Performance of Transmission Lines 229

10.1 Classification of Over head TTransmission

Overhead ransmission Lines
A transmission line has *three constants R, L and C distributed uniformly along the whole length of
the line. The resistance and inductance form the series impedance. The capacitance existing between
conductors for 1-phase line or from a conductor to neutral for a 3-phase line forms a shunt path
throughout the length of the line. Therefore, capacitance effects introduce complications in transmis-
sion line calculations. Depending upon the manner in which capacitance is taken into account, the
overhead transmission lines are classified as :
(i) Short transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is upto about 50
km and the line voltage is comparatively low (< 20 kV), it is usually considered as a short
transmission line. Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects are small
and hence can be neglected. Therefore, while studying the performance of a short transmisison
line, only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account.
(ii) Medium transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is about 50-
150 km and the line voltage is moderatly high (>20 kV < 100 kV), it is considered as a
medium transmission line. Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the capacitance
effects are taken into account. For purposes of calculations, the distributed capacitance of
the line is divided and lumped in the form of condensers shunted across the line at one or
more points.
(iii) Long transmission lines. When the length of an overhead transmission line is more than 150
km and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is considered as a long transmission line. For
the treatment of such a line, the line constants are considered uniformly distributed over the
whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed for solution.
It may be emphasised here that exact solution of any tranmission line must consider the fact that
the constants of the line are not lumped but are distributed unfiormly throughout the length of the line.
However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained by considering these constants as lumped for short
and medium transmission lines.
10.2 Important TTer
er ms
erms
While studying the performance of a transmission line, it is desirable to determine its voltage regula-
tion and transmission efficiency. We shall explain these two terms in turn.
(i) Voltage regulation. When a transmission line is carrying current, there is a voltage drop in
the line due to resistance and inductance of the line. The result is that receiving end voltage
(V R) of the line is generally less than the sending end voltage (V S ). This voltage drop (V S −
V R) in the line is expressed as a percentage of receiving end voltage V R and is called voltage
regulation.
The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line **between conditions of no
load and full load is called voltage regulation and is expressed as a percentage of the receiving end
voltage.

* There is also a fourth constant i.e., shunt conductance. It represents the conductance between conductors
or between conductor and ground and accounts for the leakage current at the insulators. It is very small in
case of overhead lines and may be assumed zero.
** At no load, there is no drop in the line so that at no load, V R = V S . However, at full load, there is a voltage
drop in the line so that receiving end voltage is V R .
∴ Difference in voltage at receiving end between no load and full load
= VS − VR
230 Principles of Power System
Mathematically,
VS − VR
% age Voltage regulation = × 100
VR
Obviously, it is desirable that the voltage regulation of a transmission line should be low i.e., the
increase in load current should make very little difference in the receiving end voltage.
(ii) Transmission efficiency. The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line is
generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance.
The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission line is known as the
transmission efficiency of the line i.e.
Receiving end power
% age Transmission efficiency, ηT = × 100
Sending end power
V I cos φ R
= R R × 100
VS IS cos φS
where V R , IR and cos φR are the receiving end voltage, current and power factor while V S , IS and cos φS
are the corresponding values at the sending end.
10.3 Per for
Perfor mance of Single Phase Short TTransmission
formance ransmission Lines
As stated earlier, the effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short transmission line. Therefore,
while studying the performance of such a line, only resistance and inductance of the line are taken
into account. The equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line is shown in Fig. 10.1 (i).
Here, the total line resistance and inductance are shown as concentrated or lumped instead of being
distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series circuit.
Let I = load current
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
XL = loop reactance
VR = receiving end voltage
cos φR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
VS = sending end voltage
cos φS = sending end power factor

The *phasor diagram of the line for lagging load power factor is shown in Fig. 10.1 (ii). From
the right angled traingle ODC, we get,

* Phasor diagram. Current I is taken as the reference phasor. O A represents the receiving end voltage V R
leading I by φR . A B represents the drop IR in phase with I. BC represents the inductive drop I XL and leads
I by 90 . OC represents the sending end voltage V S and leads I by φS.
o
Performance of Transmission Lines 231
2 2 2
(OC) = (OD) + (DC)
2 2 2
or VS = (OE + ED) + (DB + BC)
= (VR cos φR + IR) + (VR sin φR + IXL)
2 2

2 2
∴ VS = cV R h c
cos φ R + IR + VR sin φ R + IX L h
VS − VR
(i) %age Voltage regulation = VR × 100
OD = VR cos φ R + IR
(ii) Sending end p.f., cos φS =
OC VS
(iii) Power delivered = VR IR cos φR
2
Line losses = I R
Power sent out = VR IR cos φR + I R
2

Power delivered
%age Transmission efficiency = × 100
Power sent out
VR I R cos φ R
= × 100
VR I R cos φ R + I R
2

An approximate expression for the sending end voltage VS can be obtained as follows. Draw
perpendicular from B and C on OA produced as shown in Fig. 10.2. Then OC is nearly equal to OF
i.e.,

OC = OF = OA + AF = OA + AG + GF
= OA + AG + BH
∴ VS = VR + I R cos φR + I XL sin φR
Solution in complex notation. It is often convenient and profitable to make the line calcula-
tions in complex notation.
Taking VR as the reference phasor, draw the phasor diagram as shown in Fig 10.3. It is clear that
→→
VS is the phasor sum of VR and I Z .



* VR = VR + j 0
→ →
I = I ∠ − φR = I (cos φR − j sin φR)
Z = R + jXL
→→
∴ VS = VR + I Z
= (VR + j 0) + I (cos φR − j sin φR) (R + j XL)

* Phasors are shown by arrows and their magnitudes without arrow. Thus VR is the receiving end voltage
phasor, whereas VR is its magnitude.
232 Principles of Power System
= (VR + I R cos φR + I XL sin φR) + j (IXL cos φR − I R sin φR)

∴
2 2
VS = cV R + I R cos φ R + I X L sin φ R h + cI X L cos φ R − I R sin φ R h
The second term under the root is quite small and can be neglected with reasonable accuracy.
Therefore, approximate expression for VS becomes :
VS = VR + I R cos φR + I XL sin φR
The following poins may be noted :
(i) The approximate formula for VS (= VR + I R cos φR + I XL sin φR) gives fairly correct results
for lagging power factors. However, appreciable error is caused for leading power factors.
Therefore, approximate expression for VS should be used for lagging p.f. only.
(ii) The solution in complex notation is in more presentable form.
10.4 Three-Phase Shor
Three-Phase Shortt Transmission Lines
For reasons associated with economy, transmission of electric power is done by 3-phase system. This
system may be regarded as consisting of three single phase units, each wire transmitting one-third of
the total power. As a matter of convenience, we generally analyse 3-phase system by considering

*one phase only. Therefore, expression for regulation, efficiency etc. derived for a single phase line
can also be applied to a 3-phase system. Since only one phase is considered, phase values of 3-phase
system should be taken. Thus, VS and VR are the phase voltages, whereas R and XL are the resistance
and inductive reactance per phase respectively.
Fig. 10.4 (i) shows a Y-connected generator supplying a balanced Y-connected load through a
transmission line. Each conductor has a resistance of R Ω and inductive reactance of XL Ω. Fig. 10.4
(ii) shows one phase separately. The calculations can now be made in the same way as for a single
phase line.
10.5 Effect of Load p.f
Effect p.f.. on Regulation and Ef
Regulation Effficiency
iciency
The regulation and efficiency of a transmission line depend to a considerable extent upon the power
factor of the load.
1. Effect on regulation. The expression for voltage regulation of a short transmission line is
given by :
I R cos φ R + I XL sin φ R
%age Voltage regulation = × 100 (for lagging p.f.)
VR
* As similar conditions prevail in the three phases.
Performance of Transmission Lines 233
I R cos φ R − I XL sin φ R
%age Voltage regulation = × 100 (for leading p.f.)
VR
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above expressions :
(i) When the load p.f. is lagging or unity or such leading that I R cos φR > I XL sin φR, then
voltage regulation is positive i.e., receiving end voltage VR will be less than the sending end
voltage VS.
(ii) For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line increases with the decrease in p.f. for
lagging loads.
(iii) When the load p.f. is leading to this extent that I XL sin φR > I R cos φR, then voltage regula-
tion is negative i.e. the receiving end voltage VR is more than the sending end voltage VS.
(iv) For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line decreases with the decrease in p.f. for
leading loads.
2. Effect on transmission efficiency. The power delivered to the load depends upon the
power factor.
P = VR *I cos φR (For 1-phase line)
P
∴ I =
VR cos φ R
P = 3 VR I cos φR (For 3-phase line)
P
∴ I =
3VR cos φ R
It is clear that in each case, for a given amount of
power to be transmitted (P) and receiving end voltage

Power Factor Meter

(VR), the load current I is inversely

proportional to the load p.f. cos φR.
Consequently, with the decrease in
load p.f., the load current and hence
the line losses are increased. This
leads to the conclusion that trans-
mission efficiency of a line de-
creases with the decrease in load
Power Factor Regulator p.f. and vice-versa,
Example 10.1. A single phase overhead transmission line delivers 1100 kW at 33 kV at 0·8 p.f.
lagging. The total resistance and inductive reactance of the line are 10 Ω and 15 Ω respectively.
Determine : (i) sending end voltage (ii) sending end power factor and (iii) transmission efficiency.
Solution.
Load power factor, cos φR = 0·8 lagging
Total line impedance, Z = R + j XL = 10 + j 15

* IR = IS = I
234 Principles of Power System
Receiving end voltage, VR = 33 kV = 33,000 V
kW × 10 1100 × 10
3 3
∴ Line current, I = = = 41·67 A
VR cos φ R 33,000 × 0 ⋅ 8
As cos φR = 0·8 ∴ sin φR = 0·6

The equivalent circuit and phasor diagram of the line are shown in Figs. 10.5 (i) and 10.5 (ii)
respectively. Taking receiving end voltage VR as the reference phasor,
VR = VR + j 0 = 33000 V
→
I = I (cos φR − j sin φR)
= 41·67 (0·8 − j 0·6) = 33·33 − j 25
→→
(i) Sending end voltage, VS = VR + I Z
= 33,000 + (33·33 − j 25·0) (10 + j 15)
= 33,000 + 333·3 − j250 + j500 + 375
= 33,708·3 + j 250
∴ Magnitude of VS = a33,708 ⋅ 3f + a250f
2 2
= 33,709 V

(ii) Angle between VS and VR is

−1 250 −1
α = tan 33,708 ⋅ 3 = tan 0·0074 = 0·42º
∴ Sending end power factor angle is
φS = φR + α = 36·87o + 0·42º = 37·29º
∴ Sending end p.f., cos φS = cos 37·29 = 0·7956 lagging
o

Line losses = I R = (41·67) × 10 = 17,364 W = 17·364 kW

2 2
(iii)
Output delivered = 1100 kW
Power sent = 1100 + 17·364 = 1117·364 kW
Power delivered 1100
∴ Transmission efficiency = × 100 = × 100 = 98·44%
Power sent 1117 ⋅ 364
Note. VS and φS can also be calculated as follows :
VS = VR + I R cos φR + I XL sin φR (approximately)
= 33,000 + 41·67 × 10 × 0·8 + 41·67 × 15 × 0·6
= 33,000 + 333·36 + 375·03
= 33708·39 V which is approximately the same as above
V cos φ R + I R 33,000 × 0 ⋅ 8 + 41 ⋅ 67 × 10 26,816 ⋅ 7
cos φS = R = =
VS 33,708 ⋅ 39 33,708 ⋅ 39
= 0·7958