation of a word or phrase, learners gain clarity on the appropriate language usage. This
corrective input helps learners internalize correct language patterns and avoid repeating the same
mistakes in subsequent speech.
Feedback also facilitates language development by promoting learner engagement and interaction.
When learners receive feedback on their oral work, they are encouraged to actively participate in the
learning process. By engaging in dialogues with teachers or peers about their language performance,
learners deepen their understanding of linguistic structures and cultural norms.
Furthermore, feedback fosters a supportive learning environment. When provided constructively and
positively, feedback reassures learners that making mistakes is a natural part of language learning. It
encourages them to take risks, experiment with language use, and overcome fear of speaking in front
of others.
In correcting mistakes during oral work, it's essential for teachers to deliver feedback effectively. They
should be clear, specific, and sensitive to learners' individual needs and learning styles. Providing
feedback in a timely manner allows learners to connect the correction with the context of their speech,
reinforcing learning.
Overall, correcting mistakes in oral work through feedback is instrumental in helping learners improve
their speaking skills. By offering corrective input, promoting engagement, and fostering a supportive
environment, feedback contributes to learners' language development and proficiency.

Error correction. Correcting mistakes in written work.

When it comes to correcting mistakes in written work, it's important to consider various factors,
including students' learning approach and the nature of errors they make. Some students may be
cautious and take their time to produce written pieces, while others may rush through without planning
or editing.
Errors in written work can be categorized based on their reason for production or their linguistic type.
Reasons for errors may include random guesses, testing out hypotheses, or slips caused by
carelessness. Understanding the type of error and the stage of language learning a student is at helps in
effective correction.
Errors can manifest in different linguistic aspects, such as vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar,
interpretation, or pragmatics. Identifying these errors guides the correction process.

A model for correcting writing typically involves assessing comprehensibility, task completion, and
accuracy in syntax and vocabulary. Planning plays a crucial role in writing to ensure coherence,
cohesion, and appropriateness in style and layout.
Practical techniques for correcting writing include training students to edit their work through
engaging activities like grammar auctions or mistakes mazes. Correction techniques may involve
underlining inappropriate language, providing corrections, using codes or symbols for error types, peer
correction, and providing individualized feedback on recurring problems.
Selecting appropriate correction techniques depends on various factors, including students' needs, the
learning context, and the goals of the writing task. By employing effective error correction strategies,
teachers can help students improve their writing skills while maintaining motivation and confidence in
their abilities.

2. British and
American Literature
 1. The dawn of English literature. The Anglo-Saxons. Beowulf. The story. The
language of the poem and the literary elements.
English literature began to take shape in the early Middle Ages, from the 5th to the 11th centuries.
This era is known as the Anglo-Saxon period, named after the Germanic tribes—the Angles, Saxons,
and Jutes—who migrated to England. These tribes brought their own language, Old English, which is
the earliest form of the English language. Most of the literature from this time was oral, meaning it
was passed down by word of mouth rather than being written down.
The Anglo-Saxons were a group of tribes who settled in England after the Roman Empire withdrew
its forces. They were warriors, farmers, and craftsmen, and they had a rich tradition of storytelling.
These stories often focused on heroic deeds and mythical creatures, and were narrated by scops,
who were poets and historians of their time. The Anglo-Saxons used Old English, a language that is
very different from the English we speak today.
One of the most famous works from the Anglo-Saxon period is "Beowulf", an epic poem that is
considered the first major work of English literature. It tells the story of Beowulf, a hero who
comes to the aid of the Danish King Hrothgar, whose kingdom is being terrorized by a monster named
Grendel. Beowulf defeats Grendel and later, Grendel's mother. In his old age, he faces a dragon but is
mortally wounded in the battle.
The story of "Beowulf" is divided into three main parts. The first part describes Beowulf's Battle
with Grendel. Beowulf, a hero from Geatland (modern-day Sweden), travels to Denmark to help King
Hrothgar, whose hall, Heorot, is under attack by Grendel. Grendel is a fearsome monster who has been
terrorizing the kingdom, killing and eating Hrothgar's warriors. Beowulf fights Grendel bare-handed
and defeats him by ripping off his arm.
In the second part, The Battle with Grendel’s Mother, after Grendel's death, his mother, a vengeful
and powerful creature, attacks Heorot to avenge her son's death. Beowulf follows her to her
underwater lair and kills her with a giant sword he finds in her cave. The third part, Beowulf's Fight
with the Dragon, occurs many years later when Beowulf becomes king of the Geats. In his old age,
he fights a dragon that is threatening his kingdom. He kills the dragon but is mortally wounded in the
battle and dies. His people build a great funeral pyre and mourn their hero.
"Beowulf" is written in Old English, a language that might look like a foreign language to modern
English speakers. Old English has a rich vocabulary and uses a lot of compound words. For example,
"whale-road" means the sea, and "bone-house" refers to the human body. The poem uses several
important literary elements. Alliteration is the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of words
in a line of poetry, like "He found them sprawled in sleep, suspecting nothing." Kennings are
metaphorical phrases or compound words used to describe something in a more poetic way. For
example, "sky-candle" means the sun, and "battle-sweat" refers to blood.
Beowulf is the quintessential epic hero—brave, strong, and noble, with a sense of duty and honor. His
heroic deeds are celebrated, and his story is passed down through generations. The poem explores
themes like heroism, loyalty, revenge, and the transience of life. It also reflects the values and
culture of the Anglo-Saxon people, such as their emphasis on bravery, honor, and the importance of
reputation.
"Beowulf" is more than just a story of a hero; it is a window into the world of the Anglo-Saxons and
the beginnings of English literature. The poem's language and literary elements give us insight into
their values, culture, and the development of the English language.
 2.The literature of the Norman Period. The Arthurian legends. Sir Gawain and the
Green Knight. Elements of literature: Romances: Wishes fulfilled.
The Norman Period in English literature began after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when the
Normans, led by William the Conqueror, took over England. This period saw significant changes in
the language and culture of England. The Normans brought with them the French language, which
greatly influenced the development of Middle English. Literature during this time began to reflect
new themes and ideas, including the chivalric values and stories from continental Europe.
One of the most important contributions of the Norman Period to English literature is the Arthurian
legends. These are stories about King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. The legends of
King Arthur originated in Celtic folklore but were significantly shaped by the Norman writers. They
tell the tales of Arthur, a legendary king who fought against invaders and brought peace and
prosperity to his kingdom. The stories also include magical elements, such as the wizard Merlin and
the sword Excalibur, and they focus on themes like honor, bravery, and courtly love.
One of the famous stories from the Arthurian legends is "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight". This is
a Middle English romance that tells the story of Sir Gawain, one of King Arthur's knights, and his
encounter with a mysterious Green Knight. The Green Knight appears at Arthur's court during a New
Year's feast and challenges anyone to strike him with his axe, on the condition that he can return the
blow in a year and a day. Gawain accepts the challenge, beheads the Green Knight, but to everyone's
amazement, the Green Knight picks up his head and reminds Gawain to meet him in a year to receive
the return blow.
The story then follows Gawain's journey to find the Green Knight and fulfill his promise. Along the
way, he faces various challenges and temptations that test his courage, honesty, and loyalty.
Eventually, Gawain finds the Green Knight, who reveals that the entire challenge was a test of
Gawain's character. The Green Knight spares Gawain, but Gawain feels ashamed because he kept a
magical girdle that he believed would protect him from harm, showing that he was not entirely honest.
The literary elements of this period, especially in romances like "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,"
include knighthood, honor, and the pursuit of noble deeds. Romances during the Norman Period
often involved adventure, quests, and the fulfillment of wishes. These stories were not just about
love but also about achieving great feats and proving one's worth. They were meant to inspire and
entertain, often featuring supernatural elements and magical beings.
The themes of these romances often revolve around the struggle between good and evil, the
importance of keeping promises, and the idea that true nobility comes from within. They provided
readers with a sense of hope and aspiration, showing that wishes could be fulfilled if one remained
true to their values and faced their challenges with courage and integrity.
Overall, the literature of the Norman Period, especially the Arthurian legends and tales like "Sir
Gawain and the Green Knight," played a crucial role in shaping the medieval ideals of chivalry and
romance. These stories have endured through the centuries, continuing to inspire and captivate readers
with their timeless themes and heroic characters.

3.Pre-Renaissance in England. The life and creative work of Geoffrey Chaucer. The
Canterbury Tales. Literary elements used by Chaucer. The Canterbury Tales and its
characters. Chaucer’s imagery.
Pre-Renaissance in England refers to the period just before the Renaissance, a time of
great cultural and artistic growth in Europe. In England, this period was characterized by
significant changes in society, art, and literature. One of the most important figures during
this time was Geoffrey Chaucer, often called the "Father of English literature."
Geoffrey Chaucer lived from around 1343 to 1400. He was not only a writer but also a
diplomat and a court official, which gave him a lot of experience and exposure to
different aspects of society. His life was marked by travels across Europe, where he
encountered various cultures and literary works that influenced his writing.
Chaucer's most famous work is "The Canterbury Tales," a collection of stories told by
different characters on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket in Canterbury.
The pilgrims agree to tell stories to pass the time and to win a free meal at the end of their
journey. Chaucer's tales cover a wide range of themes and genres, from romantic
adventures to moral lessons and humorous stories.
"The Canterbury Tales" is significant because it was written in Middle English, the
language spoken in England at the time, which made literature accessible to more people.
Chaucer's work is one of the earliest major literary works in English, and it helped shape
the development of the language and its literary tradition.
In "The Canterbury Tales," Chaucer uses a variety of literary elements to create vivid
and engaging stories. One key element is characterization. Chaucer introduces a diverse
group of characters, each representing different social classes and professions, from a
knight to a miller to a prioress. Through detailed descriptions and distinct voices, Chaucer
brings these characters to life and provides a glimpse into their personalities and social
roles.
Chaucer also employs imagery, which is the use of descriptive language to create vivid
pictures in the reader's mind. For example, he describes the Knight as "a true, perfect,
gentle knight," painting a picture of an honorable and ideal warrior. The Wife of Bath, on
the other hand, is described with bright red stockings and a bold personality, emphasizing
her confidence and independence.
"The Canterbury Tales" also uses irony and humor to highlight the flaws and virtues of
the characters. For example, the Pardoner, who is supposed to be a religious figure, is
revealed to be greedy and hypocritical. This use of irony adds depth to the stories and
critiques societal norms and behaviors.
Each tale in "The Canterbury Tales" reflects the storyteller's background and values. The
Knight tells a noble story about chivalry and honor, while the Miller tells a bawdy,
humorous tale about deceit and trickery. This variety of tales and characters provides a
rich tapestry of medieval life and human nature.
Chaucer's imagery is particularly powerful in "The Canterbury Tales." He uses detailed
and sensory language to create vivid scenes and bring the stories to life. For instance, in
"The Pardoner's Tale," he describes a corrupt Pardoner who sells fake religious relics,
vividly depicting the greed and deception that were prevalent in society.
Overall, Geoffrey Chaucer's life and work during the Pre-Renaissance period had a
profound impact on English literature. His use of Middle English helped make literature
more accessible to the common people, and his diverse characters and engaging
storytelling set the stage for future literary developments. "The Canterbury Tales"
remains a cornerstone of English literature, offering timeless insights into human nature
and medieval society.
 4.Walt Whitman. Life and creative work. Walt Whitman’s novelty and his contribution
to the development of poetry.
Walt Whitman was an American poet who is often called the father of free verse. He was
born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, New York, and grew up in a large family. Whitman
had a very humble upbringing and worked in various jobs, including as a printer, teacher,
and journalist. His experiences in these different roles and his love for nature and people
deeply influenced his poetry.
Whitman is best known for his collection of poems called "Leaves of Grass". He first
published it in 1855, and it was unlike anything people had seen before. He continued to
expand and revise this collection throughout his life. Whitman’s poetry was bold and
innovative; he used a style called free verse, which doesn’t follow traditional rules of
rhythm and rhyme. This allowed him to write more freely and express his thoughts and
emotions in a way that felt natural and conversational.
Whitman’s poetry was revolutionary because it celebrated the common people and the
American spirit. He wrote about democracy, freedom, equality, and the beauty of the
individual. His poems often explored themes of love, nature, and human connection. One
of his most famous poems, "Song of Myself", is a long, sprawling piece where he speaks
directly to the reader, celebrating life and the human experience. In this poem, Whitman
emphasizes the idea that every person is valuable and interconnected with others.
Walt Whitman’s novelty in poetry came from his unique style and subject matter. Before
him, poetry was often very structured and focused on highbrow themes. Whitman broke away
from this tradition by using free verse and writing about everyday life and people. He saw
beauty in the ordinary and believed that every voice mattered. This was a significant shift in
the way poetry was written and appreciated.
Whitman’s contribution to the development of poetry is immense. He pioneered free
verse, which gave poets more freedom to experiment with form and content. His focus on the
individual and the common man influenced later poets to explore similar themes. Whitman’s
work paved the way for modern poetry by showing that poetry could be inclusive and
accessible to everyone, not just the educated elite. He inspired many poets who came after
him to break free from traditional forms and to write about their own experiences and
emotions.
In summary, Walt Whitman was a groundbreaking poet whose work revolutionized
American poetry. His life and creative work were dedicated to celebrating the human spirit
and the beauty of everyday life. Through his use of free verse and his focus on inclusivity
and democracy, Whitman made a lasting impact on the world of poetry, inspiring generations
of poets to come.
5. Daniel Defoe, his life and creative work. Defoes Journal of the Plague Year and
Robinson Crusoe.
Daniel Defoe was an important English writer and journalist who lived from 1660 to 1731.
He is best known for his novels, especially "Robinson Crusoe" and "A Journal of the
Plague Year". Defoe's life was filled with adventure and challenges, which influenced his
writing and made his stories rich and exciting.
Defoe was born in London and grew up in a family that was involved in trade. His father was
a butcher and candle maker, which meant that Defoe was familiar with the world of business
from a young age. Although he intended to become a minister, he decided to pursue a career
in trade and business instead. Unfortunately, his business ventures were not very successful,
and he faced financial difficulties, including bankruptcy.
In addition to his work in business, Defoe was deeply involved in politics and journalism. He
wrote many pamphlets and articles, expressing his views on political and social issues. One of
his most famous works in this area was "The Shortest Way with the Dissenters", a satirical
piece that landed him in trouble and even led to his imprisonment for a short time.
Defoe is perhaps best known for his novels, which were among the first to be written in the
English language. His most famous novel, "Robinson Crusoe", was published in 1719. The
story is about a man named Robinson Crusoe who is shipwrecked on a deserted island.
Crusoe survives for many years using his ingenuity and resourcefulness. He builds a shelter,
grows food, and eventually meets a native man he names Friday, who becomes his
companion. The story is a tale of adventure and survival but also explores themes of human
resilience and the struggle against nature.
Defoe's "A Journal of the Plague Year" was published in 1722 and provides a vivid account
of the Great Plague of London in 1665. Although Defoe was only five years old during the
plague, he wrote the journal as if he were an eyewitness. The book is a blend of fact and
fiction, giving a detailed description of the effects of the plague on the people of London. It
highlights the fear, panic, and struggle for survival that gripped the city. The journal is a
significant work because it combines Defoe's keen observations with his ability to tell a
compelling story, making the historical event come alive for readers.
Defoe's writing is characterized by its realism and attention to detail. He used his
experiences and observations of the world to create stories that felt real and relatable. His
works are not just entertaining tales but also reflections on the human condition and society.
Through his novels, Defoe made a significant contribution to the development of the modern
novel and left a lasting legacy in English literature.
6. Jane Austen, her life and creative work. The novel of manners and her Pride and
Prejudice.
Jane Austen was a famous English writer born on December 16, 1775, in Steventon,
England. She lived during a time called the Regency era, and she is known for writing
novels that focus on the lives and loves of ordinary people. Her stories often explore social
class, relationships, and marriage. Jane was the seventh of eight children in her family, and
she had six brothers and one sister. Her father was a clergyman, and her family was part of
the lower gentry, which means they were of a respectable social class but not very wealthy.
From a young age, Jane loved to read and write. She started writing stories and plays for her
family’s amusement. In her twenties, she began to write longer works. Although she was
interested in people and their behaviors, Jane never married, and she lived a quiet life, mostly
in the countryside. She wrote six major novels, all of which are still widely read and loved
today.
Jane Austen's novels are known for being novels of manners, which means they focus on the
social behaviors and customs of a particular class of people. Her stories often take place in
small towns and villages, and they explore how people interact with each other, especially in
terms of courtship and marriage. Jane's keen observations of society and her sharp wit made
her books both entertaining and insightful.
One of Jane Austen's most famous novels is "Pride and Prejudice", which she published in
1813. The novel tells the story of Elizabeth Bennet, a smart and lively young woman, and
her interactions with Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy, a wealthy but reserved gentleman. At the start
of the story, Elizabeth thinks Mr. Darcy is proud and arrogant, while Mr. Darcy sees
Elizabeth as beneath his social class.
Throughout the novel, Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy face several misunderstandings and
challenges. Elizabeth is also pursued by another man, Mr. Wickham, who seems charming but
turns out to be untrustworthy. Over time, both Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy learn to see past their
initial judgments and recognize each other’s true worth. The story ends with their marriage,
symbolizing the triumph of love and mutual respect over social prejudice.
"Pride and Prejudice" is a perfect example of a novel of manners. It explores how people’s
behavior and choices are influenced by social expectations. Jane Austen’s writing style in the
novel is known for its irony and satire, meaning she often uses humor to point out the
silliness of certain social norms. The characters’ conversations are full of witty dialogue that
reveals their personalities and the social dynamics of the time.
Jane Austen’s novels, including "Pride and Prejudice", are important because they offer a
detailed look at early 19th-century English society. They show how social class and
economic status affected people’s lives and relationships. Even though her stories are set in a
different time, they still resonate with readers today because of their focus on universal
themes like love, family, and the search for personal happiness.
Jane Austen continued to write until her health began to decline in her early 40s. She passed
away on July 18, 1817, at the age of 41. Despite her short life, she left a lasting legacy
through her novels, which continue to be celebrated and studied around the world.
7. Oscar Wilde and his dramas. Analyse his drama. Comment on The Importance of
Being Earnest.
Oscar Wilde was a famous Irish writer and playwright in the late 19th century. He is best
known for his witty and humorous plays, which often make fun of the social norms and
moral attitudes of his time. Wilde had a unique talent for using clever dialogue and sharp
wit to entertain audiences while also making them think about deeper issues.
One of Wilde's most famous plays is "The Importance of Being Earnest", a comedy that
pokes fun at the Victorian society of England. This play, written in 1895, is a satire that
makes fun of the upper class and their obsession with appearances and social status. The main
characters in the play use false identities to escape social obligations and have fun, leading to
a series of hilarious misunderstandings and mistaken identities.
The plot of "The Importance of Being Earnest" revolves around two young men, Jack
Worthing and Algernon Moncrieff, who both pretend to be someone named Ernest. Jack
uses the name Ernest when he visits the city to have fun, while Algernon uses the name Ernest
to court Jack's ward, Cecily Cardew. The confusion over who is really named Ernest causes
lots of funny situations and mix-ups.
Wilde's plays are known for their sharp dialogue and satirical humor. He had a keen eye
for the absurdities of society and used his plays to highlight the silliness of social
conventions. Wilde's characters are often exaggerated versions of real people, and they say
things that are both funny and insightful. Wilde's plays are a blend of entertainment and
social commentary, making them enjoyable to watch while also prompting audiences to
think critically about society.
Analyzing Wilde's Dramas:
1. Themes: Wilde's plays often explore themes like identity, marriage, social status, and the
nature of truth. He uses humor to critique the superficial values of the upper class and the
way people often pretend to be something they are not.
2. Characters: The characters in Wilde's plays are often archetypes or exaggerated versions
of real people. They use witty language and clever dialogue to express their views and
engage in banter. Wilde's characters often have dual identities or pretend to be someone
else, which creates comedy and drama.
3. Language: Wilde's use of language is one of his greatest strengths. His plays are filled
with puns, epigrams (short, witty statements), and double entendres (phrases that can be
interpreted in two ways). This clever use of language keeps the audience engaged and adds to
the humor of the plays.
4. Satire: Wilde's plays are satirical, meaning they use humor and exaggeration to criticize
the foolishness and hypocrisy of society. Wilde was particularly interested in poking fun at
the Victorian obsession with appearances and social status.
"The Importance of Being Earnest" is a perfect example of Wilde's style. The play's title
itself is a pun, playing on the word "earnest," which means serious or sincere, and "Ernest,"
the name both main characters pretend to have. The play is a comedy of manners that mocks
the rigid social conventions of Victorian society. The characters' obsession with finding
someone named Ernest and the absurd lengths they go to in order to maintain their false
identities highlight the superficiality of their values.
In summary, Oscar Wilde is celebrated for his witty, entertaining plays that cleverly
critique society and human nature. His use of humor, sharp dialogue, and satire makes his
plays timeless classics that continue to be enjoyed and studied today. "The Importance of
Being Earnest" remains one of his most famous works, showcasing his talent for combining
comedy with social critique in a way that is both fun and thought-provoking.
8. Edmund Spenser. Spenser’s sonnets. Amoretti. The Faerie Queene.
Edmund Spenser was one of the greatest poets of the Elizabethan era in England. Born in
1552, he is best known for his long and elaborate poems. He wrote during the time of Queen
Elizabeth I, and his work reflects the culture and values of that period. Spenser's poetry is
notable for its rich language, intricate form, and imaginative storytelling.
Spenser's sonnets are some of his most famous works. A sonnet is a type of poem that has 14
lines and a specific rhyme scheme. Spenser created his own version of the sonnet, which is
known as the Spenserian sonnet. This form of sonnet is different from the traditional sonnets
of the time because it links the quatrains (four-line stanzas) together with a rhyme scheme of
ABAB BCBC CDCD EE. This interlocking rhyme scheme gives the poem a smooth and
flowing rhythm.
One of Spenser's notable works is the collection of sonnets called "Amoretti". The title
"Amoretti" means "little loves" in Italian. These sonnets tell the story of Spenser’s courtship
of his wife, Elizabeth Boyle. They are love poems that express Spenser’s deep feelings for her
and celebrate the various stages of their relationship, from admiration to frustration, and
finally to the joy of marriage. The sonnets in "Amoretti" are full of beautiful images and
romantic language. For example, Spenser often compares his beloved to elements of nature,
like flowers and stars, to highlight her beauty and grace.
However, Spenser's most famous work is "The Faerie Queene", an epic poem written in six
books. This poem is a rich and complex allegory, meaning it uses characters and events to
symbolize deeper moral and political messages. "The Faerie Queene" is set in a mythical land
and tells the story of several knights, each representing different virtues like Holiness,
Temperance, and Chastity. The knights go on adventures to defeat monsters and evil forces,
symbolizing the fight between good and evil.
The poem was meant to celebrate Queen Elizabeth I, who is symbolized by the character of
Gloriana, the Faerie Queene. Each book of the poem focuses on a different knight and their
quest to uphold their virtue. For instance, the first book follows the Redcrosse Knight, who
represents Holiness, on his journey to defeat a dragon and save a princess, symbolizing the
triumph of faith over evil.
"The Faerie Queene" is written in a unique verse form known as the Spenserian stanza,
which consists of nine lines with a rhyme scheme of ABABBCBCC. The first eight lines are
written in iambic pentameter, and the ninth line is an alexandrine, which is a line of twelve
syllables. This structure gives the poem a musical quality and allows for elaborate
descriptions and detailed storytelling.
Spenser's works are celebrated for their rich use of imagery, mythology, and symbolism. His
sonnets and epic poems not only entertain but also convey deep moral lessons and celebrate
the ideals of the Elizabethan age. Spenser's poetry remains a cornerstone of English literature,
inspiring countless writers and readers with its beauty and complexity.
9. William Shakespeare. Shakespeare’s sonnets: The Mysteries of love. (Sonnet 29,
Sonnet 73, Sonnet 116, Sonnet 130). Elements of literature: the sonnet, its formal and
logical organization.
William Shakespeare is one of the most famous writers in the English language. He lived
during the late 16th and early 17th centuries and wrote many plays and poems that are still
loved today. Among his works, his sonnets stand out as beautiful expressions of love, time,
and human nature. A sonnet is a type of poem that has a specific structure and is often about
love. Shakespeare wrote 154 sonnets, and each one explores different aspects of love and life.
Shakespeare’s Sonnets are known for their depth and complexity. Let’s look at a few of
them to understand how he talks about love and other themes:
1. Sonnet 29 is about feeling sad and alone. In this sonnet, the speaker feels unlucky and
outcast, but then he remembers the person he loves. This thought brings him great happiness
and makes him feel rich and blessed, even more than kings. The sonnet shows how love can
bring comfort and joy in difficult times.
2. Sonnet 73 talks about growing old and facing the end of life. The speaker compares his age
to the autumn season, twilight, and a dying fire. He feels that he is in the final stages of life.
However, he says that this makes the love he receives even more precious, as it is cherished
for the time they have left together. The sonnet explores the value of love in the face of time
and aging.
3. Sonnet 116 is a powerful declaration of what true love is. The speaker says that true love
does not change when circumstances change; it remains constant and unshaken. It is like a
star that guides lost ships and is unaffected by time. This sonnet is often quoted for its
idealistic view of love as unwavering and eternal, showing that true love can withstand any
challenges.
4. Sonnet 130 is quite different from typical love poems of that time. Instead of idealizing his
lover, the speaker describes her in a realistic way, saying her eyes are not like the sun, her lips
are not as red as coral, and her hair is like black wires. Despite these ordinary features, he still
loves her deeply. The sonnet suggests that true love is based on genuine appreciation of a
person, not on exaggerated or false comparisons.
Elements of Literature in the Sonnets
Shakespeare's sonnets are a great example of how poetry can be structured. A sonnet has 14
lines, and Shakespeare’s sonnets specifically follow a structure called the Shakespearean
sonnet or English sonnet. It has three quatrains (four-line sections) followed by a couplet (a
two-line section). The rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.
The formal organization of the sonnet allows Shakespeare to build his ideas in a logical way.
Each quatrain develops a part of the theme, and the final couplet offers a conclusion or a
surprising twist. For example, in Sonnet 29, the first quatrains express the speaker's despair,
and the final couplet reveals the joy brought by the thought of his love.
Shakespeare also uses various literary elements to enhance his sonnets. Imagery is used to
create vivid pictures in the reader's mind, such as the autumn leaves in Sonnet 73. Metaphors
compare different things to highlight their similarities, like comparing true love to a guiding
star in Sonnet 116. Similes and personification give life to abstract ideas, making them more
relatable and powerful.
In summary, William Shakespeare's sonnets provide a rich and nuanced exploration of love
and human experience. They showcase his mastery of the sonnet form and his ability to
express complex emotions and ideas in a structured yet beautiful way. Whether dealing with
themes of despair, aging, or the nature of true love, his sonnets continue to resonate with
readers today.
10. The philosophical deepness and humanistic enthusiasm of the tragedy Hamlet by
Shakespeare. The character of Hamlet. Hamlet’s Soliloquy: To be or not to be. Elements
of literature: soliloquies and asides.
"Hamlet" by William Shakespeare is a famous play full of deep thoughts and feelings. It's
about a young prince named Hamlet who is mourning the death of his father, the king of
Denmark. But then, he learns that his uncle, Claudius, has married his mother and become
the new king. This makes Hamlet very upset and confused.
Hamlet is a complex character. He's smart and thoughtful, but also troubled and indecisive.
He's torn between his desire for revenge and his doubts about whether it's right to take action.
This makes him question everything, including the meaning of life and death.
One of the most famous parts of the play is Hamlet’s soliloquy, where he asks the question:
"To be or not to be?". In this soliloquy, Hamlet is thinking about whether it's better to live
and suffer or to die and end all the pain. He's contemplating the idea of suicide and wondering
what comes after death. It's a deep and philosophical moment that shows Hamlet's inner
struggles.
Soliloquies are when a character speaks their thoughts out loud, usually when they're alone on
stage. It's like they're talking to themselves, but the audience can hear them. Soliloquies give
us insight into a character's mind and feelings, and they're often used to reveal their inner
conflicts and dilemmas.
Another literary element in "Hamlet" is asides. Asides are when a character speaks directly to
the audience, but the other characters on stage can't hear them. It's like they're sharing a secret
with the audience. Asides are used to provide commentary or reveal a character's true
thoughts and intentions.
In "Hamlet", these elements of literature help us understand the depth of the characters and
the themes of the play. Hamlet's soliloquy and his internal struggles show us the human side
of the prince, while the use of soliloquies and asides gives us insight into the complexities of
the plot and the characters' motivations.
Overall, "Hamlet" is not just a story about revenge; it's a profound exploration of life, death,
and the human condition. Shakespeare's use of language and literary techniques makes it a
timeless masterpiece that continues to captivate audiences around the world.
11. Renaissance in England. The Elizabethan theatre. The development of English
drama. King Lear by Shakespeare. The development of the central character under the
circumstances.
During the Renaissance in England, which began in the late 15th century and peaked in the
16th century, there was a great revival in art, culture, and literature. This period is also known
as the Elizabethan era, named after Queen Elizabeth I, who ruled from 1558 to 1603. One of
the most significant aspects of this era was the Elizabethan theatre, which saw the
construction of famous playhouses like The Globe. The theatre became a popular form of
entertainment for all social classes.
The development of English drama during this time was remarkable. Playwrights like
William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson wrote plays that are still
celebrated today. These plays often combined elements of tragedy, comedy, and history,
creating complex characters and engaging stories.
One of the most famous plays from this period is King Lear by Shakespeare. This tragedy
tells the story of an aging king who decides to divide his kingdom among his three daughters
based on how much they profess to love him. This decision leads to betrayal, madness, and
eventually, tragedy.
The development of the central character, King Lear, is profound and tragic. Under the
circumstances of his daughters' betrayal and the loss of his power, Lear transforms from a
proud and powerful monarch to a broken and humble man. His journey is marked by
moments of madness and clarity, as he comes to understand the true nature of loyalty and
love. This transformation highlights the play's themes of authority, family, and the human
condition.
12. Women writers of the USA and their themes between 1885-1925. Charlotte Perkins
Gilman, “The Yellow Wallpaper”, Kate Chopin, “The Story of an Hour”, Hisaye
Yamamoto, “Seventeen Syllables”.
Between 1885 and 1925, several important women writers in the USA emerged, addressing
various themes in their works. Charlotte Perkins Gilman is well-known for her story "The
Yellow Wallpaper". In this story, she explores the theme of mental illness and the negative
effects of the patriarchal medical system on women's health. The story is about a woman
who is confined to her bedroom by her husband, a physician, and begins to lose her sanity.
Gilman uses this narrative to criticize the lack of understanding and the oppressive treatment
of women's mental health issues.
Kate Chopin is another significant writer from this period. Her story "The Story of an
Hour" delves into themes of marriage, freedom, and identity. The story focuses on a
woman who learns about her husband's death and feels an unexpected sense of liberation.
However, her newfound freedom is short-lived. Chopin's work often highlights the struggles
women faced within the confines of traditional marriages and societal expectations.
Hisaye Yamamoto, though writing slightly later, is also relevant for her contributions to
American literature. In her story "Seventeen Syllables", she explores themes of cultural
conflict and generational differences. The story portrays the relationship between a
Japanese immigrant mother and her American-born daughter. Yamamoto addresses the
challenges of assimilation and the misunderstandings between first-generation immigrants and
their children.
These writers and their stories provide valuable insights into the challenges women faced in
terms of mental health, marital roles, and cultural identity during the late 19th and early
20th centuries. Their works remain significant in understanding the evolution of women's
roles in society and literature.
13. George Bernard Shaw and his novelty. Comment on “Pygmalion”. Analyze it in
detail.
George Bernard Shaw was an Irish playwright born in 1856. He was known for his wit,
intelligence, and unique perspective on social issues. Shaw's work often focused on
important themes like class, gender, and social reform. He wrote more than 60 plays and
won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1925. Shaw's plays were not just meant to entertain but to
make people think and challenge their beliefs.
One of Shaw's most famous plays is "Pygmalion". This play is a great example of his
novelty, which means his new and original ideas. "Pygmalion" was first performed in 1913. It
tells the story of Professor Henry Higgins, a phonetics expert, who makes a bet that he can
transform Eliza Doolittle, a poor flower girl with a strong Cockney accent, into a lady who
could pass for a duchess at an embassy ball.
The title "Pygmalion" comes from a Greek myth. In the myth, Pygmalion is a sculptor who
falls in love with a statue he has carved. Similarly, in Shaw's play, Higgins tries to mold Eliza
into his idea of a perfect woman. However, Shaw adds his unique twist to the story.
In "Pygmalion", Shaw explores themes like social class, identity, and transformation. One
of the key points in the play is how changing one's speech can influence how they are
perceived by society. Eliza's transformation is not just about learning to speak differently but
about gaining self-respect and independence.
A detailed analysis of "Pygmalion" reveals several important aspects:
1. Social Class and Language: Shaw shows how the way people speak affects their social
status. Eliza's initial speech marks her as lower class, but as she learns to speak like a lady,
people treat her differently.
2. Transformation and Identity: Eliza's journey is not just about changing her speech. It's
about discovering who she is and what she wants from life. By the end of the play, Eliza has
gained confidence and a sense of self-worth.
3. Power and Independence: The relationship between Higgins and Eliza highlights issues of
power and control. While Higgins sees Eliza as a project, she gradually asserts her
independence and refuses to be just his creation.
4. Humor and Critique: Shaw uses humor to criticize social norms and the superficiality of
judging people based on their appearance or speech. The play is both funny and thought-
provoking, making audiences laugh while also making them think about important social
issues.
In summary, "Pygmalion" showcases George Bernard Shaw's novelty by combining
humor, social critique, and deep themes. The play remains relevant today because it addresses
universal issues of identity, self-worth, and societal expectations. Shaw's clever writing and
sharp observations make "Pygmalion" a timeless piece of literature.
14. O. Henry’s life and creative work. “The Gift of the Magi”, “The Last Leaf”
O. Henry was an American writer known for his short stories. His real name was William
Sydney Porter. He was born on September 11, 1862, in Greensboro, North Carolina. As a
young man, he worked in different jobs, including as a pharmacist and a bank clerk. In 1896,
he was accused of embezzlement and spent time in prison. During his time in prison, he
started writing stories to support his daughter.
O. Henry's stories are famous for their surprise endings and clever twists. He wrote over
300 short stories. Two of his most famous stories are "The Gift of the Magi" and "The Last
Leaf".
In "The Gift of the Magi," a poor young couple, Jim and Della, want to buy each other
special Christmas gifts. Della sells her beautiful hair to buy a chain for Jim's watch, and Jim
sells his watch to buy combs for Della's hair. In the end, they realize the true meaning of love
and sacrifice.
In "The Last Leaf," two struggling artists, Johnsy and Sue, live in New York. Johnsy gets
very sick and believes she will die when the last leaf on a vine outside her window falls. Their
neighbor, an old artist named Behrman, secretly paints a leaf on the wall to give Johnsy hope.
This act of kindness saves her life, but Behrman catches pneumonia and dies.
O. Henry died on June 5, 1910. His stories are still loved today for their wit, warmth, and
unexpected endings.
15. Alexander Pope, life and creative work. His views on writing poetry. The Rape of the
Lock. Elements of literature: mock epic
Alexander Pope was a famous English poet who lived from 1688 to 1744. He is known for
his sharp wit, clever use of language, and satirical style. Pope had a challenging childhood
due to his poor health and his Catholic faith, which limited his opportunities because of the
political climate in England. Despite these obstacles, he became one of the most prominent
poets of his time.
Pope believed that poetry should be both beautiful and instructive. He thought poets should
follow certain rules and structures, and he admired the classical poets of ancient Greece and
Rome. His writing often focused on society, human nature, and the flaws he saw in both.
One of Pope's most famous works is _The Rape of the Lock_, published in 1712. This poem
is a _mock epic_, a type of satire that uses the grand style of epic poetry to poke fun at trivial
events. In this case, Pope tells the story of a young woman named Belinda and the drama that
unfolds when a lock of her hair is cut off without her permission. The poem uses the grand
language and structure of an epic to humorously highlight how people can make a big deal out
of small things.
_The Rape of the Lock_ is rich with literary elements, such as irony, heroic couplets, and
exaggeration. Pope's clever use of these elements makes the poem both entertaining and
thought-provoking. It also showcases his views on the importance of balancing form and
content in poetry. By imitating the epic style, Pope not only creates a humorous contrast but
also critiques the superficial concerns of high society.
Overall, Alexander Pope's life and work are important for understanding the development of
English literature. His sharp mind and creative use of language left a lasting impact on poetry,
and his ideas about writing continue to influence poets today.
16. Oscar Wilde and his creative work. Decadence in English literature. “The Picture of
Dorian Grey”. Oscar Wilde’s tales and their impact on character development.
Oscar Wilde was a famous Irish writer known for his witty and clever use of language. One of
his most famous works is "The Picture of Dorian Gray". This novel tells the story of a
young man named Dorian Gray who wishes to stay young and beautiful forever. His wish is
magically granted, and while he remains youthful, a portrait of him ages and shows the effects
of his sinful life. The story explores themes of decadence and the consequences of living a
life focused only on beauty and pleasure.
Wilde's work is often associated with decadence in English literature, a movement that
celebrated excess, luxury, and a decline in moral values. This style was popular in the late
19th century and emphasized art for art's sake, often exploring themes of decay and self-
indulgence.
In addition to "The Picture of Dorian Gray," Oscar Wilde wrote many tales that had a
significant impact on character development. His stories often featured moral lessons and
complex characters who learned important truths about themselves and the world around
them. For example, in his fairy tales like "The Happy Prince" and "The Selfish Giant," Wilde
used simple but profound stories to teach lessons about kindness, generosity, and the
importance of caring for others.
Overall, Wilde's creative work, especially his novel and tales, left a lasting impact on
literature by showing how characters can grow and change through their experiences and the
choices they make. His exploration of decadence and moral consequences continues to be
relevant and thought-provoking for readers today.
17. Romanticism in England. The older generation of poets – Wordsworth, Coleridge
and Blake. The power of imagination. (The Tyger, The Lamb, The Chimney Sweeper by
W. Blake).
Romanticism in England was a literary and artistic movement that began in the late 18th
century and emphasized emotion, nature, and individualism. The older generation of poets
during this time included Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Blake.
William Wordsworth believed that poetry should express personal feelings and the beauty of
nature. He thought that nature was a source of inspiration and spiritual renewal. Wordsworth
often wrote about simple, everyday scenes but infused them with deep emotional significance.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was known for his imaginative and supernatural themes. He often
explored the mysterious and exotic in his poetry. Coleridge's works show the power of
imagination to transform reality into something extraordinary and magical.
William Blake was unique among the Romantic poets because of his intense and visionary
imagination. He wrote about both the beauty and the darkness in the world. Blake’s poetry
often contained powerful images and symbols that expressed profound ideas.
In Blake’s poems, The Tyger, The Lamb, and The Chimney Sweeper, we see his use of
imagination and symbolism.
- The Tyger is a poem that marvels at the creation of a fearsome and beautiful tiger. Blake
uses the tiger to question the nature of good and evil. The vivid imagery in the poem shows
the tiger as a powerful and almost supernatural being.
- The Lamb is a counterpart to The Tyger, symbolizing innocence and purity. In this poem,
Blake explores themes of innocence and creation, asking who made the gentle lamb and
highlighting the beauty of simple, innocent life.
- The Chimney Sweeper deals with the harsh realities of child labor. Blake uses the image of
a young chimney sweep to criticize society’s exploitation of children. Through this poem,
Blake uses his imagination to draw attention to social injustices and the suffering of the
innocent.
In summary, the older generation of Romantic poets in England, including Wordsworth,
Coleridge, and Blake, focused on the power of imagination to explore deep emotions, the
beauty of nature, and profound questions about life and society.
 18. Romanticism in England. Coleridge, life and creative work. Kubla Khan. The Rime
of the Ancient Mariner.
Romanticism in England was an artistic and literary movement in the late 18th and early
19th centuries. It emphasized emotions, nature, and individualism, reacting against the
industrial revolution and rationalism of the Enlightenment. The movement celebrated the
beauty of nature, the power of imagination, and the importance of personal feelings.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was a significant figure in English Romanticism. Born in 1772,
Coleridge was a poet, critic, and philosopher. He struggled with health issues and addiction to
opium throughout his life. Despite these challenges, he produced some of the most famous
works of the Romantic era.
One of Coleridge's most famous poems is "Kubla Khan." This poem was inspired by a dream
he had after reading about the Mongol emperor Kubla Khan. It's known for its vivid imagery
and mystical atmosphere. The poem describes the construction of a magnificent palace and
gardens in the city of Xanadu. The opening lines are particularly famous: "In Xanadu did
Kubla Khan / A stately pleasure-dome decree."
Another notable work by Coleridge is "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner." This long poem
tells the story of a mariner who experiences a series of supernatural events after killing an
albatross, a bird considered to bring good luck. The mariner's act brings a curse upon the ship
and its crew. The poem explores themes of sin, guilt, and redemption, and it's known for its
haunting refrain: "Water, water, everywhere, / Nor any drop to drink."
Coleridge's contributions to Romanticism in England were profound, as he explored deep
emotional states and the power of the natural world in his poetry. His works, including "Kubla
Khan" and "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner," remain influential and widely studied today.
19. Romanticism in England. The younger generation of poets. The quest for beauty.
George Gordon Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats. (Ozymandias, Ode
to the West Wind)
Romanticism in England was a literary movement that took place in the late 18th and early
19th centuries. This period was characterized by a focus on emotion, nature, and the
individual. The younger generation of poets during this time included famous figures like
George Gordon Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats. These poets were
known for their passionate and imaginative works.
One of the main themes in their poetry was the quest for beauty. They believed that beauty
could be found in nature, art, and human emotion. Their poetry often explored these themes in
deep and thoughtful ways.
George Gordon Lord Byron was a controversial and charismatic figure. His works often
reflected his adventurous life and bold personality. He became famous for his long narrative
poems like "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" and "Don Juan."
Percy Bysshe Shelley was known for his powerful and visionary poetry. He wrote about
radical ideas and was passionate about social change. Two of his most famous poems are
"Ozymandias" and "Ode to the West Wind". "Ozymandias" talks about the fleeting nature
of power and the inevitable decline of all leaders and empires. "Ode to the West Wind" is a
passionate plea for renewal and change, using the wind as a metaphor for inspiration and
transformation.
John Keats was another prominent poet of the Romantic era. His work focused on the beauty
of nature and the intensity of human emotions. Keats is best known for his odes, like "Ode to
a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn," where he explored themes of beauty, love, and
mortality.
In summary, Romanticism in England was marked by a celebration of emotion and nature.
Poets like George Gordon Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats played a
significant role in this movement, each contributing unique works that highlighted their quest
for beauty and deep emotional expression.
20. Lewis Carroll, life and creative world. The secret world of Lewis Carroll. Alice in
Wonderland.
Lewis Carroll was a famous English writer best known for his book Alice's Adventures in
Wonderland. His real name was Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, and he was born on January
27, 1832. Carroll was a mathematician and a photographer, but he became famous for his
creative stories and unique characters.
Carroll spent most of his life at Oxford University, where he taught mathematics. He loved
spending time with children, and his friendship with a young girl named Alice Liddell
inspired him to write his famous story. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland was published in
1865, and it quickly became a beloved book for both children and adults.
The story of Alice in Wonderland is about a girl named Alice who falls down a rabbit hole
and finds herself in a magical and strange world. In this world, she meets many odd characters
like the Mad Hatter, the Cheshire Cat, and the Queen of Hearts. The book is known for its
playful language and fantastical settings.
Carroll also wrote a sequel called Through the Looking-Glass, where Alice enters another
magical world by stepping through a mirror. In both books, Carroll's imagination and love
for wordplay are clear. He enjoyed creating puzzles, games, and nonsensical poems.
Despite his fame, Carroll was a very private person. He kept detailed diaries, but many pages
were removed after his death, leaving mysteries about his life. Some people believe there
were secrets about his friendships and interests, especially his relationship with the Liddell
family.
Carroll's creative world continues to fascinate readers today. His stories have been adapted
into many movies, plays, and other works of art. Alice in Wonderland remains a timeless
classic, loved for its whimsy and imaginative adventures.
21. Robert Burns – the bard of Scotland. Life and Creative work (To a Mouse, To a
Louse).
Robert Burns, often called the Bard of Scotland, was a famous Scottish poet and lyricist. He
was born on January 25, 1759, in Ayrshire, Scotland, to a farming family. Despite growing up
in poverty, Burns received a good education and developed a love for reading and writing.
Burns' life was full of hard work and struggles. He worked on the family farm and later as a
tax collector. Despite these challenges, he found time to write poetry and songs that captured
the lives and emotions of ordinary people.
One of his most famous poems is "To a Mouse." In this poem, Burns writes about
accidentally destroying a mouse's nest while plowing a field. He expresses sorrow for the
mouse and reflects on how both mice and men face unexpected problems. The poem is
famous for the line, "The best-laid schemes o' mice an' men / Gang aft agley," meaning that
even the best plans often go wrong.
Another well-known poem by Burns is "To a Louse." This poem is about seeing a louse on a
fine lady's bonnet while at church. Burns humorously points out that the louse does not care
about the lady's social status or appearance. The poem ends with a famous line: "O wad some
Power the giftie gie us / To see oursels as ithers see us!" which means "Oh, that God would
give us the gift to see ourselves as others see us!"
Burns wrote many other poems and songs, celebrating love, nature, and Scottish culture. He
died young, at the age of 37, on July 21, 1796, but his work continues to be loved and
celebrated around the world. Every year on his birthday, people celebrate Burns Night with
traditional Scottish food, music, and readings of his poetry.
22. The Victorian Age. The Spirit of the age. The development of the English novel.
William Makepeace Thackeray, biography and creative work. The Vanity Fair.
The Victorian Age was a period in British history during the reign of Queen Victoria from
1837 to 1901. This era was marked by significant changes and developments in many areas,
including industrialization, social reform, and literature. People were very focused on
progress, morality, and respectability.
The Spirit of the age during the Victorian period was characterized by a strong sense of duty,
hard work, and a belief in progress. Society was very concerned with moral values and proper
behavior. This period also saw a great divide between the rich and the poor, but there was a
strong push for social reforms to improve living conditions.
One of the major literary developments of the Victorian Age was the development of the
English novel. Novels became very popular and were widely read by the public. They often
focused on social issues, individual struggles, and the lives of ordinary people. Many famous
authors, like Charles Dickens, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy, wrote during this time.
William Makepeace Thackeray was one of the important novelists of the Victorian Age. He
was born on July 18, 1811, in India, but moved to England when he was a child. Thackeray
went to school at Charterhouse and later attended Trinity College, Cambridge, but he did
not finish his degree. Instead, he turned to writing.
Thackeray is best known for his novel Vanity Fair. He wrote many other works, but Vanity
Fair is considered his masterpiece. The novel was published in 1847-1848 and is a satirical
story about English society. It follows the lives of two women, Becky Sharp and Amelia
Sedley, showing their different paths in life and highlighting the vanity and hypocrisy of
society.
Thackeray's creative work often focused on the themes of social class, human weaknesses,
and the complexities of human nature. He used a lot of satire to criticize the society of his
time, but he did it in a way that was also entertaining and engaging for his readers.
Vanity Fair is a good example of Thackeray's style. The novel does not have a traditional
hero; instead, it features flawed characters who are driven by ambition, greed, and selfishness.
Despite this, Thackeray's writing is witty and insightful, making Vanity Fair a lasting work of
literature from the Victorian Age.
23. Charles Dickens and Charlotte Bronte, biographies and works. Ch. Dickens and Ch.
Bronte about the fate of children in England.
Charles Dickens and Charlotte Bronte were famous English writers from the 19th century.
Their stories often talked about the difficult lives of children in England.

Charles Dickens was born in 1812. He wrote many famous books like _Oliver Twist_,
_David Copperfield_, and _Great Expectations_. His stories often showed how tough life
was for poor children. For example, in _Oliver Twist_, the main character is a young boy
who grows up in a workhouse and faces many hardships. Dickens' own childhood was hard,
as his father went to prison for debt, and Charles had to work in a factory. This experience
influenced his writing and made him want to show the problems poor children faced.
Charlotte Bronte was born in 1816. She wrote the famous book _Jane Eyre_. The story is
about a girl named Jane who is treated badly by her aunt and sent to a harsh boarding school.
Jane Eyre grows up to be a strong and independent woman, but her early life is full of
challenges and unfair treatment. Charlotte Bronte's own life had many difficulties, including
the loss of her mother and two sisters. These hardships helped her understand the struggles of
children, which she showed in her writing.
Both Dickens and Bronte wanted to make people aware of the hard lives of children in their
time. They used their stories to show how important it was to care for and protect children.
Their works are still read today because they tell powerful stories about overcoming
difficulties and the importance of kindness and fairness.
24. Native American traditions – in harmony with nature. Native American myths and
legends, The World on the Turtle’s Back; hunting songs, The Song of the Sky Loom.
American Native folk tales, Coyote stories. The Fox and Coyote and Whale, Coyote and
the Buffalo.
Native American traditions are deeply connected to nature. Their myths and legends often
reflect this harmony. One well-known legend is The World on the Turtle’s Back, which
explains how the world was created on the back of a giant turtle.
Hunting songs are another important tradition. These songs, like The Song of the Sky
Loom, are sung to honor the animals that hunters seek, showing respect and gratitude for
nature’s gifts.
American Native folk tales include many stories about the trickster Coyote. These tales are
both entertaining and teach lessons. For example, in The Fox and Coyote and Whale,
Coyote helps his friend Fox rescue his wife from a Whale. Another story, Coyote and the
Buffalo, tells how Coyote tricks a buffalo but learns a lesson about greed and respect.
These traditions and stories show the deep connection Native Americans have with the natural
world and the wisdom they pass down through generations.
25. William Faulkner. “A Rose for Emily” – a modern short story in the Gothic
tradition. Appreciate the writer’s style. (Consider setting the scene, flashback) grammar
(consider dashes), characterization, foreshadowing, imagery.
William Faulkner was a famous American writer known for his unique and complex style.
One of his well-known short stories, "A Rose for Emily," is a modern story that uses Gothic
tradition. This means the story has a dark, mysterious, and eerie atmosphere.

In this story, Faulkner sets the scene in a small Southern town. The story is about Miss
Emily Grierson, a reclusive woman who lives in an old, decaying house. The townspeople
are curious about her, but she keeps to herself.
Faulkner uses flashbacks to tell Emily's story, jumping back and forth in time. This way of
telling the story helps the reader understand Emily's past and why she behaves the way she
does. For example, we learn about her strict father and how he drove away any potential
suitors, leaving Emily alone after his death.
The grammar Faulkner uses includes dashes to create pauses and emphasize certain parts of
the story. This technique adds to the suspense and draws the reader's attention to important
details.
Characterization in the story is also very important. Faulkner creates deep and complex
characters. Emily is portrayed as a tragic figure, someone who has been controlled all her life
and is unable to move on after her father's death. The townspeople, on the other hand, are
shown as gossiping and judgmental.
Foreshadowing is used cleverly in the story. Early on, we get hints about the strange smell
coming from Emily's house and her unusual behavior. These hints build up to the shocking
conclusion where it's revealed that Emily has been living with the corpse of her lover, Homer
Barron, for many years.
Finally, Faulkner's use of imagery paints vivid pictures in the reader's mind. He describes the
decaying house, the dusty rooms, and the old, dried-up corpse in great detail. This imagery
adds to the Gothic atmosphere and makes the story more engaging.
In summary, Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily" is a great example of modern Gothic literature.
His style includes setting a detailed scene, using flashbacks, careful grammar with dashes,
strong characterization, subtle foreshadowing, and rich imagery to create a memorable and
haunting story.
26. F. Scott Fitzgerald, his creative work and The Great Gatsby. Comment on the
themes, motifs and symbols.
F. Scott Fitzgerald was an American writer known for his novels and short stories that
captured the spirit of the 1920s, often called the Jazz Age. One of his most famous works is
_The Great Gatsby_, a novel published in 1925. This book is considered a classic of
American literature.
_The Great Gatsby_ tells the story of Jay Gatsby, a wealthy and mysterious man who
throws extravagant parties in hopes of reuniting with his lost love, Daisy Buchanan. The
novel is narrated by Nick Carraway, a young man who moves next door to Gatsby and
becomes his friend.
Themes in _The Great Gatsby_ include the American Dream, which is the idea that anyone
can achieve success and happiness through hard work. However, the novel shows the darker
side of this dream, as Gatsby's wealth and success do not bring him true happiness. Another
key theme is love and obsession. Gatsby's love for Daisy becomes an obsession that
ultimately leads to his downfall.
The novel also explores class and society. There is a clear divide between the rich and the
poor, and between those who are newly wealthy (like Gatsby) and those who come from old
money (like Daisy and her husband, Tom Buchanan).
Motifs in the novel include parties and alcohol, which symbolize the excess and hedonism of
the 1920s. Gatsby's lavish parties represent the high life of the rich but also the emptiness and
superficiality of their world.
Symbols are objects, characters, or colors used to represent larger ideas. One major symbol in
the novel is the green light at the end of Daisy's dock, which represents Gatsby's hopes and
dreams for the future. The valley of ashes, a desolate area between West Egg and New York
City, symbolizes the moral and social decay resulting from the pursuit of wealth. Dr. T.J.
Eckleburg's eyes, a pair of fading eyes painted on an old advertising billboard, symbolize the
loss of spiritual values in America and often seem to watch over the characters as a kind of
judgment.
In summary, _The Great Gatsby_ by F. Scott Fitzgerald is a rich and complex novel that
delves into themes of the American Dream, love and obsession, and class and society, using
powerful motifs and symbols to enhance its messages.
27. Emily Dickinson, her life, poetry and creative work. Analyze the poems: Because I
Could not Stop for Death, Hope.
Emily Dickinson was an American poet who lived from 1830 to 1886. She spent most of her
life in her family home in Amherst, Massachusetts, where she led a quiet and somewhat
reclusive life. Dickinson was known for her unique and unconventional style of poetry, which
included short lines, slant rhyme, and irregular punctuation. Although she wrote nearly 1,800
poems, only a few were published during her lifetime, often without her permission and
usually altered to fit the conventional norms of the time.
Dickinson's poetry often explores themes of death, immortality, nature, and the inner self.
She had a remarkable ability to convey deep and complex emotions with very few words.
One of her most famous poems is "Because I could not stop for Death." In this poem,
Dickinson personifies death as a kind and gentle suitor who takes the speaker on a carriage
ride towards eternity. The poem begins with the lines:
> Because I could not stop for Death –
> He kindly stopped for me –
> The Carriage held but just Ourselves –
> And Immortality.
Here, death is portrayed not as something to fear, but as a natural part of life, a journey that
one embarks on with immortality as a companion. As they pass through various scenes – a
school, fields of grain, and finally, a house that seems like a grave – the poem reflects on the
stages of life and the inevitability of death. The calm and serene tone suggests acceptance and
peace.
Another well-known poem by Dickinson is "Hope is the thing with feathers." This poem uses
the metaphor of a bird to describe hope:
> "Hope" is the thing with feathers –
> That perches in the soul –
> And sings the tune without the words –
> And never stops – at all –
Hope is depicted as a constant, uplifting presence that endures even in the darkest times. The
bird represents the idea that hope is always there, singing sweetly in our souls, providing
comfort and resilience. The poem emphasizes that hope requires no material sustenance and
remains unbroken, even in the face of adversity.
Emily Dickinson's poetry is celebrated for its emotional depth, innovative style, and ability to
capture the profound aspects of human experience in simple yet powerful language. Her work
continues to resonate with readers and remains an essential part of American literature.
28. Between Heaven and Hell: the Puritan Tradition. Life in the New World. Anne
Bradstreet and her poetry. To My Dear and Loving Husband, Upon the Burning of Our
House.
Between Heaven and Hell: the Puritan Tradition was a way of life and belief system
followed by the Puritans, who were early settlers in the New World. The Puritans believed in
strict religious rules and thought that life was a test where people had to prove their faith to
God. They believed in both Heaven and Hell, with Heaven being a reward for the faithful
and Hell being punishment for sinners.
Life in the New World for the Puritans was hard. They had to build new homes, grow their
own food, and survive in an unfamiliar land. Despite these challenges, their faith was strong,
and they believed that their struggles were part of God’s plan.
One famous Puritan was Anne Bradstreet, who is known for her poetry. She wrote about her
life and her beliefs in a way that was deeply personal and emotional. Two of her well-known
poems are To My Dear and Loving Husband and Upon the Burning of Our House.
In To My Dear and Loving Husband, Anne Bradstreet expresses her deep love for her
husband. She talks about how their love is strong and eternal, and she believes that they will
be together forever, even in Heaven.
In Upon the Burning of Our House, Bradstreet describes her feelings after her house burns
down. At first, she is sad and mourns the loss of her home and belongings. However, she soon
reminds herself that everything she has belongs to God and that her true home is in Heaven.
This shows her deep faith and acceptance of God’s will.
Anne Bradstreet’s poetry gives us a glimpse into the Puritan Tradition and how they
balanced their earthly struggles with their spiritual beliefs.
29. Edgar Alan Poe. Poe’s literary methods. Poe about writing short stories. The
peculiarities of Poe’s romanticism. The Masque of the Red Death. The Raven.
Edgar Allan Poe was a famous American writer known for his *poems* and *short stories*.
He had a special way of creating stories that often involved mystery and macabre themes.
Poe's literary methods included using dark imagery and symbolism to evoke strong
emotions in his readers. He believed that every part of a story should contribute to a single
effect or mood, which made his works very powerful and cohesive.
When writing short stories, Poe focused on creating a single, impactful moment. He thought
short stories were perfect for delivering a strong emotional punch because they could be read
in one sitting. Poe paid great attention to detail and structure, ensuring that each element of
the story, from the characters to the setting, contributed to the overall mood.
Poe’s romanticism was unique because it often highlighted the darker aspects of human
nature and the world. While other Romantic writers focused on beauty and nature, Poe
explored themes like death, madness, and the supernatural. His romanticism was marked
by a fascination with the unknown and the mysterious, setting his work apart from his
contemporaries.
In "The Masque of the Red Death," Poe tells a story about a prince who tries to avoid a
deadly plague by isolating himself and his friends in a luxurious castle. They throw a grand
masquerade ball, but a mysterious figure representing the Red Death eventually appears and
kills everyone. This story highlights themes of inevitability of death and the futility of trying
to escape it.
"The Raven" is one of Poe's most famous poems. It tells the story of a man who is grieving
the loss of his beloved Lenore. One night, a raven visits him and repeatedly utters the word
"Nevermore." The poem explores themes of grief, loss, and despair, using the raven as a
symbol of the narrator's unending sorrow.
Overall, Edgar Allan Poe was a master at creating a specific mood in his works, often
focusing on dark and mysterious themes. His unique approach to romanticism and his skillful
use of literary techniques have made his stories and poems timeless classics.
30. Ernest Miller Hemingway. His aesthetic views and ideas regarding literature and
writers. The Old Man and the Sea.
Ernest Miller Hemingway was a famous American writer known for his simple and direct
writing style. He believed that good writing should be clear and to the point, without
unnecessary words. Hemingway's stories often have strong characters who show courage
and endurance in difficult situations.
One of his most famous works is The Old Man and the Sea. It tells the story of an old
fisherman named Santiago who struggles to catch a giant marlin. The story highlights themes
of strength, perseverance, and the struggle between man and nature. Hemingway's
writing in this book is simple but powerful, showing Santiago's determination and pride.
Hemingway's aesthetic views on literature were that writers should be honest and true in their
storytelling. He believed that a good writer should have a clear vision and be able to convey
deep meanings with simple words. He thought that the writer's job was to show, not tell,
allowing readers to find their own interpretations.
In summary, Hemingway's ideas about literature focused on simplicity, clarity, and the
importance of courage and strength. The Old Man and the Sea is a great example of his
writing style and themes, demonstrating his belief in the power of a straightforward yet
profound story.

3. History of the
English Language

1. English as a West Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. Its

relation to other European languages.
English is a language that belongs to the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European
language family. This means that it shares roots with many other languages in Europe. The
Indo-European family is a large group of languages that includes most of the languages
spoken in Europe, as well as many in Asia.
English is closely related to other West Germanic languages, such as German and Dutch.
These languages have many similarities because they all come from the same ancient
language. Over time, they have changed in different ways, but you can still see connections
between them. For example, the English word "house" is similar to the German word "Haus"
and the Dutch word "huis".
Besides German and Dutch, English is also connected to other languages in the Indo-
European family. This includes languages from the Romance branch, like French,
Spanish, and Italian. Even though these languages come from Latin, they have influenced
English a lot, especially in vocabulary. For instance, many English words like "government"
and "justice" come from French.
Other branches of the Indo-European family include the Celtic languages (such as Irish and
Welsh) and the Slavic languages (such as Russian and Polish). Although these languages are
different from English, they all share a common ancient ancestor, which is why we can
sometimes find similarities between them.
In summary, English is part of the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European language
family, and it is related to many other European languages through its historical and linguistic
roots.
2.History of the English language. The traditional periodisation of the English language.
The history of the English language can be divided into several key periods. The traditional
periodisation of English is often split into three main phases: Old English, Middle English,
and Modern English.

Old English (approximately 450-1150 AD) began with the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in
England. These people spoke a Germanic language that mixed with the local languages. This
period includes famous works like "Beowulf."

Next came Middle English (1150-1500 AD), which started after the Norman Conquest of
1066. The Normans brought the French language to England, which blended with Old
English, making the language more diverse. A famous work from this time is Geoffrey
Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales."

Finally, we have Modern English. This period is usually divided into two parts: Early
Modern English (1500-1700 AD) and Late Modern English (1700 AD to the present).
Early Modern English was marked by the influence of the Renaissance, the invention of the
printing press, and the works of William Shakespeare. Late Modern English has seen the
language grow and change with the Industrial Revolution, the British Empire, and the rise
of the Internet.

In summary, the English language has evolved through Old English, Middle English, and
Modern English, influenced by historical events and cultural changes.
3.The main consequences of the Transition from Middle English to Early Modern
English.
The transition from Middle English to Early Modern English brought about several
important changes in the language.
First, there was a significant change in pronunciation. This period saw the Great Vowel
Shift, where the pronunciation of vowels changed, making them sound more like they do in
modern English. For example, the vowel sound in "bite" used to be pronounced more like
"beet."
Second, the spelling of words became more standardized. With the invention of the printing
press, books became more common, and printers started to use consistent spelling patterns.
This helped to create a more uniform way of writing English.
Third, the grammar of English also evolved. Middle English had many different endings for
verbs and nouns, but Early Modern English simplified these forms, making the language
easier to learn and use.
Fourth, there was a huge increase in vocabulary. Many new words entered the English
language from Latin, Greek, and other languages, especially because of the Renaissance,
which brought a renewed interest in arts and sciences.
Lastly, literature flourished during this time. The works of William Shakespeare and the
King James Bible had a profound impact on the English language, introducing many new
phrases and expressions that are still used today.
In summary, the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English was marked by
changes in pronunciation, more standardized spelling, simplified grammar, a larger
vocabulary, and a rich literary output.
4.Geoffrey Chaucer and his contribution to the development of the English langugage
Geoffrey Chaucer was a famous English writer from the 14th century. He is best known for
his work called "The Canterbury Tales". Chaucer's contribution to the development of the
English language was very significant. Before his time, most serious literature in England
was written in Latin or French, which were considered more prestigious languages. Chaucer,
however, chose to write in Middle English, the language spoken by ordinary people in
England.
By writing in English, Chaucer helped to show that it was a valid and respectable language for
literature. His works made English more popular and acceptable for writing stories, poetry,
and other forms of literature. This helped to standardize the English language and gave it
more prestige.
Additionally, Chaucer's use of English included many words and phrases that are still used
today. He introduced new vocabulary and expressions that enriched the language. His
storytelling style, with its humor, vivid characters, and lively dialogue, also influenced future
writers and helped shape English literature.
In summary, Geoffrey Chaucer played a crucial role in the development of the English
language by writing in Middle English, popularizing it, and contributing to its vocabulary and
literary style.
5. The outcome of the population increase in London in the 13th century. The impact of
the Great Vowel Shift on changes in pronunciation.
In the 13th century, London experienced a significant increase in population. This
population boom had several important outcomes that shaped the city and its future. First, the
rise in the number of people led to a greater demand for housing and infrastructure. More
people needed homes, roads, and markets, which resulted in the rapid expansion of the city.
Buildings were constructed more densely, and new neighborhoods sprang up to accommodate
the growing population.
This population growth also boosted trade and commerce. As more people moved to
London, it became a bustling center of trade, attracting merchants from all over England and
beyond. Markets and shops flourished, and the economy grew. The increase in trade brought
wealth to the city and made London an important hub for business.
However, the rapid increase in population also had some negative effects. With so many
people living in close quarters, sanitation became a major issue. There were not enough
proper waste disposal systems, leading to dirty streets and the spread of diseases.
Overcrowding in the city meant that people lived in cramped and unhealthy conditions,
which made it easier for illnesses to spread. This was a time before modern plumbing and
sewage systems, so managing the waste of a large population was a serious challenge.
Additionally, the larger population put a strain on resources like food and water. The city had
to work harder to supply enough food to feed everyone, and clean water became harder to
come by. These issues often led to conflicts and increased the risk of famine and water
shortages.
Despite these challenges, the population increase in 13th century London played a crucial role
in the city's development. It set the stage for London to become a major economic and
cultural center in the centuries to come, but it also highlighted the need for better
infrastructure and public health measures.
The Impact of the Great Vowel Shift on Changes in Pronunciation
The Great Vowel Shift was a major change in the way English vowels were pronounced, and
it had a huge impact on the English language. This shift happened gradually between the 14th
and 17th centuries and completely changed the pronunciation of many English words.
Before the Great Vowel Shift, words were pronounced more like they are spelled. For
example, the word “name” was pronounced as "nah-meh," and “time” was pronounced as
"tee-meh." During the Great Vowel Shift, the pronunciation of long vowels began to change.
They moved upward in the mouth; for instance, the vowel sound in "name" shifted from
"ah" to "ay," and the vowel in "time" shifted from "ee" to "ai."
One of the biggest outcomes of the Great Vowel Shift was that it made English spelling and
pronunciation less consistent. Before the shift, the way words were spelled was closer to how
they sounded. After the shift, the pronunciation of many words changed, but their spelling
often stayed the same. This is why English spelling can be so tricky today; words like
“knight” and “night” sound similar but have very different spellings that reflect their older
pronunciations.
The Great Vowel Shift also led to the creation of new dialects. Different regions in England
experienced the shift in various ways and at different speeds, leading to more diverse accents
and pronunciations across the country. This contributed to the rich variety of British accents
that we hear today.
Overall, the Great Vowel Shift had a lasting impact on the English language by changing the
way we pronounce many words. It made English pronunciation more complex and less
predictable, but it also added to the diversity and richness of the language.
6. Early Modern English and its features. William Shakespeare and his contribution to
the development of the English langugage.
Early Modern English is the stage of the English language that was spoken and written from
around the late 15th century to the early 17th century. This period followed Middle English
and preceded the Modern English we use today. It was a time of great change for the English
language, influenced by factors such as the Renaissance, the printing press, and the
exploration of new lands.
One of the key features of Early Modern English was the Great Vowel Shift, a major
change in the pronunciation of vowels that started around the 15th century and continued into
the 17th century. For example, the pronunciation of words like "mouse" and "house" changed
from a sound similar to "moose" and "hoose" to the way we pronounce them today. This shift
significantly altered the way English was spoken.
Another important feature of Early Modern English was the standardization of spelling and
grammar. Before this period, there were many regional dialects and variations in spelling.
With the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century,
books became more widely available, leading to more consistent spelling and grammar across
different regions. This was the beginning of a more uniform language.
William Shakespeare, who lived from 1564 to 1616, was a monumental figure during this
period. He is often regarded as the greatest playwright in the English language and made
significant contributions to the development of English. Shakespeare's works, including
famous plays like "Romeo and Juliet", "Hamlet", and "Macbeth", played a crucial role in
shaping the language.
One of Shakespeare's major contributions was his creative use of language. He invented over
1,700 new words and phrases that are still in use today, such as "assassination," "lonely,"
"swagger," and "bedroom." His ability to play with words and invent new ones helped to
expand the English vocabulary and made the language more expressive and flexible.
Shakespeare's works also showcased different dialects and forms of speech, reflecting the
diversity of English at the time. His plays included characters from various social
backgrounds, from kings and queens to commoners and jesters, each speaking in a way that
was true to their character. This not only added richness to his stories but also helped to
popularize and preserve different forms of English.
In addition, Shakespeare's use of blank verse—unrhymed iambic pentameter—became a
standard for English poetry and drama. His plays were written in a poetic form that was both
structured and flexible, allowing for a natural flow of speech while maintaining a rhythmic
quality. This use of blank verse influenced countless other writers and helped to shape the
rhythm and structure of English literature.
Overall, Early Modern English was a transformative period for the language, with
significant changes in pronunciation, spelling, and grammar. William Shakespeare's
innovative use of language and his vast contributions to English vocabulary and literature
played a key role in shaping the language into what it is today. His works not only reflect the
richness of Early Modern English but also continue to influence the way we speak and write
English in the modern world.

Lőrincz be like:
Close your eyes, bro..
 4. Lexicology

1. Lexicology as a branch of linguistics. Its aims and tasks. Links with other
branches of linguistics.
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the study of words. It explores
everything about words, including their meaning, structure, origin, and usage. The word
"lexicology" comes from the Greek words "lexis," meaning "word," and "logos," meaning
"study" or "science." In simple terms, lexicology is the science of words.
The aims of lexicology are to understand how words function and how they are formed.
Lexicologists look at how words are created, how they change over time, and how they are
related to each other. They study the structure of words (known as morphology), the
meaning of words (called semantics), and the history of words (referred to as
etymology).
One of the key tasks of lexicology is to analyze the lexicon, which is the complete set of
words in a language. Lexicologists work to identify and describe the different types of words,
such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They also look at how words are grouped
together into word families and semantic fields. For example, the words "cat," "dog," and
"rabbit" are part of the same semantic field because they are all animals.
Another important task is to study word formation, which involves looking at how new
words are created. This can include processes like compounding (putting two words together,
like "notebook"), derivation (adding prefixes or suffixes, like "happiness"), and borrowing
(taking words from other languages, like "pizza" from Italian).
Lexicology is closely linked with other branches of linguistics. For example, it connects with
semantics, which is the study of meaning in language. Lexicology and semantics both look at
how words convey meaning and how that meaning can change depending on the context.
It also has ties to morphology, the study of word structure. Morphology looks at the
smallest units of meaning within words, called morphemes. For instance, in the word
"unhappiness," "un-" is a prefix meaning "not," "happy" is the root word, and "-ness" is a
suffix indicating a state or quality.
Lexicology is related to phonology, which is the study of sounds in language. Although
phonology focuses more on sounds rather than words, understanding how sounds combine to
form words is an important aspect of lexicology.
Additionally, lexicology interacts with syntax, the study of sentence structure. Knowing
how words function and relate to each other helps in understanding how they are arranged to
form meaningful sentences.
In summary, lexicology is a vital field of linguistics that helps us understand the nature of
words. It examines how words are formed, their meanings, and their usage. By linking with
other linguistic branches like semantics, morphology, phonology, and syntax, lexicology
provides a comprehensive understanding of language. It plays a crucial role in helping us
understand how language works and evolves.
2.The word as a linguistic phenomenon. External and Internal structure of a word. The
problem of formal unity and semantic unity of a word
Words are fundamental building blocks of language, and they play a crucial role in
communication. They can be thought of as linguistic units that carry meaning and allow us to
express ideas, emotions, and information. Understanding words involves looking at both their
external and internal structure, as well as how their form and meaning are unified.
The external structure of a word refers to its form—the way it looks and sounds. This
includes the letters or sounds that make up the word. For example, the word "apple" has five
letters: A, P, P, L, and E, and these letters are arranged in a specific order. When spoken,
"apple" is made up of a series of sounds. This external structure is what we see or hear and is
the physical representation of the word.
The internal structure of a word deals with its components and how they come together to
form the word's meaning. Words can be made up of smaller units called morphemes. A
morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. For example, the word "unhappiness"
consists of three morphemes: "un-" (a prefix meaning 'not'), "happy" (the root word), and "-
ness" (a suffix that turns an adjective into a noun). These morphemes combine to create a
word that means 'the state of not being happy'.
A word also has formal unity, which means that it acts as a single unit. This can be seen in
how we use words in sentences. For instance, when we say "apple," we treat it as one
complete unit, even though it consists of individual letters and sounds. The formal unity of a
word helps us recognize it as a distinct entity in both written and spoken language.
On the other hand, semantic unity refers to the fact that a word carries a single, unified
meaning. Even though a word might be made up of multiple parts, it typically represents one
idea or concept. For example, the word "book" brings to mind the concept of a bound
collection of pages with written or printed text. Despite its letters and sounds, the word
"book" unifies these elements to convey this singular meaning. However, some words can
have multiple meanings, known as polysemy. For instance, the word "bank" can mean a
financial institution or the side of a river, but in each context, it maintains semantic unity by
representing one idea at a time.
The problem of formal unity and semantic unity arises when considering how words maintain
their identity and meaning across different contexts and uses. For instance, the word "run" can
refer to moving quickly on foot, managing something (like "running a business"), or operating
a machine (like "running a computer program"). Each use involves different meanings, but the
word "run" retains its formal unity as a single word in all contexts. The challenge is to
understand how the same word can hold multiple meanings while still being recognized as
one unit.
In conclusion, words are essential elements of language with both external and internal
structures. Their external structure is their physical form, including letters and sounds, while
their internal structure consists of smaller meaningful parts called morphemes. Formal
unity ensures that a word is treated as a single unit, and semantic unity ensures that a word
conveys a unified meaning. Understanding these aspects helps us appreciate how words
function as building blocks of communication and meaning in language.

3. The process of development and change of meaning: transference based on

resemblance and on contiguity.
The meanings of words can change over time through different processes, one of which is
transference. Transference happens when a word's meaning shifts to something else, either
because it looks or feels similar (resemblance) or because it's related in some other way
(contiguity).
Transference based on resemblance is when a word's meaning changes because two things
share a similar feature. For example, the word "mouse" originally just meant the small rodent.
However, because a computer mouse is small and somewhat similar in shape to a real mouse,
the word "mouse" started being used to describe this computer device too. Another example
is the word "star". It originally meant the bright objects in the sky. But because famous
people shine in their own way, they are also called "stars".
On the other hand, transference based on contiguity is when a word’s meaning changes
because two things are often found together or are related in some way. For instance, the word
"bottle" used to only mean the container. But because we often refer to the drink inside it by
the container, we might say "He drank a whole bottle" meaning the liquid, not the actual
bottle. Another example is "crown". It originally meant the physical object worn on the head
by royalty. Now, it can also refer to the power or authority of a king or queen because the
crown symbolizes that authority.
These changes in meaning occur naturally over time as people use language in new ways.
Words evolve to reflect new connections, appearances, or uses, helping our language stay
dynamic and versatile. Understanding transference helps us see how flexible and adaptable
language is, and how it evolves to keep up with changes in our world and our ways of
thinking.
4. Synonyms. Criteria of synonymy. Classification of synonyms. The dominant
synonym.
Synonyms are words that have the same or very similar meanings. For example, "happy"
and "joyful" are synonyms because they both describe a feeling of pleasure. Synonyms can
be used to make our writing or speech more interesting and to avoid repeating the same
words.
Criteria of synonymy help us understand when words can be considered synonyms. There
are a few key points to consider:
1. Meaning: The words must have a similar meaning. For example, "big" and "large" both
mean something of a significant size.
2. Context: Sometimes, words can only be synonyms in certain situations. For example,
"shut" and "close" can both mean to make something not open, but you "shut a door" and
"close a deal".
3. Degree of similarity: The words should be similar in meaning, but they might not be
identical. For example, "happy" and "elated" are synonyms, but "elated" means extremely
happy.
Classification of synonyms helps us group them based on how similar they are and how they
can be used. Here are some types of synonyms:
1. Absolute synonyms: These are words that can be used interchangeably in all contexts
without changing the meaning. For example, "buy" and "purchase".
2. Partial synonyms: These words have similar meanings but cannot always be used in the
same context. For example, "big" and "large" are synonyms, but you wouldn't say "a big
mistake" and "a large mistake" in all contexts.
3. Contextual synonyms: These words can be synonyms in specific situations or contexts.
For example, "teacher" and "instructor" are similar, but you might use "teacher" in a school
setting and "instructor" in a sports or workshop setting.
4. Near synonyms: These words have related meanings but are not exactly the same. For
example, "ask" and "inquire" are close in meaning but might be used differently in polite or
formal contexts.
Among synonyms, there is often a dominant synonym. This is the word that is most
commonly used and understood in a language. The dominant synonym usually has a broader,
more general meaning, and can be used in more situations. For example, "happy" is a
dominant synonym because it is more commonly used than words like "joyful" or "elated". It
covers a wide range of feelings and is understood by most people.
Understanding synonyms is important because it helps us choose the right words for what we
want to say. By knowing how synonyms work and what they mean, we can communicate
more clearly and effectively.
5. The problem of antonomy in modern linguistic research.
In modern linguistic research, one of the key issues is the problem of autonomy. This concept
refers to the question of whether different aspects of language, like syntax (sentence
structure), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (language in context), should be studied
independently or as interconnected parts of a single system.
Traditionally, linguists believed in the autonomy of syntax, meaning that the rules governing
how words are put together to form sentences could be studied separately from meaning and
context. This idea was championed by Noam Chomsky, a renowned linguist who argued that
the structure of sentences (syntax) operates according to its own rules, independent of the
meaning of the words (semantics) and how they are used in real life (pragmatics).
However, this notion of autonomy has faced criticism. Many linguists argue that language is
an integrated system, and to understand it fully, we must consider how these different
aspects interact. For example, the meaning of a sentence often depends on its context, so
separating syntax from semantics and pragmatics might overlook important connections.
One major problem with the concept of autonomy is that it can oversimplify how language
works. In real communication, people use language flexibly and adapt it to different
situations, which means that meaning and context often influence how sentences are
constructed. Ignoring these interactions can lead to an incomplete understanding of how
language functions in everyday use.
Another issue is that languages are constantly evolving. As people use language in new
ways, the boundaries between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics can become blurred. This
makes it difficult to study these aspects of language as entirely separate entities.
Despite these challenges, the idea of autonomy can still be useful in certain contexts. For
instance, focusing on syntax alone can help linguists identify patterns in sentence structure
that might not be obvious when considering meaning and context at the same time. However,
most modern linguists agree that a more holistic approach is needed to fully understand the
complexities of language.
In conclusion, the problem of autonomy in modern linguistic research highlights the need for
a balanced perspective. While it can be useful to study different aspects of language
independently, it is also crucial to recognize how these components interact to give us a more
comprehensive view of how language works in practice.
6. Phraseology as a constituent part of lexicology. Phraseological units. Characteristic
features.
Phraseology is an important branch of lexicology, which is the study of words and their
meanings. While lexicology focuses on individual words, phraseology deals with groups of
words that together form fixed expressions or phrases. These groups of words, known as
phraseological units, have meanings that are not always clear from the individual words
alone. Understanding these units helps us grasp the richness and complexity of a language.
A phraseological unit is a combination of words that has a specific meaning, often different
from the meanings of the words on their own. For example, the phrase “kick the bucket”
means to die, which is very different from the literal meanings of "kick" and "bucket". These
units are often called idioms, collocations, or fixed expressions. They are used frequently in
everyday speech and writing, making them an essential part of language learning and
comprehension.
Phraseological units have some characteristic features that make them unique. First, they
are often fixed expressions, meaning the words are usually used together in a specific order,
and changing the words or their order can change the meaning or make the phrase
meaningless. For instance, “spill the beans” means to reveal a secret, but if you say “spill the
peas” or “beans the spill,” the meaning is lost.
Second, they often have a figurative meaning rather than a literal one. This means that the
meaning of the whole phrase is not directly tied to the meanings of the individual words. For
example, “break the ice” means to start a conversation in a social situation, not literally
breaking ice. This figurative meaning makes phraseological units rich in expression and
difficult to understand for non-native speakers.
Another feature is that phraseological units are usually idiomatic, meaning they are unique to
a particular language and often cannot be directly translated into another language without
losing their meaning. For example, the English idiom “barking up the wrong tree” means to
pursue a mistaken course of action, and it doesn't make much sense if translated literally into
another language.
Phraseological units can also be categorized based on how flexible they are. Some are very
rigid, meaning they do not allow for any variation. For instance, you always say “make ends
meet” and not “make the ends meet” or “meet the ends.” Others are more flexible and allow
for some variations. For example, “take a break” can also be “take some time off” or “have a
break,” and the meaning remains the same.
In summary, phraseology is a crucial part of lexicology because it deals with expressions that
go beyond the meanings of individual words. Phraseological units are important for
understanding and using language effectively. They have unique features like being fixed,
figurative, idiomatic, and sometimes flexible. Understanding these units can help language
learners and speakers communicate more naturally and understand the deeper meanings
behind everyday language.

7. Minor ways of word-building. Shortening. Sound-Imitation. Reduplication.

Back-formation.
In the English language, there are several minor ways of word-building that help create new
words. These methods include shortening, sound-imitation, reduplication, and back-
formation. Each technique has its unique way of forming words, making the language rich
and diverse.
Shortening is one of the simplest methods of creating new words. It involves cutting down a
longer word to make a shorter form that often means the same thing. There are a few types of
shortening. Clipping is when part of a word is removed. For example, the word
"advertisement" is often clipped to "ad," and "telephone" becomes "phone." Another form is
acronyms, where the initial letters of a series of words are taken to form a new word.
"NASA" stands for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and "laser" stands for
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Initialisms are similar to
acronyms, but you pronounce each letter separately, like "USA" for the United States of
America.
Sound-imitation, also known as onomatopoeia, involves creating words that imitate
sounds. These words sound like what they describe, making them easy to understand. For
instance, words like "buzz," "hiss," "clang," and "sizzle" mimic the sounds they represent.
When you hear the word "buzz," you can almost hear the sound of a bee. Similarly, "sizzle"
evokes the sound of something frying in a pan. This method of word-building helps create
vivid, descriptive language that brings sounds to life in writing and speech.
Reduplication is a fun way to create new words by repeating a part of a word or the whole
word, often with a slight change. This method creates words that are catchy and easy to
remember. An example is "tick-tock," which mimics the sound of a clock. Other examples
include "willy-nilly," meaning without planning, and "hanky-panky," referring to mischievous
or naughty behavior. Reduplication often adds a playful or informal tone to the language.
Back-formation is a process where a new word is created by removing what looks like a
suffix from an existing word. This often results in a new verb. For example, the word "editor"
existed before the verb "edit." People assumed that since there is an editor, there must be a
verb to match, and so "edit" was formed. Similarly, the noun "burglar" led to the creation of
the verb "burgle," and "television" gave rise to "televise." Back-formation simplifies longer
words and helps create new verbs from nouns.
In summary, these minor ways of word-building—shortening, sound-imitation, reduplication,
and back-formation—add variety and creativity to the English language. They help us create
new words that are often shorter, more descriptive, or easier to say, making the language more
flexible and expressive.
8. Conversion as a way of forming new words. Types of semantic relations in conversion.
Conversion is a way of creating new words by changing the function of an existing word
without changing its form. For example, the noun "book" can be turned into the verb "to
book" (as in to book a ticket). This process is also known as zero derivation because no
additional morphemes are added to the word.

There are different types of semantic relations in conversion:

1. Action-Result: A verb changes to a noun, indicating the result of the action. For example,
"to guess" (verb) becomes "a guess" (noun).
2. Action-Agent: A verb turns into a noun, indicating the person performing the action. For
instance, "to cheat" (verb) becomes "a cheat" (noun), meaning a person who cheats.
3. Action-Instrument: A verb becomes a noun, indicating the instrument used to perform the
action. An example is "to hammer" (verb) becoming "a hammer" (noun), referring to the tool
used for hammering.
4. State-Result: An adjective turns into a noun, indicating the result of being in a particular
state. For instance, "to clean" (verb) becomes "a clean" (noun), indicating the state of
cleanliness achieved.
5. Object-Activity: A noun turns into a verb, indicating the activity associated with the
object. For example, "email" (noun) becomes "to email" (verb), meaning to send an email.
6. Place-Activity: A noun for a place converts to a verb, indicating the activity done at that
place. For example, "camp" (noun) becomes "to camp" (verb), meaning to stay in a camp.
These semantic relations help in understanding how conversion works and how new meanings
are formed by changing the grammatical function of words.
9. Composition as a way of forming new words.
Composition is a way of forming new words by combining two or more words to create a
single new word. This process is very common in the English language and helps us express
complex ideas with simpler terms.
For example, think about the word "toothbrush". This word is formed by combining "tooth"
and "brush". When these two words are put together, they form a new word that means a
brush used for cleaning teeth.
Another example is "notebook", which comes from "note" and "book". Together, they create a
new word that means a book for writing notes.
Composition is useful because it allows us to describe new objects, ideas, or actions by
merging existing words. This makes our language richer and more flexible. Some other
examples include "sunflower" (sun + flower), "football" (foot + ball), and "airport" (air +
port).
So, by using composition, we can easily make new words that help us communicate more
effectively.
10. Major ways of word-building.
Word-building is the process of creating new words in a language. There are several major
ways to build words:

1. Affixation: This is adding prefixes (letters added to the beginning of a word) or suffixes
(letters added to the end of a word) to a base word. For example, adding "un-" to "happy"
makes "unhappy," and adding "-ness" to "happy" makes "happiness."
2. Compounding: This involves joining two or more words together to form a new word.
Examples include "toothpaste" (tooth + paste) and "notebook" (note + book).
3. Conversion: This is changing the word class (like noun, verb, adjective) without changing
its form. For instance, the noun "email" can be used as a verb in "to email."
4. Clipping: This means shortening a longer word to create a new, shorter form. For example,
"telephone" becomes "phone" and "advertisement" becomes "ad."
5. Blending: This is combining parts of two or more words to form a new word. A good
example is "brunch," which is a blend of "breakfast" and "lunch."
6. Acronyms: These are new words formed from the initial letters of a series of words. For
instance, "NASA" stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and "scuba"
stands for self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.
7. Borrowing: This involves taking words from other languages and incorporating them into
the language. English has borrowed words like "ballet" from French and "piano" from Italian.
8. Coinage: This is the creation of completely new words often for new products or concepts.
For example, "Google" as a verb for searching online.
These methods help
languages grow and adapt to
new ideas, technologies, and
cultures.
 5. Stylistics

1.The subject of stylistics and its place in the system of related disciplines. Types of
stylistics. Primary objectives and fields of study of stylistics.
Stylistics is the study of how language is used in different ways to achieve particular effects.
It's like looking at the style of writing or speaking to understand why it's effective or
interesting. Stylistics sits at the intersection of linguistics (the study of language) and
literature (the study of written works), making it a bridge between these two fields.
There are different types of stylistics:
1. Linguistic Stylistics: Focuses on the use of language features like grammar, vocabulary,
and sounds.
2. Literary Stylistics: Examines how writers use language in literary texts, such as novels
and poems.
3. Cognitive Stylistics: Looks at how language affects our mental processes and how we
understand texts.
4. Pragmatic Stylistics: Studies how language is used in context and how it affects
communication.
5. Computational Stylistics: Uses computer tools to analyze texts and identify patterns in
language use.
The primary objectives of stylistics are to understand how language creates meaning and
how different styles affect readers or listeners. The fields of study in stylistics include:
- Text Analysis: Breaking down texts to see how they are constructed.
- Genre Studies: Looking at different types of texts, like fiction, non-fiction, and poetry, to
see how their styles differ.
- Discourse Analysis: Studying how language is used in different contexts, like
conversations, speeches, or advertisements.
- Language Variation: Exploring how language changes in different social or cultural
settings.
In summary, stylistics helps us see the artistry in language and understand how different
techniques and choices can shape our perception and interpretation of texts.
 2.The main stylistic notions: functional style, style, expressive means of language,
stylistic devices, image etc.
Functional style refers to the way language is used in different contexts or situations. For
example, the language used in a formal letter is different from the language used in a casual
conversation. Each situation has its own specific way of using language, known as a
functional style.
Style in general is about the way something is expressed. In writing, it means the unique way
an author uses words, sentences, and paragraphs to express their ideas. Style can make writing
formal or informal, serious or funny, plain or fancy.
Expressive means of language are the tools that writers use to make their writing more vivid
and interesting. This includes things like word choice, sentence structure, and punctuation.
These tools help to express feelings, create images, and convey meanings more effectively.
Stylistic devices are specific techniques used to give more impact to writing. Examples
include metaphors, similes, and personification. These devices make language more engaging
and help to emphasize certain points or create specific effects.
Image in writing refers to the pictures that words create in the reader's mind. Good writers
use descriptive language to paint these pictures, making the reader see, hear, smell, taste, or
feel what is being described.
In summary, functional style is about using language differently depending on the situation.
Style is the unique way a writer expresses themselves. Expressive means of language are the
tools writers use to make their writing more lively. Stylistic devices are specific techniques to
enhance writing, and images are the mental pictures that good writing creates for the reader.
3.Functional styles of language and their differentiation.
Functional styles of language refer to different ways we use language depending on the
situation, purpose, and audience. These styles are like different outfits we wear for various
occasions, each serving a specific function. Here are the main functional styles and how they
differ:
1. Official style: This is used in formal situations like government documents, legal papers,
and official letters. It is very formal, clear, and precise. There is no room for personal feelings
or informal words.
2. Scientific style: This style is found in academic papers, research articles, and scientific
reports. It is logical, detailed, and uses a lot of technical terms. The goal is to inform and
explain complex ideas clearly.
3. Publicistic style: You will see this in newspapers, magazines, and speeches. It is meant to
inform and persuade the public. It is less formal than the official style but still professional.
It often includes emotional language to engage the reader.
4. Fictional style: This is the style used in novels, short stories, and poetry. It is creative,
imaginative, and can vary widely depending on the author's voice and the story's needs. The
main goal is to entertain and move the reader.
5. Colloquial style: This is everyday, informal language used in conversations with friends
and family. It is casual, relaxed, and may include slang or regional expressions. The aim is to
communicate in a natural, comfortable way.
Each functional style is tailored to its context, making our communication more effective and
appropriate for different situations.
4. Stylistic classification of the English vocabulary.
The stylistic classification of English vocabulary is about how words are grouped based on
the way they are used in different contexts and styles of communication. Here are the main
types:
1. Neutral Vocabulary: These are the words we use in everyday conversations. They are
simple, clear, and not fancy. For example, words like "house," "go," and "big" are neutral.
They can be used in both spoken and written English without sounding too formal or too
casual.
2. Literary Vocabulary: These words are often found in literature, poetry, and formal
writing. They tend to be more elaborate and sophisticated. For example, words like
"resplendent" instead of "bright" or "tranquil" instead of "calm" are literary. They add a
special flavor to the text and make it more expressive.
3. Colloquial Vocabulary: These are the words and phrases used in casual, everyday
conversations. They can be slang, idioms, or informal expressions. For example, saying
"gonna" instead of "going to" or "cool" instead of "good" is colloquial. This vocabulary
makes the speech sound friendly and relaxed.
4. Professional and Technical Vocabulary: These words are specific to certain professions
or fields of study. They are often complex and not commonly used by the general public. For
example, medical terms like "hypertension" (high blood pressure) or legal terms like
"litigation" (lawsuit) fall into this category. They are necessary for precise communication in
specialized areas.
In summary, neutral vocabulary is for everyday use, literary vocabulary is for artistic and
formal writing, colloquial vocabulary is for informal and casual talk, and professional and
technical vocabulary is for specific fields and professions. Understanding these classifications
helps in choosing the right words for different situations.
5. Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices.
Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices are special techniques used in language to
make it more interesting and vivid. These techniques help writers and speakers to express
their ideas more effectively and to create a stronger emotional impact on the reader or listener.
Here are five important ones:
1. Metaphor: This is when we compare one thing to another by saying it is something else.
For example, "Time is a thief" suggests that time steals moments from our lives. Metaphors
help us understand complex ideas by relating them to something familiar.
2. Simile: Similar to a metaphor, a simile also makes a comparison but uses the words "like"
or "as". For instance, "Her smile was as bright as the sun" compares the brightness of her
smile to the sun, making it easier to visualize.
3. Personification: This is when we give human qualities to non-human things. For example,
"The wind whispered through the trees" gives the wind the human ability to whisper, making
the description more lively and engaging.
4. Hyperbole: This is an exaggeration used to emphasize a point. For example, "I'm so
hungry I could eat a horse" doesn’t mean you would actually eat a horse, but it stresses just
how hungry you are. Hyperbole helps to create a strong impression.
5. Irony: This occurs when there is a difference between what is said and what is meant, often
in a humorous or sarcastic way. For instance, saying "Great weather we’re having!" during a
storm. Irony can add humor and can make the audience think more deeply about what is being
said.
Using these stylistic devices makes language more expressive and engaging, helping to
capture the reader’s or listener’s imagination and emotions.
6. Stylistic transposition of nouns, articles, pronouns and adjectives. Stylistic
transposition of verbs.
Stylistic transposition is a way to make writing more interesting by changing how words are
used. Let's look at some key parts of this technique:
Nouns, articles, pronouns, and adjectives are often transposed to add flair to a sentence. For
instance, using a noun that is typically a person’s name as an object, like calling a city "the
Paris of the East," can make a description more vivid.
An article (like "a" or "the") can be moved around or even omitted to create a certain effect.
For example, saying "man’s best friend" instead of "the man's best friend" emphasizes the
general idea rather than a specific instance.
Pronouns can be shifted to draw attention to different subjects. For example, "It was they
who solved the problem" instead of "They solved the problem" puts extra emphasis on the
people who did the action.
Adjectives can be placed before or after the noun for stylistic effect. "A bright, sunny day" is
more typical, but "A day, bright and sunny" can sound more poetic or dramatic.
Verbs can also be transposed to enhance style. Changing the form of the verb, like using the
past tense for something timeless ("He loved nature" to suggest his enduring passion) can add
depth. Moving the verb around in the sentence, such as "Gone was the hope" instead of "The
hope was gone," can create a more striking impact.
These stylistic choices play with the usual order of words to create a unique tone, emphasis,
or emotional effect, making the writing more engaging and memorable.
7. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices.
Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices are techniques used in language to make
speech or writing more effective, engaging, and memorable. They focus on how words sound
and how these sounds can create certain effects or emotions. Here are the main points
explained in simple language:
Phonetic expressive means deal with the sounds of words. When writers or speakers use
certain sounds deliberately, it can create a special effect. For example, alliteration is when
several words in a row start with the same consonant sound, like "Peter Piper picked a peck of
pickled peppers." This can make a sentence more catchy and rhythmic. Another example is
assonance, which is the repetition of vowel sounds within words, like "The rain in Spain
stays mainly in the plain." This can create a musical quality in the language.
Stylistic devices are broader and include various techniques to enhance the style of writing or
speech. One common stylistic device is onomatopoeia, where words sound like the noise
they describe, such as "buzz," "click," or "sizzle." This helps to create a vivid image in the
reader's mind. Rhyme is another stylistic device, often used in poetry, where the ends of
words sound similar, like "cat" and "hat." Rhymes can make the text more pleasant to read
and easier to remember.
Both phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices are used to make language more
interesting and impactful. They help to grab attention, emphasize certain points, and evoke
emotions. By playing with sounds and styles, writers and speakers can turn ordinary language
into something special and engaging.
8. Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices.
Syntactic expressive means and stylistic devices are special techniques used in writing and
speech to make language more interesting, impactful, and expressive.
Syntactic expressive means refer to how sentence structures are used to create certain
effects. For example, repetition is when words or phrases are repeated to emphasize a point
or create a rhythm, like in Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous speech where he repeats "I have a
dream." Another example is parallelism, where similar structures are used in different parts
of a sentence or paragraph to create balance and make the text more pleasing, like "She likes
reading, writing, and painting."
Stylistic devices are tools that help make language more vivid and engaging. Metaphor is a
common stylistic device where one thing is described as if it were another, to highlight
similarities, like saying "Time is a thief" to suggest that time steals moments from our lives.
Simile is similar but uses "like" or "as" to make the comparison, such as "He is as brave as a
lion." Another device is personification, which gives human traits to non-human things, like
"The wind whispered through the trees."
Using these tools, writers and speakers can make their language more expressive, persuasive,
and memorable. By carefully choosing and arranging words and sentences, they can create
powerful images, evoke emotions, and leave a lasting impact on their audience.
9. The system of bookish functional styles
The system of bookish functional styles is a way to organize different types of writing based
on their purpose and audience. It helps writers choose the right style for their work. There are
several key styles in this system:
1. Scientific style: This style is used in academic and research writing. It focuses on
presenting facts and findings clearly and logically. Writers use precise language and often
include charts, graphs, and references to support their points.
2. Official style: This style is common in legal and administrative documents. It uses formal
language and specific terminology to avoid misunderstandings. Examples include laws,
contracts, and official letters.
3. Publicistic style: This style is found in media and public speeches. It aims to inform and
persuade the public. The language is often vivid and expressive to catch the reader's attention.
Examples include newspaper articles, editorials, and speeches.
4. Artistic style: This style is used in literature and creative writing. It focuses on evoking
emotions and creating imagery. Writers use metaphors, similes, and descriptive language to
bring their stories to life. Examples include novels, poems, and short stories.
5. Educational style: This style is used in textbooks and instructional materials. It aims to
explain concepts in a clear and understandable way. The language is straightforward, and
writers often use examples and exercises to help readers learn.
Each style has its own rules and conventions, and choosing the right one depends on the
purpose of the writing and the audience it is intended for. Understanding these styles can help
writers communicate more effectively.
10. The literary text and its categories. Text interpretation and elements of text analysis.
A literary text is a piece of written work that is created to tell a story, express emotions, or
convey ideas in a creative way. There are different categories of literary texts, such as novels,
short stories, poems, plays, and essays. Each of these categories has its own style and
structure.

When we read a literary text, we often need to interpret it to understand its deeper meaning.
Text interpretation involves looking beyond the surface of the words to discover what the
author is trying to say. To do this, we can use various elements of text analysis.
Some key elements to consider are:
1. Plot: This is the sequence of events in the story. It includes the beginning, middle, and end
of the story, and helps us understand how the story unfolds.
2. Characters: These are the people, animals, or beings in the story. We look at their traits,
motivations, and development throughout the text.
3. Setting: This refers to the time and place where the story occurs. It can influence the mood
and atmosphere of the text.
4. Theme: The theme is the central idea or message of the text. It’s what the author wants us
to think about or understand after reading.
5. Point of View: This is the perspective from which the story is told. It could be first person,
second person, or third person.
6. Tone: The tone is the author's attitude towards the subject or the audience. It can be
serious, humorous, sad, etc.
7. Style: This is how the author uses language to express their ideas. It includes their choice
of words, sentence structure, and literary devices like metaphors and similes.
By analyzing these elements, we can better understand the text and appreciate its artistic
qualities. This process helps us connect with the text on a deeper level and gain insights into
the author's intentions.
 6. Theoretical
grammar

1. The categories of the noun

Nouns are words that name people, places, things, or ideas. There are several categories of
nouns, each with a specific role in sentences.
First, we have common nouns. These are general names for a person, place, or thing, like
"dog," "city," or "car." They are not capitalized unless they start a sentence.
Next are proper nouns, which name specific people, places, or things. Proper nouns always
start with a capital letter, like "Sarah," "Paris," or "Monday."
Another category is concrete nouns. These refer to things that you can see, touch, smell,
hear, or taste. Examples include "apple," "music," or "flower."
We also have abstract nouns, which name ideas, feelings, or qualities that you cannot touch
or see, such as "happiness," "freedom," or "love."
Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. You can have one apple, two apples, three
apples, and so on.
In contrast, uncountable nouns are things that cannot be counted, like "water," "sugar," or
"information."
There are also collective nouns, which refer to a group of people or things as a single entity.
Examples include "team," "family," or "flock."
Lastly, compound nouns are made up of two or more words that work together as a single
noun. These can be written as one word (e.g., "toothbrush"), hyphenated (e.g., "mother-in-
law"), or as separate words (e.g., "swimming pool").
Understanding these categories helps us use nouns correctly in our sentences, making our
communication clear and precise.
2.The usage of articles
Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific.
 Definite Article: the
The definite article the is used when referring to a specific noun that is known to both the
speaker and the listener. Here are some key points:
- Use the when something has already been mentioned. For example, "I saw a cat. The cat was
black."
- Use the when there's only one of something in that context. For instance, "Please close the
door" (assuming there's only one door in the room).
- Use the with unique objects. For example, "He traveled around the world."
- Use the with superlatives and ordinal numbers. For example, "She is the best student in the
class" or "He was the first person to arrive."
Indefinite Articles: a and an
The indefinite articles a and an are used when referring to a non-specific noun. Here are the
main rules:
- Use a before words that begin with a consonant sound. For example, "a book," "a car," "a
university" (because the word "university" starts with a "yoo" sound, which is a consonant
sound).
- Use an before words that begin with a vowel sound. For example, "an apple," "an elephant,"
"an honor" (the "h" is silent, so it sounds like it starts with a vowel).
Specific Usage Scenarios
- When talking about something for the first time, use a or an. "I saw a movie last night."
- When talking about something already introduced, use the. "I saw a movie last night. The
movie was great."
- Use the with places when they are specific (e.g., the supermarket on Main Street) and a or an
when they are not specific (e.g., I need to go to a supermarket).
Zero Article
Sometimes, no article is needed. This is called the zero article. Here are some cases:
- Plural and uncountable nouns used in a general sense. For example, "Books are important"
or "Milk is good for you."
- Names of people, cities, countries, and languages. For example, "John lives in London,"
"She speaks French."
Summary
- Use the for specific nouns.
- Use a or an for non-specific nouns.
- No article is needed in some cases (zero article).
Understanding and correctly using articles will help make your English more precise and
natural.
3.Classification of pronouns and their categories
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns to avoid repetition and make sentences easier
to understand. They are classified into different categories based on their use and function in
sentences. Here are the main categories of pronouns:
1. Personal Pronouns: These pronouns replace specific people or things. They can be in the
subject form (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) or object form (me, you, him, her, it, us, them).
2. Possessive Pronouns: These pronouns show ownership or possession. They include words
like my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs.
3. Reflexive Pronouns: These pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence and end in -
self or -selves. Examples are myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves,
themselves.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: These pronouns point to specific things. They include this,
that, these, those.
5. Interrogative Pronouns: These pronouns are used to ask questions. The main ones are
who, whom, whose, which, what.
6. Relative Pronouns: These pronouns introduce a clause that gives more information about
a noun. They are who, whom, whose, which, that.
7. Indefinite Pronouns: These pronouns refer to non-specific people or things. Examples
include someone, anyone, everyone, no one, somebody, anybody, everybody, nobody,
something, anything, everything, nothing.
Each type of pronoun helps make our language more efficient and avoids unnecessary
repetition. By using the correct pronoun, we can clearly indicate who or what we are talking
about.
4. Grammatical categories of the verb
Verbs are action words, and they have several grammatical categories that help us
understand more about the action or state they describe. These categories are:
1. Tense: This tells us when the action happens. For example, "walks" (present tense),
"walked" (past tense), and "will walk" (future tense).
2. Aspect: This shows how the action unfolds over time. The main aspects are simple (e.g., "I
walk"), progressive (e.g., "I am walking"), perfect (e.g., "I have walked"), and perfect
progressive (e.g., "I have been walking").
3. Mood: This shows the attitude of the speaker towards the action. The main moods are
indicative (for statements and questions, e.g., "She goes to school"), imperative (for
commands, e.g., "Go to school!"), and subjunctive (for wishes, hypotheticals, or conditions,
e.g., "If I were you, I would go to school").
4. Voice: This tells us if the subject is doing the action or receiving it. The active voice (e.g.,
"The cat chased the mouse") means the subject is doing the action, while the passive voice
(e.g., "The mouse was chased by the cat") means the subject is receiving the action.
5. Person: This indicates who is performing the action. It can be first person (e.g., "I walk"),
second person (e.g., "You walk"), or third person (e.g., "He/She/It walks").
6. Number: This shows if the action is done by one person or thing (singular, e.g., "He runs")
or more than one (plural, e.g., "They run").
These categories work together to give more information about the verb and make sentences
clear and precise.
5. The verbids and their constructions
Verbids are special forms of verbs that do not act as the main verb in a sentence. Instead, they
function in other ways, like nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. There are three main types of
verbids: infinitives, gerunds, and participles.
Infinitives are the base form of the verb, usually preceded by "to" (like to eat, to run). They
can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. For example:
- As a noun: To read is fun.
- As an adjective: She has a book to read.
- As an adverb: He came here to study.
Gerunds are verbs that end in -ing and function as nouns. For example:
- Swimming is good exercise.
- She enjoys reading.
Participles are verb forms that can function as adjectives. There are two types: present
participles and past participles.
- Present participles end in -ing (like running, eating). Example: The running water is cold.
- Past participles usually end in -ed, -en, or other irregular forms (like cooked, broken).
Example: The broken vase was on the floor.
These verbids can form different constructions:
1. Infinitive Phrases: These start with an infinitive and include any modifiers or objects. For
example: To win the game, we need to practice hard.
2. Gerund Phrases: These start with a gerund and include any modifiers or objects. For
example: Swimming in the ocean is fun.
3. Participle Phrases: These start with a participle and include any modifiers or objects. For
example: Baked by the chef, the cake was delicious.

Understanding verbids helps in making sentences more varied and interesting.

 6. The adjective and the adverb
Adjectives and adverbs are both parts of speech that help to describe other words in a
sentence.
An adjective is a word that describes a noun (a person, place, thing, or idea). For example, in
the sentence "The big dog barked," the word big is an adjective because it describes the noun
dog. Adjectives can tell us more about a noun, such as its size, color, shape, or other qualities.
For instance, "a red apple," "a happy child," or "a round table."
On the other hand, an adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Adverbs often tell us how, when, where, or to what extent something happens. For example,
in the sentence "She sings beautifully," the word beautifully is an adverb because it tells us
how she sings. In "He runs quickly," quickly is an adverb describing how he runs. Adverbs
can also modify adjectives, like in "a very big dog," where very is an adverb that tells us the
extent of how big the dog is.
In summary, adjectives describe nouns, and adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs. They help make sentences more descriptive and interesting.
7. The numeral
A numeral is a symbol or a group of symbols used to represent a number. Numerals are the
way we write numbers. For example, the numeral "5" stands for the number five. There are
different systems of numerals used around the world. The most common one is the Hindu-
Arabic numeral system, which includes the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.

Roman numerals are another type of numeral system. They use letters from the Latin
alphabet, like I, V, X, L, C, D, and M, to represent numbers. For instance, the Roman numeral
"X" stands for the number ten.
Binary numerals are used in computers and only include the digits 0 and 1. For example, the
binary numeral "101" stands for the number five.
Numerals are essential in mathematics and everyday life because they allow us to count,
measure, and label things. Without numerals, we wouldn't be able to perform simple tasks like
telling time, doing math, or even using computers.
In summary, a numeral is a written symbol that represents a number, and there are various
systems of numerals like Hindu-Arabic, Roman, and binary, each with its own set of symbols.
8. The preposition, the conjunction, the particle and the interjection
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and other
words in a sentence. It usually tells us where something is or when something happens, like
"in," "on," "at," and "before." For example, in the sentence "The book is on the table," "on" is
a preposition showing the relationship between "book" and "table."
A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses. There are two main types
of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions like "and," "but,"
and "or" link equal parts of a sentence. Subordinating conjunctions like "because," "if," and
"although" connect a dependent clause to an independent clause. For example, in "I want to
go to the park and play," "and" is a conjunction connecting two activities.
A particle is a small word that has a grammatical function but doesn't fit easily into the other
categories of words. Often, particles are used with verbs to form phrasal verbs, like "up" in
"look up" or "out" in "find out." These words add meaning or emphasis but don't stand alone
well.
An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or sudden feeling.
Interjections are often followed by an exclamation mark. Examples include "Wow!," "Oh!,"
and "Hey!" They are usually short and used to convey surprise, excitement, or other sudden
reactions. For instance, "Wow! That was amazing!" uses "Wow!" as an interjection to show
surprise.
9. Communicative types of sentences.
Communicative types of sentences are like the tools in a toolbox for communicating. There
are mainly four types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. Let's break
them down.
First up, we have declarative sentences. These are the sentences we use most of the time.
They simply declare or state something. For example, "The sky is blue." or "I like ice cream."
These sentences end with a period.
Then, we have interrogative sentences. These are the ones we use when we're asking
questions. They always end with a question mark. Like, "What's your name?" or "Where is
the library?"
Next, we have imperative sentences. These are like commands or requests. We use them
when we want someone to do something. They often start with a verb and don't always have
to have a subject. For instance, "Please pass the salt." or "Close the door."
Last but not least, we've got exclamatory sentences. These are used to show strong emotion
or excitement. They often end with an exclamation mark. Like, "Wow, what a beautiful
sunset!" or "Ouch, that hurt!"
So, those are the four main types of communicative sentences. Declarative for stating,
interrogative for questioning, imperative for commanding, and exclamatory for expressing
strong emotions. They're like different tools in our language toolbox!
10. Complex and compound sentences

Complex and compound sentences are types of sentences that help us make our writing
more interesting and varied. They are different from simple sentences, which only have one
independent clause. Let's break them down in a simple way.
A compound sentence is a sentence that has two or more independent clauses joined
together. An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a complete
sentence because it has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. For example,
"I like to read books, and my brother enjoys playing soccer." In this sentence, "I like to read
books" is one independent clause, and "my brother enjoys playing soccer" is another. They
are joined by a coordinating conjunction like and, but, or or. These conjunctions help us to
connect the clauses in a way that shows the relationship between them.
Complex sentences are a bit different. A complex sentence has one independent clause and
at least one dependent clause. A dependent clause is a group of words that also has a
subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone. It needs
the independent clause to make sense. For example, "Although I was tired, I finished my
homework." Here, "Although I was tired" is the dependent clause because it cannot stand
alone and "I finished my homework" is the independent clause. They are connected by a
subordinating conjunction like although, because, or when.
To make things clearer, let's look at a couple of examples. For a compound sentence,
consider: "She wanted to go for a walk, but it started to rain." Here, "She wanted to go for a
walk" and "it started to rain" are both independent clauses. They are joined by the
coordinating conjunction but.
For a complex sentence, consider: "Because it was raining, we decided to stay indoors." In
this example, "Because it was raining" is the dependent clause and "we decided to stay
indoors" is the independent clause. The dependent clause is introduced by the subordinating
conjunction because.
Using compound and complex sentences in writing helps us to show how our ideas are
related and to provide more information. It makes our writing richer and more engaging.
For instance, instead of saying "I went to the store. I bought some milk," which are two
simple sentences, you can say, "I went to the store, and I bought some milk," which is a
compound sentence. Or you can say, "When I went to the store, I bought some milk," which is
a complex sentence.
In summary, compound sentences connect two or more independent clauses using
coordinating conjunctions, while complex sentences combine an independent clause with one
or more dependent clauses using subordinating conjunctions. These types of sentences help
make our writing more dynamic and interesting.

7. Country studies
 1.Characteristics of World Englishes
World Englishes refers to the various forms and varieties of English used in different
sociolinguistic contexts across the globe. English has spread widely due to historical events
like colonization and globalization, making it the most common language for international
and intercultural communication today. However, there isn't just one version of English used
worldwide. Scholars of World Englishes study these varieties to understand their history,
function, and influence on different societies.
Languages evolve to meet the needs of the societies that use them. Because societies have
diverse social needs that vary across cultures and geographies, multiple varieties of English
have developed. These include American English, British English, Australian English,
Canadian English, Indian English, and many more. Each of these varieties adapts to suit the
specific social and cultural context of its speakers.
The Origin of World Englishes
The concept of World Englishes began gaining recognition in the mid-20th century. In 1965,
linguist Braj Kachru published a groundbreaking journal article titled "The Indianness in
Indian English," where he introduced the idea that Indian English is a unique variety
influenced by Indian sociocultural aspects. He argued that this variety is not simply a
derivative of American or British English.
In 1984, Kachru formally introduced the term "World Englishes" at the TESOL
Conference. He also proposed the three concentric circles model to categorize the different
contexts in which English is used:
1. Inner Circle: Countries where English is the primary language, such as the USA, Britain,
Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.
2. Outer/Middle Circle: Countries where English has a significant colonial history and is
widely used, including India, Nigeria, Singapore, and Malaysia.
3. Expanding Circle: Countries where English is not the primary language but is used for
international communication, like China, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.
American English
American English developed when the British colonized the Americas in the 17th century.
It features a Rhotic accent, meaning the /r/ sound is pronounced at the end of words or after
vowels, unlike in British English. Americans tend to simplify spelling by using "z" instead of
"s" (e.g., "standardized" vs. "standardised") and by dropping letters (e.g., "color" vs.
"colour").
Australian English
Australian English emerged as British colonies were established in Australia. It blends
features of both British and American English but has its own distinct vocabulary and
accent. Many terms are borrowed from endangered Aboriginal languages, such as
boomerang and dingo. The accent is Non-Rhotic, meaning the /r/ sound is often not
pronounced, and the pronunciation of some vowels can be unique, such as "bike" sounding
like "boike."
 British English
British English is often considered Standard English but is actually a collection of 37
dialects across the UK. Here are a few notable examples:
- Scottish: Varies greatly from city to city and even resembles Nordic languages in northern
areas. Remote areas often have stronger accents.
- Cockney: Associated with London, especially the East End. Known for Rhyming Slang and
the frequent change of "th" to "f."
- Yorkshire: A dialect from a large county in England, where words ending in an "ee" sound,
like "nasty," are pronounced with an "eh" sound, like "nasteh."
- Scouse: The dialect of Liverpool, made famous by The Beatles, characterized by a nasal
quality.
- Geordie: Spoken in Newcastle, with notable differences such as the non-pronunciation of
"r" at the end of words, resulting in sounds like "sug-ah" instead of "sugar."
Key Characteristics of World Englishes
1. Diversity: World Englishes show a wide range of phonetic, lexical, and grammatical
differences. Each variety reflects the unique cultural and social contexts of its speakers.
2. Local Influence: English in each region is influenced by local languages and cultures,
leading to distinctive vocabularies and expressions.
3. Functionality: English serves different roles, from being a first language in some countries
to a second language or lingua franca in others.
4. Cultural Identity: People use their variety of English to express their cultural identity and
connect with their community.
In summary, World Englishes highlight the adaptability of English to various social contexts
worldwide, emphasizing the importance of diversity, local influences, and cultural identity in
shaping the way English is used today.
2.Characteristics of British English: Received Pronunciation (RP)
British English is the form of the English language spoken and written in the United
Kingdom. One of its most well-known varieties is Received Pronunciation (RP), which is
often considered the standard accent of British English. RP is sometimes called "the Queen's
English" or "BBC English" because it has traditionally been used by the British upper class
and in formal settings like broadcasting.
RP is characterized by its clear and precise pronunciation. It does not have strong regional
features, which means it doesn't sound like it comes from a specific part of the UK, such as
Scotland or Wales. Instead, it is neutral and easily understood by people from different areas.
One key feature of RP is the way it pronounces vowels. For example, in RP, the vowel sound
in the word "cat" is short and sharp, whereas in some other accents it might be pronounced
longer or differently. Similarly, the word "bath" is pronounced with a long "a" sound, like
"bahth," which is distinct from the short "a" in many other English accents.
Another important aspect of RP is its lack of "r" sounds at the end of words. For instance, in
RP, the "r" at the end of words like "car" or "father" is usually not pronounced. This is known
as non-rhoticity. So, "car" sounds like "cah," and "father" sounds like "fathah."
RP also has a distinctive way of pronouncing certain consonants. For example, the "t" sound
in the middle of words like "water" is pronounced clearly as a "t," unlike in some other
accents where it might sound more like a "d" or even be dropped altogether. In RP, "water" is
pronounced with a crisp "t" sound, not "wader" or "wa'er."
Received Pronunciation is often associated with formality and education. It is the accent
used by many British actors, news presenters, and politicians because it is considered to be
clear and understandable. However, it is important to note that RP is not the most common
accent in the UK. Most people in Britain speak with regional accents that have their own
unique characteristics.
Despite its reputation as a "standard" accent, RP is just one of many ways to speak English in
Britain. It reflects a certain social history and is often used in formal contexts, but it is no
more "correct" than any other British accent.
Overall, the key characteristics of Received Pronunciation (RP) include clear
pronunciation of vowels, non-rhoticity (not pronouncing "r" at the end of words), and
distinct consonant sounds. These features make RP a recognizable and respected accent in
British English.
3.The Early Middle Ages: The Norman Conquest and Feudalism
The Early Middle Ages is a period in European history that lasted from the 5th century to
the 11th century. This era was marked by significant changes, one of the most important
being the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. The Norman Conquest was led by William
the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, a region in France. He defeated King Harold of
England at the Battle of Hastings and became the new king. This event had a profound
impact on English culture, language, and society.
After the conquest, William introduced a new system called feudalism to England.
Feudalism was a way of organizing society and land ownership based on a hierarchy of
lords and vassals. At the top was the king, who owned all the land. Below him were
powerful nobles or lords, who were given large pieces of land called fiefs in exchange for
their loyalty and military service. These lords would then grant portions of their land to
vassals, who were often knights, in return for their service and protection.
The feudal system was like a pyramid. The king was at the top, the lords and nobles were in
the middle, and the vassals were below them. At the very bottom were the peasants or serfs.
Serfs were not slaves, but they were not free either. They worked the land for the lords and, in
return, they received protection and a small plot of land to farm for themselves. They were
bound to the land and could not leave without the lord's permission.
The Norman Conquest brought significant changes to England. One major change was the
introduction of the Norman language, which was a form of Old French. This language
influenced the development of the English language, adding many new words and changing
the way English was spoken and written.
Another important change was in architecture. The Normans built impressive stone castles
and cathedrals, many of which still stand today. These structures were not just homes and
places of worship; they were also symbols of power and control.
The feudal system also affected how society was organized. It created a clear hierarchy
where everyone knew their place and duties. The king and nobles had power and wealth,
while the peasants worked hard to support them. This system helped to create a stable society
where everyone had a role, but it also meant that social mobility was very limited. People
were generally born into a social class, and they stayed there for life.
In summary, the Early Middle Ages was a time of great change in England and Europe. The
Norman Conquest brought new rulers, a new language, and new ways of organizing society.
Feudalism became the dominant social and economic system, shaping the lives of people for
many centuries to come. This period laid the foundations for the development of modern
European societies.
4. The crisis of kings and nobles: The War of Roses
The War of the Roses was a series of conflicts fought in England between two powerful
families: the House of Lancaster and the House of York. This war lasted from 1455 to
1487 and was named after the symbols of the two houses: a red rose for the Lancasters and
a white rose for the Yorks. The war was a battle for the throne of England and led to a
great crisis among the kings and nobles of the time.
The roots of the War of the Roses can be traced back to the weak leadership of King Henry
VI of Lancaster, who was often ill and unable to govern effectively. This created a power
vacuum, and many nobles began to fight for control. The Yorks, led by Richard, Duke of
York, believed they had a stronger claim to the throne and sought to replace Henry VI.
The war officially started with the Battle of St. Albans in 1455, where the Yorkists defeated
the Lancastrians. Over the next 30 years, the conflict saw a series of battles, alliances, and
betrayals as both sides struggled for power. Key figures included Edward IV from the
House of York, who became king after defeating the Lancastrians, and Margaret of Anjou,
Henry VI's wife, who fought fiercely to keep her husband on the throne.
The War of the Roses was marked by brutal fighting and shifting loyalties among the nobles.
Many important families changed sides multiple times, depending on who seemed more likely
to win. The war caused significant instability and weakened the power of the English nobility
as they killed each other off and wasted resources.
The conflict finally ended with the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. Henry Tudor, a
distant relative of the Lancasters, defeated King Richard III of York, who was killed in the
battle. Henry then became King Henry VII, and he married Elizabeth of York, uniting the
two warring houses. This marriage symbolized the end of the war and the start of a new
dynasty, the Tudors.
The War of the Roses was a significant crisis in English history. It led to the fall of many
noble families and the rise of the Tudors, who would rule England for the next century. The
war also highlighted the dangers of a weak king and the chaos that can occur when nobles
fight for power. The resolution of the conflict brought a period of relative stability to England
under the strong leadership of the Tudor dynasty.
 5. The Tudors: The new monarchy. The Protestant-Catholic struggle
The Tudors were a royal family that ruled England from 1485 to 1603. The Tudor period is
known for big changes in the country's politics and religion. The first Tudor king, Henry VII,
took the throne after defeating Richard III in the Battle of Bosworth Field. This ended the
Wars of the Roses, a series of conflicts between two families, the Lancasters and the Yorks,
over the English crown. Henry VII started a new monarchy that was stronger and more
centralized, meaning he made the king's power stronger and less dependent on the nobles.
Henry's son, Henry VIII, is one of the most famous Tudor monarchs. He is known for
having six wives and for starting the Protestant-Catholic struggle in England. Originally,
Henry VIII was a devout Catholic. However, when the Pope refused to grant him a divorce
from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, Henry decided to break away from the Roman
Catholic Church. He declared himself the head of the Church of England. This event is
known as the English Reformation.
The English Reformation marked the beginning of a long period of religious conflict in
England. On one side were the Protestants, who supported the new Church of England and
wanted to reform the church to remove many of the Catholic practices. On the other side were
the Catholics, who wanted to remain loyal to the Pope and keep the traditional Catholic
practices.
Henry VIII's children continued the struggle between Protestants and Catholics. His son,
Edward VI, was a Protestant and during his short reign, he made the Church of England
more Protestant. After Edward's death, his half-sister, Mary I, a devout Catholic, became
queen. She tried to bring England back to Catholicism and persecuted Protestants, earning
her the nickname "Bloody Mary."
After Mary I's death, her half-sister, Elizabeth I, took the throne. Elizabeth I was a
Protestant and worked to make the Church of England the main church in the country.
However, she also tried to find a balance to reduce religious conflict. Her reign, known as the
Elizabethan Era, is often seen as a time of great progress and stability in England. Under her
rule, the struggle between Protestants and Catholics did not disappear completely, but she
managed to keep it under control better than her predecessors.
In summary, the Tudor period was a time of great change in England, marked by the
establishment of a strong monarchy and the fierce Protestant-Catholic struggle. These
changes laid the foundation for the future development of the country, both politically and
religiously.

6. The Stuarts: Parliament against the Crown. Civil War.

The Stuart period in England started in 1603 when James I became king after Queen
Elizabeth I's death. The Stuarts were a royal family from Scotland, and James I was the first
Stuart king of England. His rule marked the beginning of a time when Parliament and the
Crown (the monarchy) were often in conflict.
James I believed strongly in the divine right of kings, which means he thought his right to
rule came directly from God. He believed that he should have absolute power and that
Parliament should not challenge his decisions. However, Parliament wanted more say in
how the country was run, especially in matters like taxes and laws.
The tension between the king and Parliament grew under James I's son, Charles I, who
became king in 1625. Charles I also believed in the divine right of kings and often clashed
with Parliament. He needed money for wars and other expenses, but Parliament was reluctant
to give him funds without having more control over government decisions. This led Charles
to dissolve Parliament several times, ruling without it for long periods.
In 1640, after years of disputes and financial troubles, Charles I was forced to recall
Parliament. This new Parliament, known as the Long Parliament, demanded reforms and
wanted to limit the king's power. The disagreements between Charles I and Parliament
escalated, leading to the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642.
The Civil War was a conflict between the Royalists, who supported the king, and the
Parliamentarians, who wanted to reduce the king's power and increase the role of
Parliament. The war lasted for several years and was fought in various parts of
England.
The Parliamentarians were led by Oliver Cromwell, a skilled military leader. They formed
a powerful army called the New Model Army, which was well-organized and disciplined. In
1646, the Parliamentarians captured Charles I and the Royalists were defeated.
Despite being captured, Charles I refused to compromise and continued to negotiate with
various factions to regain his power. This led to a second phase of the Civil War.
Eventually, the Parliamentarians won again, and in 1649, Charles I was put on trial for
treason. He was found guilty and executed, a shocking event as it was the first time a reigning
king had been tried and executed by his own people.
After Charles I's execution, England became a republic for a short period, known as the
Commonwealth, with Oliver Cromwell as the leader. However, this period was marked by
strict rules and lack of stability. When Cromwell died in 1658, the monarchy was restored
in 1660 with Charles II, the son of Charles I, becoming king.
The Stuart period was crucial in the history of England because it set the stage for the
development of a constitutional monarchy, where the power of the king or queen is limited
by laws and balanced by Parliament. The struggle between Parliament and the Crown
during this time helped to shape modern democratic principles in England.

8. Theoretical phonetics
 1.Classification of phonetic styles,
their intonational characteristics.
Style-forming and style-modifying
factors.
When we talk about phonetic styles,
we are looking at how people change
the way they speak in different
situations. The way we speak isn't always the same; it can vary based on who we're talking
to, the setting, and the purpose of the conversation. There are different classifications of
phonetic styles, and each has its own intonational characteristics, which are the patterns of
pitch and tone used when speaking.
Phonetic Styles Classification
1. Formal Style:
- Intonational Characteristics: Clear and deliberate, often with a steady pitch. The voice is
controlled and precise.
- Use: Formal settings like presentations, lectures, and business meetings.
- Example: When giving a speech, you might speak slowly and clearly with a calm and
steady tone to make sure everyone understands you.
2. Informal Style:
- Intonational Characteristics: Relaxed and varied pitch. The tone can be more
expressive and spontaneous.
- Use: Casual conversations with friends or family.
- Example: When chatting with a friend, you might use a lot of variations in your pitch,
speaking more quickly or slowly depending on how excited or relaxed you feel.
3. Neutral Style:
- Intonational Characteristics: Moderate pitch and tempo, neither too formal nor too
informal.
- Use: Everyday conversations and routine interactions.
- Example: When asking for directions, you might use a neutral tone that is polite but not
overly formal.
4. Academic Style:
- Intonational Characteristics: Precise and clear, often with a monotonous tone to
maintain a professional demeanor.
 - Use: Educational settings, such as teaching or discussing scholarly topics.
- Example: When explaining a scientific concept, you might speak in a clear, measured way
to convey the information accurately.
5. Intimate Style:
- Intonational Characteristics: Soft and warm, with a lot of pitch variation to show
emotion.
- Use: Private conversations with close friends or loved ones.
- Example: When comforting a friend, you might use a soft and gentle tone to express
empathy and care.
Style-Forming Factors
Style-forming factors are the elements that help to define and shape different phonetic
styles. These include:
1. Purpose of Communication:
- The reason why we are communicating influences our speech. For example, teaching a
class requires a different style than chatting with a friend.
2. Audience:
- The people we are talking to play a big role. We might speak more formally to a boss than
to a sibling.
3. Setting:
- Where the conversation takes place matters. Speaking at a formal event is different from
speaking at a casual gathering.
4. Content:
- The subject matter also affects the style. Discussing a serious topic usually requires a more
formal tone than talking about a fun activity.
Style-Modifying Factors
Style-modifying factors are elements that can change or adjust the way we speak within a
given style. These include:
1. Emotion:
- Our emotional state can modify our speech. We might speak more softly if we’re feeling
sad or more energetically if we’re excited.
2. Audience Response:
- How the listener reacts can cause us to change our speaking style. If they seem confused,
we might slow down and clarify our speech.
3. Context Changes:
 - Shifts in context, such as moving from a formal meeting to a casual lunch, can alter our
speech style accordingly.
4. Cultural Norms:
- Cultural expectations can shape how we modify our speech. Different cultures may have
varying levels of formality and intonation patterns.
In summary, phonetic styles refer to the different ways we speak depending on the situation,
audience, and purpose. Each style has unique intonational characteristics that make it suitable
for different contexts. The style-forming factors help establish these styles, while style-
modifying factors can adjust them in response to changes in the conversation. Understanding
these factors and characteristics helps us communicate more effectively in various social
settings.
2.General characteristics of English phonemes. Notation.

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a
word. In English, phonemes are like the building blocks of words. For example, the words
"bat" and "pat" differ by just one phoneme, the sounds /b/ and /p/. Changing one phoneme can
change the word's meaning, which shows how important these sounds are in speech.
English has about 44 phonemes, which are divided into two main categories: vowels and
consonants.
Vowels are sounds produced without blocking the airflow in the mouth. They are made by
changing the shape of the mouth and the position of the tongue. English has short vowels like
the sound in "cat" /æ/ and long vowels like the sound in "see" /iː/. Vowels can also be
diphthongs, which are sounds that combine two vowel sounds in one syllable, like the
sound in "coin" /ɔɪ/.
Consonants are sounds produced by blocking the airflow in some way, using the tongue,
lips, or teeth. For example, the sound /t/ in "top" is made by blocking the airflow with the
tongue against the roof of the mouth. Consonants can be classified by how and where the
airflow is blocked. For example, /p/ and /b/ are bilabial plosives, made by pressing both lips
together and then releasing the air. The difference between them is that /p/ is voiceless (no
vibration of the vocal cords) and /b/ is voiced (vocal cords vibrate).
Phonemes are written using a special system called phonetic notation, specifically the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). This system uses symbols to represent each sound
precisely. For instance, the phoneme for the "sh" sound in "shoe" is written as /ʃ/, and the
sound for "ch" in "chat" is written as /tʃ/.
Each phoneme in English has specific characteristics that help to distinguish it from other
sounds. Here are some of the key characteristics:
1. Voicing: This tells us whether the vocal cords vibrate or not when making the sound. For
example, /z/ in "zoo" is voiced, while /s/ in "see" is voiceless.
2. Place of Articulation: This refers to where in the mouth the airflow is blocked. For
example, the sound /k/ in "cat" is a velar sound, made at the back of the mouth, while /f/ in
"fish" is a labiodental sound, made with the lips and teeth.
3. Manner of Articulation: This describes how the airflow is blocked. For example, /t/ in
"top" is a plosive, made by completely blocking and then releasing the airflow, while /s/ in
"see" is a fricative, made by forcing air through a narrow space.
English phonemes can also be classified into different types based on these characteristics:
- Plosives: These sounds are made by completely blocking and then releasing the airflow,
like /p/ and /b/.
- Fricatives: These are made by forcing air through a narrow space, creating a hissing
sound, like /f/ and /v/.
- Nasals: These sounds are made by blocking the airflow in the mouth and allowing it to
pass through the nose, like /m/ and /n/.
- Approximants: These are made by narrowing the vocal tract but not enough to create
friction, like /r/ and /l/.
Understanding these basic characteristics of English phonemes helps us to pronounce words
correctly and understand the structure of the English language. Using phonetic notation like
the IPA can help to identify and produce these sounds accurately. This knowledge is
especially useful for learning English pronunciation and for distinguishing between similar
sounds in different words.
3.The system of English phonemes. General characteristics of consonants.
Phonemes are the smallest units of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a
word. In English, there are 44 phonemes, and they are divided into vowels and consonants.
The focus here is on consonants, which are sounds made by partially or completely blocking
the airflow through the mouth.
Consonants can be classified by three main features: place of articulation, manner of
articulation, and voicing. Let's break these down into simple terms.
Place of articulation refers to where in the mouth the sound is made. For example, the
sound /p/ is made with the lips, while /t/ is made with the tongue touching the roof of the
mouth just behind the teeth. Here are some key places of articulation in English:
- Bilabial: Made with both lips, like /p/ and /b/.
- Labiodental: Made with the lower lip against the upper teeth, like /f/ and /v/.
- Dental: Made with the tongue against the upper teeth, like /θ/ (as in "think") and /ð/ (as in
"this").
- Alveolar: Made with the tongue against the ridge just behind the upper teeth, like /t/, /d/,
and /s/.
- Palatal: Made with the tongue against the hard palate (roof of the mouth), like /ʃ/ (as in
"shoe") and /ʒ/ (as in "measure").
- Velar: Made with the back of the tongue against the soft part of the roof of the mouth (the
velum), like /k/ and /g/.
Manner of articulation describes how the airflow is affected when making the sound. For
example:
- Plosive (or stop): Airflow is completely blocked for a brief moment, then released,
like /p/ and /t/.
- Fricative: Airflow is partially blocked, causing friction, like /f/ and /s/.
- Affricate: A combination of a plosive and a fricative, like /ʧ/ (as in "chop") and /ʤ/ (as in
"judge").
- Nasal: Airflow is blocked in the mouth but flows through the nose, like /m/ and /n/.
- Liquid: Airflow is partially blocked, but there is more open space than with fricatives,
like /l/ and /r/.
- Glide: Airflow is almost like for vowels, and the sound "glides" from one position to
another, like /w/ and /j/ (as in "yes").
Voicing is whether the vocal cords vibrate during the sound. Voiced consonants, like /b/
and /d/, involve vibration of the vocal cords, while voiceless consonants, like /p/ and /t/,
do not. To feel the difference, place your hand on your throat and say /z/ (voiced) and then /s/
(voiceless). You should feel vibration for /z/ but not for /s/.
Each consonant in English can be described using these three characteristics. For example, /p/
is a voiceless bilabial plosive, meaning it is made without vocal cord vibration, using both
lips, and by stopping the airflow completely for a moment. In contrast, /b/ is a voiced bilabial
plosive—the same in every way as /p/, but with vocal cord vibration.
Understanding these features helps in identifying, teaching, and learning the various
consonant sounds of English, ensuring clear communication and effective pronunciation
skills.
4. General characteristics of vowels.
Vowels are a fundamental part of speech sounds in any language. They are different from
consonants, which are produced by obstructing airflow. Vowels, on the other hand, are
produced with an open vocal tract, allowing the air to flow freely through the mouth. Here
are some key characteristics of vowels explained in simple terms:
1. Produced with an Open Mouth: When you make vowel sounds, your mouth is generally
open. Unlike consonants, where parts of your mouth like your tongue, lips, or teeth come
together to block or restrict airflow, vowels are made by keeping your mouth open. For
example, when you say "aah" as in "cat," your mouth is wide open.
2. Vowel Sounds Vary by Tongue Position: The position of your tongue plays a crucial role
in producing different vowel sounds. Vowels are classified by how high or low your tongue is
in your mouth and how far forward or backward it is. For example:
- High vowels: Your tongue is high in your mouth, like when you say "ee" in "see."
- Low vowels: Your tongue is low in your mouth, like when you say "ah" in "father."
 - Front vowels: Your tongue is towards the front of your mouth, like when you say "i" in
"bit."
- Back vowels: Your tongue is towards the back of your mouth, like when you say "oo" in
"food."
3. Lips Shape the Sound: The shape of your lips also affects vowel sounds. Vowels can be
produced with rounded lips or unrounded lips:
- Rounded vowels: Your lips form a round shape, like when you say "oo" in "boot."
- Unrounded vowels: Your lips are relaxed or stretched, like when you say "ee" in "see."
4. Vowels Can Be Long or Short: In many languages, vowels can be long or short. Long
vowels take more time to pronounce, while short vowels are quicker. For example, in English,
the vowel in "beat" is longer than the vowel in "bit."
5. Vowels Are Voiced: Vowel sounds are produced with your vocal cords vibrating. This is
called being "voiced." If you place your hand on your throat and say a vowel sound like
"aah," you can feel the vibration of your vocal cords.
6. Vowels Are Essential for Syllables: Vowels are central to syllables. A syllable is a unit of
sound that usually contains a vowel. For example, the word "banana" has three syllables: "ba-
na-na," with each syllable containing a vowel sound.
7. Formant Frequencies Shape Vowel Sounds: Vowels have specific formant frequencies,
which are particular frequencies where the sound resonates. These frequencies help
distinguish one vowel from another. For example, the formant frequencies for "ee" in "see"
are different from those for "oo" in "food," giving each vowel a unique sound quality.
8. Vowels Can Vary by Accent and Language: Different languages and even different
accents within a language can have unique sets of vowels. For example, the English vowel in
"cat" is pronounced differently in American English compared to British English.
In summary, vowels are the sounds we make with an open mouth and a vibrating voice,
shaped by the position of our tongue and lips. They are central to forming words and
syllables, and they vary in length, shape, and sound quality across different languages and
accents. Understanding the general characteristics of vowels helps us grasp the basics of how
speech sounds are produced and why they sound the way they do.
5. Syllabic structure of English words.
The syllabic structure of English words refers to how words are divided into syllables,
which are the basic units of speech. A syllable is a part of a word that contains a single vowel
sound and is pronounced as a unit. Understanding the syllabic structure helps in reading,
writing, and pronouncing words correctly.
Every syllable in English typically has a vowel (like a, e, i, o, u) or a vowel sound. This
vowel is the core of the syllable and is called the nucleus. For example, in the word "cat", the
letter "a" is the nucleus of the syllable. Sometimes, a syllable can also include a combination
of vowels, like in "boat", where "oa" together form the vowel sound.
A syllable can also have consonants around the vowel. These consonants can come before
the vowel (called the onset) and after the vowel (called the coda). For example, in the word
"bat", "b" is the onset, "a" is the nucleus, and "t" is the coda. If there is no consonant before
the vowel, the syllable does not have an onset. If there is no consonant after the vowel, the
syllable does not have a coda. For instance, the word "it" has no onset and the word "go" has
no coda.
Syllables can be classified based on their complexity:
1. Simple syllables have just a vowel or a vowel with one consonant. For example, "I" or
"up".
2. Complex syllables have multiple consonants before or after the vowel, or both. For
example, "spring" or "street".
Syllables are also important in word stress. In English, some syllables are pronounced
louder and longer than others, and this is called stress. For example, in the word "banana",
the second syllable "na" is stressed more than the other syllables.
Understanding syllable structure is key to breaking down words into parts that are easier to
pronounce and spell. It helps with recognizing patterns in language and improving reading
skills. For example, knowing that "dog" has one syllable and "puppy" has two can make it
easier to read and understand these words.
In summary, the syllabic structure of English words involves recognizing the vowel as the
core of the syllable, and understanding how consonants are arranged around it. Simple
syllables are easy to break down, while complex syllables can have multiple consonants.
Recognizing syllable patterns helps in reading, writing, and pronouncing English words
correctly.
6. General character of English intonation.
Intonation in English refers to the rise and fall of the pitch of our voices when we speak. It
plays a crucial role in communication, as it helps to convey meaning, emotions, and
intentions. Even if you understand all the words in a sentence, the way the pitch changes
can completely change its meaning. Let's explore the general character of English intonation
in a simple way.
English intonation has several key features. First, there are pitch changes that occur within
sentences. The pitch is how high or low your voice sounds. For example, when you ask a
question like "Are you coming?" your voice usually goes up at the end, creating a rising
intonation. This rising intonation indicates that you're asking something and expecting an
answer.
Another important feature is the falling intonation, where the pitch of the voice goes down
at the end of the sentence. This is commonly used for statements or commands, like in the
sentence "I am going home." The falling pitch here shows that the speaker is giving
information or making a statement.
There is also fall-rise intonation, where the pitch falls and then rises again. This type of
intonation often indicates uncertainty or that there is more to say. For example, if someone
says, "I could go, but..." the fall-rise intonation suggests they are unsure or have more
thoughts to share.
English intonation is used to highlight important words or phrases within a sentence.
This is called stress. The word or phrase that is stressed will be spoken louder and with a
higher pitch. For example, in the sentence "She didn't take the book," if you stress "she," it
emphasizes that it was someone else who took the book. If you stress "didn't," it emphasizes
the negation, showing that she definitely did not take it.
Intonation also helps in indicating the end of a sentence. A falling pitch typically signals
that the sentence is finished, while a rising pitch suggests that the speaker has more to say.
For example, in a list, like "I bought apples, oranges, and bananas," the rising pitch on
"apples" and "oranges" shows the list is not complete, while the falling pitch on "bananas"
indicates the end of the list.
Intonation patterns can vary depending on the emotion being expressed. For instance, a
rising intonation can show surprise or excitement, as in "Really?" A falling intonation
can show certainty or finality, as in "Absolutely."
In summary, English intonation involves changes in pitch that help convey meaning and
emotion. It includes rising intonation for questions, falling intonation for statements, fall-rise
intonation for uncertainty or continuation, and stress to highlight important words.
Understanding and using these intonation patterns can significantly enhance communication
and ensure that the intended meaning is clearly understood.
7. Functions of intonation in English.
Intonation is a key part of speaking English and involves the rise and fall of the voice when
we talk. It’s not just about what we say, but how we say it. Intonation helps convey
meaning beyond the words themselves, and it serves several important functions in
communication.
One of the primary functions of intonation is to express emotions and attitudes. The way
our voice rises and falls can show if we are happy, sad, excited, or bored. For example, if
someone says “I’m so excited!” with a rising and falling intonation, it shows genuine
excitement. If they say it with a flat intonation, it might mean they are not really excited at
all.
Intonation also helps in distinguishing between questions and statements. For example, if
we say “You’re coming?” with a rising intonation at the end, it indicates a question. But if
we say “You’re coming.” with a falling intonation, it indicates a statement. This difference
in intonation helps the listener understand what is being asked or told without needing any
additional words.
Another important function of intonation is signaling the end or continuation of speech. For
example, if someone is listing things, they might use a rising intonation to show they are not
finished, like in “I need to buy apples, oranges, bananas,” and then a falling intonation to
signal the end of the list, like in “and grapes.” This helps the listener follow along and know
when the speaker has finished talking.
Intonation can also be used to highlight or emphasize certain parts of a sentence. This is
called emphatic intonation. For example, in the sentence “I told you to bring the blue book,”
putting emphasis on “blue” with a higher pitch indicates that the color of the book is
particularly important. This helps to clarify what is important in the message.
Additionally, intonation helps in showing grammatical structure and making speech more
understandable. For instance, in complex sentences, intonation can help to mark different
parts, making it clear where one part ends and another begins. For example, in the sentence
“After I finish my homework, I will watch TV,” the intonation often falls slightly at the end
of the first clause and rises at the start of the second, signaling a connection between the
two ideas.
Finally, intonation can convey politeness and attitude towards the listener. For example,
rising intonation at the end of a request like “Could you pass the salt?” makes the request
sound more polite. A flat or falling intonation might make it sound like a demand, which
could be perceived as less polite.
In summary, intonation in English serves multiple functions. It helps express emotions,
distinguish between questions and statements, signal the continuation or end of speech,
emphasize important parts of a message, show grammatical structure, and convey politeness
and attitude. Understanding and using intonation effectively can greatly enhance
communication and make speech clearer and more engaging.
8. English rhythm.
English rhythm is the pattern of beats or stresses in spoken language. It's like the
heartbeat of English, giving it a natural flow and making it easier to understand and speak.
Just like in music, where we have a rhythm that makes us tap our feet or dance, in English,
rhythm helps our speech sound smooth and natural.
Rhythm in English is all about the way we stress certain words or parts of words more
than others. When we speak, we don't give equal weight to every word. Some words or
syllables are stressed, meaning they are pronounced louder, longer, and with more
emphasis. Others are unstressed and are pronounced more softly and quickly.
For example, in the word "banana," the second syllable na is stressed, so we say ba-NA-na. In
the sentence "She is going to the market," the words "is", "to", and "the" are usually spoken
quickly and without much emphasis. The words "she", "going", and "market" are stressed and
get more emphasis.
English is known for having a stress-timed rhythm. This means that the time between
stressed syllables is roughly equal, regardless of the number of unstressed syllables in
between. For example, in the sentences "The cat sleeps" and "The lazy brown cat sleeps", the
time it takes to say both sentences is about the same because the rhythm focuses on the
stressed syllables.
We can think of stressed words as the important words in a sentence. These are usually
content words like nouns (cat, book), main verbs (run, eat), adjectives (big, blue), and
adverbs (quickly, slowly). They carry the main meaning of the sentence. Unstressed
words are usually function words like articles (a, the), prepositions (in, on), conjunctions
(and, but), and auxiliary verbs (is, have). These words are important for grammar, but they
are usually not stressed in everyday speech.
To understand English rhythm better, think about the way you naturally emphasize words
when you speak. If you say, "I am going to the store," you might stress the words "I", "going",
and "store". The words "am," "to," and "the" are said quickly and quietly.
Understanding and using the rhythm of English can make your speech sound more natural and
engaging. It's like learning the beat of a song, where you emphasize the important parts and
let the rest flow smoothly. This helps you communicate more effectively and makes it easier
for others to understand you.
9. British- and American-based pronunciation standards of English, their
characteristics.
British English and American English are the two most recognized standards of
pronunciation in the English-speaking world. Each has its own distinct characteristics that
set it apart from the other.
British English, often referred to as Received Pronunciation (RP) or Queen's English, is
the accent traditionally associated with educated speakers in England, particularly in the
south. It is commonly used in British media and formal contexts. One key feature of British
English is the non-rhotic accent, meaning that the "r" sound at the end of words or before a
consonant is usually not pronounced. For example, the word "car" is pronounced as "cah".
British English also tends to have clear and distinct vowel sounds. For instance, the "a" in
"bath" is pronounced as "bahth", with a long, broad "a" sound, unlike the shorter, flat "a" in
American English.
American English, on the other hand, is known for its rhotic accent, which means the "r"
sound is pronounced clearly wherever it appears in a word. For example, "car" is
pronounced as "carr", with a strong "r" sound. American English also has a tendency to
flatten vowels and often merges vowel sounds that are distinct in British English. For
example, the words "caught" and "cot" are pronounced the same way in many parts of the
United States, both sounding like "cot".
In terms of vowel pronunciation, American English generally uses a shorter, more nasal
"a" sound in words like "dance" and "chance," where British English would use a broader
"a". Additionally, Americans often pronounce the "t" in the middle of words like "butter"
as a soft "d" sound, resulting in "budder", while British English maintains a clear "t"
sound.
Another notable difference is the pronunciation of certain consonants. For example, the
"t" sound in words like "water" and "better" is pronounced as a soft "d" in American
English, resulting in "wadder" and "bedder", while in British English, the "t" is
pronounced crisply.
Understanding these differences in pronunciation helps in recognizing the diversity within
English and can be particularly useful for learners trying to adopt either accent. Both British
and American English have their own unique characteristics that reflect their cultural and
regional influences, making English a rich and varied language.
 9. The theory and practice of
translation

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rájött, hogy nem maradt meg belőle
semmi…

1.Theoretical and methodological aspects of translation. Significance of translation.

Translation is the process of converting text or speech from one language into another. It
plays a crucial role in enabling
Elolvasott 88 communication betweenés
oldalnyi faszságot, people whohogy
rájött, speaknem
different languages
and helps share information, ideas, and cultures across the world. Understanding the
maradt meg belőle semmi
theoretical and methodological aspects of translation is essential to ensure that the
meaning of the original text is accurately conveyed in the target language.
Theoretical aspects of translation focus on the principles and concepts behind the
translation process. These theories help translators understand how to approach a text and
what factors to consider while translating. One important concept is equivalence, which
refers to finding a way to convey the same meaning, emotion, or function in the target
language as in the source language. This can be challenging because languages often
have different structures, idioms, and cultural references. There are different types of
equivalence, such as formal equivalence, which tries to stay as close to the original text as
possible, and dynamic equivalence, which focuses more on conveying the meaning and
impact of the original text, even if it means changing the wording.
Methodological aspects of translation deal with the practical steps and techniques used in
the translation process. Translators must decide whether to translate word-for-word, which
is known as literal translation, or to translate ideas and meanings, which is known as free
translation. Literal translation can be useful for texts where the exact wording is
important, like legal documents, but it might not work well for literary texts where the
style and tone are crucial. Free translation, on the other hand, allows more flexibility and
can be better for capturing the essence of the original text.
Another important method is transliteration, which involves converting the characters of
one language into the characters of another language. This is often used for names and
technical terms that don’t have a direct translation. Adaptation is another method where
translators change cultural references in the source text to something more familiar in
the target culture. For example, a reference to an American baseball game might be changed
to a cricket match in a translation for an Indian audience.
The significance of translation cannot be overstated. It enables cross-cultural
communication and helps share knowledge, literature, and ideas across different
languages and cultures. Translation allows people to access literature, scientific research,
legal documents, and more, regardless of the language they speak. It also helps preserve and
share cultural heritage by making important works available to a wider audience.
Translation is essential for globalization. Businesses rely on translation to reach
international markets, and governments need translation for diplomacy and
international relations. In the medical field, accurate translation of research and clinical
guidelines ensures that health professionals worldwide can benefit from the latest
advancements and provide the best care to their patients.
In summary, translation involves both theoretical and methodological aspects that guide how
texts are converted from one language to another. The theories help in understanding how to
maintain the meaning and impact of the original text, while the methodologies provide
practical techniques for doing so. The importance of translation lies in its ability to connect
people and cultures, share knowledge, and facilitate communication across the globe.
2.A short historical outline of European translation. Outstanding representatives.
Translation has played a crucial role in connecting different cultures and languages
throughout history. In Europe, the story of translation goes back many centuries, and it has
evolved significantly over time.
The earliest significant translations in Europe began with the Romans, who translated many
Greek works into Latin. Cicero, a Roman orator and translator, is notable for his approach
to translation. He emphasized translating not just word-for-word but capturing the spirit
and meaning of the original text. This set the stage for future translation methods that focus
on conveying the essence of the source material rather than just the literal words.
During the Middle Ages, translation was vital in spreading knowledge, especially religious
texts. The most famous example is the Bible. One of the most notable translators of this
period was Saint Jerome, who translated the Bible from Greek and Hebrew into Latin.
His work, known as the Vulgate, became the standard version of the Bible for many
centuries. Jerome's method of careful and faithful translation became a model for others,
emphasizing the importance of both accuracy and clarity.
In the Renaissance, there was a renewed interest in the classical works of Greece and
Rome. Translators like Erasmus and Leonardo Bruni played a crucial role in bringing these
works to a broader audience. Erasmus, for example, produced a new Latin translation of
the New Testament, which was more accurate and easier to understand than previous
versions. This period also saw translations of literary and philosophical texts, which helped
spread humanist ideas across Europe.
The 17th and 18th centuries saw a growing emphasis on translating literary works.
Translators like John Dryden in England and Madame de Staël in France made significant
contributions. Dryden translated works from Latin, such as those of Virgil, and
developed theories about translation. He categorized translation into three types:
metaphrase (literal translation), paraphrase (free translation), and imitation
(adaptation). Dryden believed in a balance between staying faithful to the original text
and making the translation readable and enjoyable for the target audience.
In the 19th century, translation began to play a crucial role in the exchange of ideas
between nations. German philosopher and translator Friedrich Schleiermacher was
influential in this period. He believed that the translator should either bring the author to
the reader or the reader to the author. This meant that a translator could either adapt the
text to the target language's culture or keep the text as close to the original as possible,
even if it meant some foreignness remained.
Moving into the 20th century, translation became essential in bridging global
communication gaps. One of the most influential translators of this time was Vladimir
Nabokov, a Russian-American writer who translated works from Russian to English.
Nabokov was known for his detailed and precise translations, believing that accuracy was
more important than readability. This period also saw the rise of translation studies as an
academic field, exploring the theory and practice of translation in greater depth.
Today, translation continues to be a crucial part of global communication. Outstanding
contemporary translators like Haruki Murakami, who translates from English to
Japanese, and Anthea Bell, who translated German literature into English, have brought
significant works to new audiences. Their work highlights the ongoing importance of
translation in preserving and sharing cultural heritage across the world.
In summary, the history of European translation is rich and varied, with each period bringing
new approaches and innovations. From the ancient translations of Greek texts to modern-day
literary translations, translation has been a vital tool for cultural exchange and knowledge
sharing. Outstanding representatives like Cicero, Saint Jerome, Erasmus, Dryden,
Schleiermacher, Nabokov, and many others have made significant contributions, helping to
shape the way we understand and engage with the world today.
3.Translation studies and other disciplines.
Translation studies is a field that focuses on the process of translating texts from one
language to another. It explores how meanings are conveyed across different languages
and cultures. This field is interdisciplinary, meaning it connects with many other areas
of study.
For example, linguistics helps understand the structure and rules of languages, which is
crucial for accurate translation. Literary studies look at the style and nuances in texts,
which can affect how translations are crafted to maintain the original's tone and impact.
Cultural studies are important because translation isn't just about words; it's also about
context. Understanding the cultural background of both the source and target languages
ensures that translations are culturally appropriate and meaningful.
Sociology plays a role by examining how translations influence and are influenced by
social factors and power dynamics. This can include looking at which languages are
translated more often and why, or how translations can affect social change.
History is another connected discipline. Knowing the historical context of a text helps in
understanding its references and significance, leading to more accurate translations.
Lastly, technology has become vital in translation studies. Tools like machine translation
and translation software help translators work more efficiently, though human translators
are still needed to ensure quality and accuracy.
In summary, translation studies intersect with linguistics, literary studies, cultural studies,
sociology, history, and technology to explore and improve how we translate texts across
different languages and cultures.
4. A short historical outline of Ukrainian translation. Outstanding representatives.
Ukrainian translation has a rich history that goes back centuries. The first significant
translations into Ukrainian were of religious texts in the Middle Ages. These early
translations were crucial for making religious teachings accessible to the local population.

In the 16th century, Ivan Fedorov, one of the pioneers of printing in Eastern Europe,
translated and printed several important religious books. This helped spread written
Ukrainian and fostered literacy.
The 19th century was a golden age for Ukrainian literature and translation. Panteleimon
Kulish, a prominent writer, made significant contributions by translating works of William
Shakespeare and the Bible into Ukrainian. His translations were pivotal in standardizing
the Ukrainian language and making world literature accessible to Ukrainian readers.
In the 20th century, Mykola Lukash emerged as an outstanding translator. He translated
many classical works of world literature, including those by Goethe, Cervantes, and
Dante. Lukash's work is celebrated for its linguistic precision and creativity, enriching
Ukrainian culture immensely.
Another notable figure is Hryhoriy Kochur, who translated poetry from various languages
into Ukrainian. His translations are renowned for their poetic beauty and fidelity to the
original texts.
Overall, these outstanding representatives have played crucial roles in the development and
enrichment of Ukrainian translation, making world literature accessible to Ukrainian readers
and promoting the Ukrainian language and culture globally.
 5. The concept of equivalence in the theory of translation.
Equivalence in the theory of translation is about finding a way to express the same
meaning of a text from one language into another. The idea is that, even though languages
are different, there are ways to translate words, phrases, and sentences so that they mean the
same thing in another language. This can be tricky because words and expressions often
don't match perfectly between languages.
For example, in one language, a phrase might be very common, but in another, there might
not be a direct way to say it. A good translator has to find the closest way to convey the same
idea, feeling, or intention. This might involve using different words or structures, but the goal
is always to keep the original message clear and accurate.
There are different kinds of equivalence. Sometimes, it focuses on the exact words (like
translating "dog" to "perro" in Spanish). Other times, it focuses more on the context and
meaning (like translating idioms or cultural references). For example, "It's raining cats and
dogs" in English might be translated to something that means "It's raining very heavily" in
another language because the direct translation wouldn't make sense.
In summary, equivalence in translation is about making sure the translated text carries the
same meaning, emotion, and intent as the original, even if the exact words or phrases change.
6. The concept of adequate translation in the theory of translation.
The concept of adequate translation in the theory of translation refers to the idea that a
translation should accurately convey the meaning and intent of the original text. This
doesn't necessarily mean a word-for-word translation, but rather one that effectively
communicates the same message and evokes the same response in the target audience as
the original did.
Adequate translation considers the context, cultural nuances, and idiomatic expressions
to ensure the translated text feels natural and understandable in the new language. It’s about
finding a balance between literal translation (where you stick closely to the original
words) and free translation (where you adapt the text more loosely to fit the target
language and culture).
For a translation to be adequate, it must respect the function of the original text. If the
original text is a formal document, the translation should maintain that formality. If it's a
casual conversation, the translation should reflect that tone.
In essence, adequate translation ensures that the target audience receives the same information
and emotional impact as the original audience, making the translated text faithful and
effective in its new language.
7. Realia. Translatability and untranslatability.
Realia are real-life objects or things that are used in language teaching to help students
understand the meaning of words. For example, a teacher might bring in a map, fruit, or
money to show students what these words mean. Realia make learning more engaging and
practical because students can see and touch the items they are learning about.
Translatability means that a word or phrase can be translated from one language to another
while keeping the same meaning. Some words are easy to translate because they have direct
equivalents in other languages. For example, the English word "house" can be easily
translated to "casa" in Spanish or "maison" in French.
Untranslatability, on the other hand, happens when a word or phrase does not have an exact
equivalent in another language. This can be because the word is deeply tied to a specific
culture or because it describes something that does not exist in the other culture. For
instance, the German word "Schadenfreude" (which means pleasure derived from another
person's misfortune) does not have a direct translation in English. In such cases, translators
might have to use a longer explanation or find a way to convey the meaning in a different
way.
In summary, realia helps in teaching languages by using real objects, while translatability and
untranslatability deal with how well words or phrases can be converted from one language to
another. Some words are easy to translate, but others are so unique to their culture that they
cannot be directly translated.
8. Translation transfer operations. Lexical transfer operations.
Translation transfer operations are the steps taken to change words and sentences from
one language to another while keeping the meaning the same. When translating, lexical
transfer operations play a big role. These operations focus on individual words and
phrases.
Lexical transfer involves finding the right words in the target language that match the
meaning of the words in the source language. Sometimes, a word in one language has a
direct equivalent in another, but often it doesn't. In these cases, translators have to choose
words that fit the context best.
For example, in English, we say "time flies," but a direct translation of this phrase into
another language might not make sense. Instead, the translator finds a way to express the
same idea in a way that sounds natural in the target language.
Another part of lexical transfer is dealing with idioms and expressions. Idioms are phrases
where the meaning isn't obvious from the individual words. Translators need to understand
the culture behind the language to choose expressions that carry the same impact and
meaning.
In summary, translation transfer operations ensure that the translated text feels natural and
accurate, with lexical transfer operations specifically handling the correct translation of words
and phrases.